Timeline of infection control
This is a timeline of infection control.
Contents
Sample questions
- What events describe the introduction of chemical agents designed to inactivate or destroy microorganisms?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Disinfectant introduction".
- What are events desctibing the discovery and/or introduction of disinfection methods other chemical agents?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Disinfection method".
Big picture
Time period | Development summary | More details |
---|---|---|
1990s | Cubicle curtain design undergoes a period of rapid growth in the decade.[1] |
Visual data
Google Trends
The image shows Google Trends data for "infection" and "quarantine" search terms from January 2004 to June 2020.[2] The latter peaks in March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the month when the United States becomes the country with the highest number of confirmed COVID-19 infections.
Wikipedia views
The image shows Wikipedia views desktop data for the articles Infection, Quarantine, and Infection control. Three local maximums in 2008, 2015, and 2020 closely match the 2009 swine flu pandemic, the Western African Ebola virus epidemic, and the COVID-19 pandemic.[3]
The image shows desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider, and mobile-app Wikipedia views data for the article Infection control.[4]
Full timeline
Year | Event type | Infection type | Details | Present time country/region |
---|---|---|---|---|
c.3000 BC | Disinfectant introduction | Ancient Egyptians use palm wine and vinegar to rinse the abdominal cavities of human and animal cadavers prior to embalming.[5] | Egypt | |
800 BC | Disinfectant introduction | The oldest reference to disinfection of premises with a chemical product seems to be that described by Homer in book xii of the Odyssey, where the hero, having killed his rivals, demands that sulphur be burnt in the house which they had occupied.[5] | ||
1363 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial pathogens | Alcohol as an antiseptic is recommended for wound treatment by French physician Guy de Chauliac.[6] | France |
1523 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | During a plague outbreak in Birgu, Malta, the town is cordoned off by guards to prevent the disease from spreading to the rest of the island.[7] | Malta |
1523 | Protection method | English scholar Anthony Fitzherbert recommends removal of animals which have died from 'murrain' (anthrax), except the skin (which is sent to a tannery) and the head (which 'was to be placed on a pole to notify to others "that sickness existed in the township" ')[5] | United Kingdom | |
1598 | Concept development | The word disinfectant is first recorded in writing, with the meaning "to cure, to heale".[8] | ||
1605 | Concept development | The word septic is first recorded, which means "putrefying".[8] | ||
1658 | Concept development | The word disinfectant is used in a more modern sense, to remove infection.[8] | ||
1659 | Disinfectant introduction | Potassium permanganate is first obtained by German-Dutch chemist Johann Rudolf Glauber.[9][10] | Netherlands | |
1666 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | The English village of Eyam famously imposes a cordon sanitaire on itself after an outbreak of the bubonic plague in the community.[11][12] | United Kingdom |
1675 | Scientific development | Microbial pathogens | Antonie Van Leuwenhoek discovers microorganisms.[13] | |
1676 | Microbial pathogens | Dutch scientist Antonie Van Leuwenhoek first sees bacteria.[8] In the same year, he discovers that vinegar kills some microorganisms.[13] Van Leuwenhoek provides the first scientific proof of the action of acids on 'animalcules', which he discovered using the microscope of his own invention.[5] | Netherlands | |
1708–1712 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | A broad cordon sanitaire is extended around the border of the former Duchy of Prussia during a plague outbreak. Those crossing into the exclave are quarantined.[14] | Russia |
1715 | Disinfection method | Cattle plague | Italian physician Giovanni Maria Lancisi recommends using vinegar (or vinegar water) for disinfecting objects (and even animals or persons) which have been in contact with cases of cattle plague.[15][16][5] | Italy |
1716 | Policy | Cattle plague | Frederick the Great in Prussia introduces policy mandating that the clothing of persons who have attended animals affected by cattle plague should be aired and 'exposed to flame'.[5] | Germany, ex-Prussian territories |
1718 | Disinfection method introduction | French naturalist Louis Joblot sterilizes a hay infusion by boiling it for 15 minutes and then sealing the container.[17][18][5] | France | |
1719 | Disinfectant introduction | Thymol is first isolated by the German chemist Caspar Neumann.[19] | Germany | |
1730 | Disinfectant introduction | Glanders infection | Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor decrees that stables which have housed glanderous horses should be plastered with quicklime. Such arrangements figure in numerous texts published in Europe around the time.[5] | Europe |
1745 | Policy | Plague | A decree in Oldenburg prescribes the cleaning with caustic soda of troughs from which cattle with plague have fed, and the cleaning of the woodwork and walls of their houses with lime-wash.[5] | Germany |
1770 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa sets up a cordon sanitaire between Austria and the Ottoman Empire to prevent people and goods infected with plague from crossing the border. Cotton and wool are held in storehouses for weeks, with peasants paid to sleep on the bales and monitored to see if they show signs of disease.[20] | Austrian Empire region |
1771 | Policy | Epizootic infection | Policy is introduced in France stipulating that animals killed or dead from epizootic disease may not be abandoned in forests, thrown into rivers or placed on rubbish dumps, nor may they be buried in stables, courtyards, gardens or elsewhere within the precincts of towns and villages.[5] | France |
1774 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial pathogens | Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovers chlorine.[21] | |
1776 | Scientific development | Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani demonstrates that it is impossible for 'spontaneous generation' of microorganisms to occur once the fluid they lived in has been boiled for an hour.[5][17] | Italy | |
1784 | Policy | Non-human animal contagious diseases | A decree issued by the Council of the King of France obliges the owners of animals affected by contagious diseases to burn or scald all harnesses, wagons and any other objects which has been in contact with these animals.[5] | France |
1789 | Disinfectant introduction | French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet produces potassium hypochlorite for the first time in his laboratory located in Javel in Paris.[22][23] | France | |
1789 | Disinfectant introduction | Scottish chemist Charles Tennant prepares a bleaching powder, as distinct from a liquid, by passing chlorine gas into a slurry of slaked lime.[24][25][21] | United Kingdom | |
1793 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Yellow fever | During a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, roads and bridges leading to the city are blocked off by soldiers from the local militia to prevent the illness from spreading.[26] | United States |
1794 | Protection | Plague | English physician Erasmus Darwin recommends that if cattle plague are introduced into England, all cattle within a five mile radius of any confirmed outbreak should be 'immediately slaughtered, and consumed within the circumscribed district; and their hides put into quicklime before proper inspectors'.[5] | United Kingdom |
1800 | Infrastructure | Hospital-acquired infection, communicable infection | A Hospital for Sick Children is established in Paris, initially admitting infectious cases, with consequent high mortality from cross-infection.[27] | France |
1801 | Infrastructure | General | The first hospital for infectious diseases is established in London.[28] | United Kingdom |
1803 | Concept development | Smallpox | The word 'germ', in relation to a smallpox infection, is printed.[8] | |
1811 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial pathogens | Chlorine dioxide is discovered.[29][30][31] | |
1813–1814 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | During the 1813–1814 Malta plague epidemic, cordon sanitaires are implemented in the main urban settlements and rural settlements with a high mortality rate. People are prevented from entering or leaving.[32][33] | Malta |
1818 | Disinfectant introduction | Louis Jacques Thénard first produces hydrogen peroxide by reacting barium peroxide with nitric acid.[34] | France | |
1821 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Concept development | The term cordon sanitaire dates to this year.[35][36][37] | France |
1823 | Disinfectant introduction | French chemist Antoine Germain Labarraque uses hypochlorite as a deodorant and disinfectant in a cat-gut factory.[21] | France | |
1827 | Disinfectant introduction | English surgeon Thomas Alcock shows the possibility to use hypochlorite for disinfection.[17] | United Kingdom | |
1829 | Disinfectant introduction | Lugol's iodine is first made by French physician Jean Guillaume Auguste Lugol.[38][39] | France | |
1831 | Disinfection method introduction | English chemist William Henry investigates the disinfection of infected clothing using heat rendered them harmless. Henry devises a jacketed dry heat (hot air) steriliser.[17] | United Kingdom | |
1832 | Disinfectant introduction | Cholera | English surgeon Joseph Lister introduces the first reasoned attempt to sterilize air during a cholera epidemic.[21][40] | United Kingdom |
1834 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial pathogens | German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovers a phenol, now known as carbolic acid, which he derives in an impure form from coal tar. | |
1834 | Disinfectant introduction | Hypochlorous acid is discovered by French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard by adding, to a flask of chlorine gas, a dilute suspension of mercury(II) oxide in water.[41] | ||
1839 | Disinfectant introduction | Davies uses iodine for treating infected wounds. This is the first reference to using tincture of iodine in wounds.[17] | ||
1844 | Disinfectant introduction | Bayard in France prepares an antiseptic powder from coal tar, plaster, ferrous sulphate and clay.[42] | France | |
1847 | Medical development | Childbed fever | Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis presents evidence that childbed fever is spread from person to person on the unclean hands of health-care workers.[43] | Austria |
1847 | Disinfectant introduction | Childbed fever | Motivated by Ignaz Semmelweis discovery, a bleach derivative is introduced as the hand disinfectant agent at the Vienna Medical Center to help reduce the risk of postpartum women who developed “Childbed Fever”, which had an 80% mortality rate. After introduction, the mortality rate plummets to 90% the first month.[13] | Austria |
1850 | Disinfectant introduction | French pharmacist Ferdinand Le Beuf makes a useful disinfectant based on the bark of quillaia, a South American tree.[42] | France | |
1850 | Disinfection method introduction | French physician Casimir Davaine finds the bacillus of anthrax in the blood of dying sheep. Davaine works on animal infections. Later, he works on a porcelain filter, to remove bacteria.[17] | France | |
1852 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial pathogens | Eucalyptus oil is introduced in Australia.[44] | Australia |
1852 | Disinfection method introduction | Victor Burq discovers that those working with copper have far fewer deaths to cholera than anyone else, and concludes that putting copper on the skin is effective at preventing someone from getting cholera.[45] | ||
1852 | Infrastructure | Hospital-acquired infection, communicable infection | Great Ormond Street Hospital is founded in London. In this hospital, cross-infection is avoided in the children's wards by admission of such cases as perhaps smallpox, scarlet fever, and diphtheria to fever hospitals.[27] | United Kingdom |
1854 | Disinfection method introduction | German scientist Heinrich G. F. Schröder and German physician Theodor von Dusch show that bacteria can be removed from air by filtering it through cotton-wool by boiling infusion.[17] | Germany | |
1854 | Disinfectant introduction | Chlorinated lime is applied in the tratment of sewage in London.[17] | United Kingdom | |
1856 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Yellow fever | A cordon sanitaire is implemented in several cities during the yellow fever epidemic. | |
1858 | Disinfectant introduction | British physician Benjamin Ward Richardson takes note of the capacity of hydrogen peroxide to remove foul odours and subsequently proposes its use as disinfectant.[17] | United Kingdom | |
1858 | Disinfectant introduction | Bacteria | Fuchsine is first prepared by August Wilhelm von Hofmann from aniline and carbon tetrachloride.[46][47] | |
1859 | Disinfectant introduction | Russian chemist Alexander Butlerov discovers formaldehyde.[48][49][21] | Russia | |
1859 | Disinfection method introduction | Heinrich G. F. Schröder shows that boiling infusion at temperatures above 100°C (e.g., egg yolks, milk and meat) for prolonged time destroys growth but boiling for a short period at 100 °C does not stop growth.[17] | Germany | |
1860 | Publication | Hospital-acquired infection | English social reformer Florence Nightingale publishes Notes on Nursing, a series of guidelines with recommendations on sanitation and hospital environment. These publications prompt new policies of control of cross-infection in most hospitals.[27] | United Kingdom |
1863 | Disinfection method introduction | Casimir Devaine demonstrates that porcelain filters retained anthrax bacteria.[17] | France | |
1865 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial pathogens | Joseph Lister applies a piece of lint dipped in carbolic acid solution to the wound of an eleven-year-old boy at Glasgow Royal Infirmary, who had sustained a compound fracture after a cart wheel had passed over his leg. After four days, he renewes the pad and discovers that no infection has developed. After a total of six weeks he discovers that the boy's bones have fused back together, without the danger of suppuration.[50][51] | United Kingdom |
1866 | Disinfectant introduction | Methyl violet is manufactured in France by the Saint-Denis-based firm of Poirrier et Chappat and marketed under the name "Violet de Paris". It was a mixture of the tetra-, penta- and hexamethylated pararosanilines.[52] | France | |
1867 | Disinfectant introduction | The first reasoned attempt to sterilize air is made by Joseph Lister in his pursuit of antiseptic surgery.[21] | United Kingdom | |
1869 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Cholera | French epidemiologist Achille Adrien Proust (father of novelist Marcel Proust) proposes the use of an international cordon sanitaire to control the spread of cholera, which emerged from India and, and threatening Europe and Africa at the time. Proust proposes that all ships bound for Europe from India and Southeast Asia be quarantined at Suez, however his ideas would not be generally embraced.[53][54][55] | France |
1871 | Disinfectant introduction | Soap is used with coal tar to make an antiseptic preparation. This formulation is patented.[21] | ||
1871 | Disinfection method introduction | German botanist Ernst Tiegel filters anthrax fluids through porous cell of unburnt clay with the aid of a Bunsen air pump.[17] | Germany | |
1872 | Disinfectant research | Early work by Ritthausen shows that phenol is a solvent for proteins.[21] | ||
1873–1875 | Disinfectant research | Anthrax | Casimir Davaine reports bactericidal efficiency of iodine solutions against the anthrax bacillus.[17] | France |
1874 | Concept development | The word 'sterilization' is first used as in: sterilization by heat of organic liquids.[17] | ||
1875 | Disinfectant introduction | Bucholtz publishes his determinations of the concentrations of, amongst other substances, phenol, creosote and salicylic and benzoic acid required to inhibit the growth of and to kill mixed cultures of unnamed micro-organisms.[21] | ||
1876 | Scientific development | Anthrax | Robert Koch publishes his work on anthrax, for the first time conclusively proving that a bacterium could be a specific infectious agent.[28] | |
1877 | Scientific development | English physicist John Tyndale discovers the heat resistant phase of bacteria, the spore. Tyndale creates tyndallization, a method of fractional, intermitent processing to inactivate spores, by turning them into less resistant vegetative microbes, upon incubation in a growth medium.[17] | United Kingdom | |
1877 | Concept development | The word 'sterile' is first used.[8] | ||
1877 | Disinfection research | Bacterial infection | Downes and Blunt demonstrate sterilization of a bacterial culture after nine hours of exposure to sunlight. This is the precursor of ultraviolet light (UV).[17] | |
1877 | Disinfectant introduction | British chemical manufacturer John Jeyes patents his Jeyes fluid.[56] | United Kingdom | |
1877 | Concept development | The word sterile first appears.[8] | ||
1878 | Disinfection method introduction | Joseph Lister recommends heating of glassware at 150°C for 2 hours to produce sterilization.[17] | ||
1878 | Disinfection research | Pathogenic bacteria | American physician George Miller Sternberg shows that pathogenic bacteria (vegetative or non-spores) are killed in 10 minutes at a relatively benigntemperature of 62°C to 72°C.[17] | United States |
1878 | Concept development | Bacterial infection | Irish physicist John Tyndall uses the adjective bactericidal.[8] | United Kingdom |
1881 | Disinfectant research | Anthrax | Robert Koch concludes that ethanol is innefective as an antiseptic based on his work with anthrax spores.[6] | Germany |
1881 | Disinfection research | Bacterial infection | Koch and coworkers determine the exact value of dry heat and the limitations of steam at 100°C. They additionally create the silk thread technique for testing bactericidal agents, impregnated with anthrax spores.[17] | |
1881 | Disinfectant research | Diphtheria | There is evidence of the use of ozone as a disinfectant, mentioned by Kellogg in his book on diphtheria.[17] | |
1882 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Yellow fever | In response to a virulent outbreak of yellow fever in Brownsville, Texas, and in northern Mexico, a cordon sanitaire is established 180 miles north of the city, terminating at the Rio Grande to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east.[57][58] | United States |
1882 | Disinfectant introduction | Hydrogen peroxide is first used for bleaching.[59] | ||
1883 | Protection | Sterile gowns and caps are invented by German surgeon Gustav Adolf Neuber using a form of autoclave.[17] | Germany | |
1884 | Disinfection method introduction | French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invents the first autoclave.[17] | ||
1884 | Disinfection method introduction | Bacterial infection | Louis Pasteur and Charles Chamberland design the first candle-shaped porcelain depth filter for the removal of bacteria.[17] | France |
1885 | Disinfection method introduction | Germ infection | German surgeon Curt Schimmelbusch develops and evaluates details of aseptic technique. He is the first to sterilize surgical dressing by steam. Schimmelbusch also advocates adding sodium carbonate to boiling water to enhance its germicidal value and prevent corrosion of instruments.[17] | Germany |
1885 | Disinfection method introduction | Gaston Poupinel in France introduces the first device of dry heat sterilization, which begins to be used in many hospitals.[17] | France | |
1886 | Rabies | Louis Pasteur successfully immunizes a boy who was bitten by a rabid dog with spinal cord suspensions of inactivated rabies virus.[28] | France | |
1886 | Disinfectant introduction | Formaldehyde is examined as a bactericide by Loew & Fisher.[21] | ||
1887 | Disinfectant introduction | Rosahegyi notes that dyes are inhibitory to bacteria.[21] | ||
1888 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | During a yellow fever epidemic, the city of Jacksonville, Florida, is surrounded by an armed cordon sanitaire by order of Governor Edward A. Perry.[60][61] | United States | |
1888 | Publication | Fred Kilmer publishes Modern Methods of Antiseptic Wound Treatment, which helps spread the adoption of antiseptic surgery.[17] | ||
1888 | Disinfection method introduction | German surgeon Ervis Von Esmarch investigates the sterilizing efficiency of unsaturated and superheated steam and recommends the use of bacteriological tests as a proof of sterilization.[17] | Germany | |
1888 | Disinfection method introduction | American bacteriologist Joseph J. Kinyoun makes important contributions to the design of the steam sterilization chamber and recommends a vacuum process to augment steam penetration of objects.[17] | United States | |
1889 | Concept development | parasitic fungi | The word fungicide appears for the first time.[8] | |
1880s | Disinfectant introduction | Joseph Lister uses a phenol agent in his groundbreaking work on surgical antisepsis.[13] | ||
1891 | Disinfection method introduction | Information about the steam sterilizer appears in print.[17] | ||
1891 | Disinfection method introduction | Heat sterilization of instruments is introduced by German surgeon Ernst Von Bergmann.[17] | ||
1892 | Disinfectant introduction | The name ethanol is coined as a result of a resolution adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature held in Geneva, Switzerland.[62] | Switzerland | |
1893 | Disinfection method introduction | British botanist Harry Marshall Ward experiments on the bactericidal effects of different coloured lights.[63][64] Ward demonstrates that it is primarily the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum that has the bactericidal action.[65] | United Kingdom | |
1894 | Disinfectant introduction | English industrialist William Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme introduces the first mass-produced carbolic soap to the market, Lifebuoy.[66] | United Kingdom | |
1896 | Disinfection method introduction | German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen discovers X-rays, which soon become known for their ability to destroy microbes.[17] | ||
1897 | Disinfectant introduction | Defries develops an ingenious test which seeks to eliminate the continuing action of a disinfectant and to establish a time for a true endpoint to the disinfection process.[21] | ||
1897 | Disinfection method introduction | Kronig and Paul in Germany publish paper examining the kinetics or dynamics of the course of the disinfection process.[21][67][68] | Germany | |
1897 | Protection | Kilmer publishes a classical paper entitled Modern Surgical Dressings.[17] | ||
1897 | Concept development | Microbes | The adjective microbiocidal appears.[8] | |
1898 | Disinfection method introduction | A. Schmidt reports on disinfection using formaldehyde as a wet vapour to fumigate sick rooms.[17] | ||
1898 | Disinfection method introduction | Bacterial infection | H. Rieder describes the bactericidal activity of X-rays, achieving almost complete sterilization of agar and gelatin plates of cholera, diphtheria, typhoid, and colon organisms, with exposure for about 1 hour.[17][69] | |
1899 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | An outbreak of plague in Honolulu is managed by a cordon sanitaire around the Chinatown district. In an attempt to control the infection, a barbed wire perimeter is created and people's belongings and homes are burned.[70][71] | United States |
1900 | Disinfection research | Strebel demonstrates the inhibitory action of radioactive substances (radium).[17][72] | ||
1900–1904 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Plague | "During the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 San Francisco's Chinatown was subjected to a cordon sanitaire" | |
1901 | Disinfectant introduction | Meyer conducts the first systematic experiment on the nature of the antibacterial action of phenols. Meyer shows that the antibacterial action of phenols is paralleled by their distribution between protein and water, suggesting that protein is the prime target.[21] | ||
1903 | Disinfectant introduction | "The Rideal-Walker test was introduced to evaluate the performance of phenolic disinfectants against Salmonella typhi. It was published in 1903"[21] Rideal Walker proposes the phenol coefficient test.[17] | ||
1903–1914 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Trypanosomiasis | The Belgian colonial government imposes a cordon sanitaire on Uele Province in the Belgian Congo to control outbreaks of trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).[73] | Congo D.R |
1909 | Disinfectant introduction | Airborne bacteria | "A modification of this method was adopted by the American Public Health Association in 1909 as a standard for determining airborne bacteria."[21] | |
1910 | Disinfection method introduction | Chick and Martin consider microbes are killed by heat by protein coagulation in two stages, first by denaturation of the protein and second by agglutination when protein separates out.[17][74] | ||
1910 | Disinfectant introduction | Using UV light for disinfection of drinking water dates back to this year in Marseille, France.[75] | France | |
1912 | Disinfectant research | E.A. Cooper, working with bacteria and phenols, concludes that phenols destroy intracellular protein by coagulation.[21] | ||
1913 | Disinfectant introduction | Bacteria | Cooper states that adsorption of phenol onto bacterial cells is the first reaction of the disinfection process.[21] | |
1916 | Disinfectant introduction | Bacteria | A new agent known as quaternary ammonium salts are first reported by the Rockefeller Institute as having bactericidal properties.[13] | United States |
1916 | Disinfectant introduction | An antimicrobial molecule is introduced. These are organic derivatives of the positively charged ammonium ion where at least one hydrogen atom is substituted by a long chain alkyl radical and the three remaining atoms substituted usually by methyl groups.[21] | ||
1916 | Publication | The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) publishes its first chapteron sterilization in USP Volume 9.[17] | United States | |
1918 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Influenza | "The 1918 flu pandemic spread so rapidly that, in general, there was no time to implement cordons sanitaires. However, to prevent an introduction of the infection, residents of Gunnison, Colorado isolated themselves from the surrounding area for two months at the end of 1918. All highways were barricaded near the county lines" | |
1918 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Influenza | In the South Pacific, the Governor of American Samoa, John Martin Poyer, imposed a reverse cordon sanitaire of the islands from all incoming ships, successfully achieving zero deaths within the territory during the influenza epidemic.[76] In contrast, the neighboring New Zealand-controlled Western Samoa is among the hardest hit, with a 90% infection rate and over 20% of its adults dying from the disease.[77] | American Samoa, Western Samoa |
1918 | Crisis | Influenza | In late year, Spain attempts unsuccessfully to prevent the spread of the Spanish flu by imposing border controls, roadblocks, restricting rail travel, and a maritime cordon sanitaire prohibiting ships with sick passengers from landing, but by then the epidemic is already in progress in the country.[78] | Spain |
1918 | Disinfectant introduction | Germ infection | Hydrogen peroxide is used in World War I as a germicide.[17] | |
1920 | Disinfectant introduction | Standard Oil first produces isopropyl alcohol by hydrating propene.[79][80] | ||
1921 | Scientific development | Bigelow describes the logarithmic nature of thermal death time (TDT) curves.[17] | ||
1921 | Publication | Samuel Rideal and Eric Rideal publish Chemical Disinfection and Sterilization.[17] | ||
1922 | Scientific development | Bigelow and Esty, utilizing spores, determine the thermal death time (TDT), as a means of evaluating sterilization of thermophilic microbes.[81] | ||
1922 | Disinfection method introduction | Zsigmondy and Buchmann introduce a membrane filter composed of cellulose esters for the removal of bacteria from solution.[17] | ||
1925 | Concept development | Viruses | The adjective virucidal is first noted.[8] | |
1928 | Disinfection method introduction | Germ infection | Gates discovers the germicidal wavelength of ultraviolet light.[17][82][83] | |
1929 | Disinfectant research | Bacterial infection | Schrader and Bossert find that ethylene oxide (EO) has bactericidal properties.[17] | |
1929 | Scientific development | Bacterial infection | Otto Rahn discovers that the size of bacteria is the cause of the logarithmic order of death.[17] | |
Late 1920s | Disinfectant research | Bacterial infection | American chemist Lloyd Hall exploits bactericidal activity of ethylene oxide to lower the microbiological content of spices.[17] | United States |
1933 | Disinfectant introduction | Dettol [84][85][86] | India | |
1933 | Disinfectant introduction | Gross and Dixon patent use of ethylene oxide as a sterilizing agent.[17] | ||
1933 | Disinfectant introduction | Soap-solubilized formulation containing chloroxylenol and terpineol is introduced by Colebrook and Maxted.[21] | ||
1933 | Disinfection method introduction | American Engineer Weeden Underwood makes notable advances in design of, and application of pressure steam sterilizers. This is considered the beginning of the era of scientific sterilization.[17] | United States | |
1933 | Disinfectant research | Schauffler documents the antimicrobial properties of chlorine dioxide solutions.[17] | ||
1934 | Publication | Weeden Underwood writes an early textbook on sterilization called Textbook on Sterilization.[17] | United States | |
1935 | Disinfectant introduction | Germ infection | The use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) as a germicide/disinfectant is formally recognized.[13] | |
1936 | Publication | Ernest Carr McCulloch publishes Disinfection and Sterilization.[17] | ||
1938 | Disinfection method introduction | Carl Walter describes the first rapid, safe mechanical process for routine cleaning and terminal sterilization, called the washer-sterilizer.[17] | ||
1938 | Disinfection research | Corona discharge is found to be a sterilizing agent.[17] | ||
1939 | Disinfectant research | Nordgren reports on early work in regard to formaldehyde efficacy, poarticularly under deep vacuum.[17][87] | ||
1941 | UK Control of Infection Officer[88] | United Kingdom | ||
1941 | Disinfectant research | Robertson, Bigg, Miller and Baker report on the aerosol disinfection of glycols.[17] | ||
1942 | Disinfectant research | Bacterial infection | Amidines are studied as antitrypanocidal drugs are shown to be antibacterial by Fuller.[21][89][90] | |
1942 | Disinfection method introduction | Underwood defines the first "flash sterilization" at 30 min at 121°C.[17] | ||
1943 | First isolation ward in USA[91] | United States | ||
1943 | Disinfectant research | Bacterial infection | Theodore Puck, Robertson and Henry Lemon report on the bactericidal activity of propylene glycol (hydrolysis by-product of propylene oxide) vapour.[17] | |
1944 | USA Infection Control Officer.[92] | United States | ||
1943–1945 | Disinfection research | Microbial infection | Otto Rahn describes the logarithmic kinetics and temperature coefficient values of sterilants and antimicrobial agents.[17] | |
1946 | Organization | General | The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is founded.[28] | United States |
1946 | Disinfection research | Microbial infection | Ewell demonstrates that microbes are more readily killed by ozone in high humidity than at low humidity.[17] | |
1947 | Disinfection research | Microbial infection | English experimental physicist Douglas Lea reports on the actions of radiation on living cells. In the main, ionizing radiation destroys microbes by direct hits of the radiations on or near the organism.[17] | United Kingdom |
1947 | Disinfectant introduction | Fungus, HIV-1 (AIDS), Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C infection | The barbicide is invented by Maurice King and marketed heavily around the United States by his brother James.[93] | United States |
1947 | Program launch | Gastroenteritis | A widespread outbreak of gastroenteritis in the United Kingdom, causing the death of 4,500 children under the age of one, motivates a national objective of sterilising all baby's milk bottles. Milton sterilizing fluid becomes the antiseptic advocated by hospitals and government agencies. This cold water method is generally available and simple for all to use, and virtually all mothers adopted this method.[94] | United Kingdom |
1947 | Disinfectant introduction | Escherichia coli infection | Jordan et al. write 12 papers on the dynamics of the disinfection of Escherichia coli by phenol and heat.[21] | |
1949 | Disinfectant research | Anthrax | Kolb and Schneiter show methyl bromide to be bactericidal for anthrax spores and its use is recommended for sterilization of improved wool.[17] | |
1949 | Disinfectant research | Bacillus thermoacidurans | Hutchins and Xezones report peracetic acid to be highly germicide against spores of bacillus thermoacidurans.[17] | |
1950 | Disinfectant introduction | Bacterial infection | "11 papers by Berry & Michaels (1950) on the bactericidal activity of ethylene glycol and its mono alkyl ethers on the same organism. These papers recorded in meticulous detail the time course of the disinfection process, the effect of temperature and other factors upon it and how loss of activity with dilution-the concentration exponent-is a variant property of antibacterial substances."[21] | |
1950 | Concept development | The term sanitizer appears first in the Journal of Milk and Food Technology.[8] | ||
1954 | Disinfectant introduction | Microbial infection | Davies et al. describe the new antimicrobial compound chlorhexidine.[21] | |
1955 | Disinfectant introduction | Peracetic acid is introduced.[21] | ||
1955 | Disinfectant introduction | Povidone-iodine comes into commercial use.[95] | ||
Mid-1950s | Disinfection method | Baby wipes emerge around this time as more people travel and need a way to clean up on the go.[96] | ||
1956 | Disinfectant introduction | Chlorine dioxide is introduced as a drinking water disinfectant on a large scale, when Brussels, Belgium, changes from chlorine to chlorine dioxide.[97] | Belgium | |
1956 | Disinfectant introduction | Glyoxal and related compounds are first used as potential blood sterilizing agents.[17][98] | ||
1957 | Disinfectant introduction | Glutaraldehyde is introduced.[21] | ||
1957 | Publication | John Perkins publishes the first edition of Principals and Methods of Sterilization.[17] | ||
1957 | Disinfection method | American Arthur Julius invents the wet wipes.[99] | United States | |
1958 | Publication | G. Sykes publishes Disinfection and Sterilization.[17] | ||
1950s | Disinfectant introduction | Chlorhexidine comes into medical use.[100] | ||
1959 | Medical development | Exeter microbiologist Brendan Moore becomes the first appointed Infection Control Nurse.[101][102][103] | United Kingdom | |
1960 | Disinfection method | It is found that conveyor ovens can provide continuous sterilization of syringes.[17] | ||
1960 | Disinfectant research | Alkalinized glutaraldehyde is found to be effective as a sterilant.[17] | ||
1961 | Disinfection method | High vacuum infrared ovens become available for batch sterilization.[17] | ||
1961 | Disinfectant research | Microbial infection | Propylene oxide is demonstrated to have microbicidal activity within powered or flaked food.[17] | |
1961 | Disinfection research | Hospital-acquired infection | Robert Ernst shows that the use of iodophores at elevated temperature (e.g., 50-60°C) in combination with ultrasonics could be an effective sterilizing agent for surgical and dental instruments.[17] | |
1962 | Disinfection research | Bacterial infection | It is found that the rate of bacterial spore destruction improves with simultaneous applied ionizing and thermal processing.[17] | |
1962 | Disinfection method introduction | Robert McDonald invents the prehumidification step for effective ethylene oxide sterilization.[17] | ||
1962 | Disinfectant research | The first antimicrobial indications of dialdehydes, e.g., glutaldehyde, are described by Pepper and Liebermann.[17] | ||
1963 | Disinfection method introduction | The first gamma irradiator is used in the United States for sterilization of medical devices.[17] | ||
1963 | Disinfectant introduction | Gaseous propylene oxide is used to sterilize and de-infest food products.[17] | ||
1963 | Scientific development | Microbial infection | Guerin shows that desiccated microbes are more resistant to ozone than hydrated cells.[17] | |
1964 | Disinfection method introduction | Johnson and Johnson provides commercial gamma irradiation.[17] | ||
1964 | Disinfection method introduction | Armstrong discovers a gaseous ozone sterilization process.[17] | ||
1965 | Disinfectant research | Sydney Rubbo and Joan Gardner show that glutaraldehyde is not only more effective than formaldehyde but also less irritating.[17] | ||
1966 | Disinfectant introduction | Hand sanitizers are first introduced.[104] | ||
1966 | Disinfection method introduction | Alder and co-workers develop a low temperature steam and formaldehyde system similar to high vacuum steam sterilization but operating at 65-80°C.[17] | ||
1967 | Disinfectant research | Saul Kaye demonstrates that formic acid is microcidal synergistic with ethylene oxide and other epoxides.[17] | ||
1968 | Concept development | Paul Borick describes and defines chemosterilizers.[105][106] | ||
1968 | Disinfection method introduction | Earle H. Spaulding devises a rational approach of disinfection and classification for patient care items and equipment – non-critical items, semi-critical items, and critical items.[17] | ||
1969 | Disinfection research | Marcel Reynolds discovers the feasibility of using thermo-irradiation as sterilization of spacecraft.[17] | ||
1960s | Disinfectant introduction | Glutaraldehyde comes into medical use.[107] | ||
1970 | Disinfectant introduction | Trimethylene oxide (oxetane) is patented for its disinfecting capabilities, and possible use in sterilization processes.[17] | ||
1970 | Disinfection method introduction | Russian scientists pubish a method detailing using a gas mixture of methyl bromide and ethylene oxide for sterilization of a space lander in a plastic bag.[17] | Russia | |
1970 | Disinfection method introduction | Continuous ethylene oxide sterilization process is developed.[17] | ||
1970 | A document entitled Isolation Technique for Use in Hospitals introduces seven isolation precaution categories with color-coded cards: Strict, Respiratory, Protective, Enteric, Wound and Skin, Discharge, and Blood.[108] | United States | ||
1971 | Disinfection method introduction | D.A. Gunther patents a balance pressure process for use with ethylene oxide sterilization.[17] | ||
1972 | Cordon sanitaire | Smallpox | During the 1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak, over 10,000 people are sequestered in cordons sanitaires of villages and neighborhoods using roadblocks, and a general prohibition of public meetings, a closure of all borders and a prohibition of all non-essential travel is implemented.[109][110] | Serbia, Kosovo |
1972 | Disinfection method introduction | Leland Ashman and Wilson Menashi use low temperature gas plasma for sterilization of contaminated surfaces.[17] | ||
1973 | Disinfection research | Researchers at Battelle Columbus Laboratories conduct a comprehensive literature, technology, and patent search tracing the history of understanding the "bacteriostatic and sanitizing properties of copper and copper alloy surfaces", which demonstrates that copper, in very small quantities, has the power to control a wide range of molds, fungi, algae, and harmful microbes.[111] | United States | |
1976 | Disinfection method introduction | A method of cold sterilization using frozen dimethyl dicarbonate is developed.[112] | ||
1976 | Disinfection method introduction | Lowell Tensmeyer devises a method of killing micro-organisms in the inside of a container utilizing a plasma initiated by a focused laser beam and sustained by an electromagnetic field.[17] | ||
1979 | Disinfection method introduction | Francis C. Moore and Leon R. Perkinson devise a hydrogen peroxide vapour sterilization method.[17] | ||
1980 | Disinfection method introduction | A seeded (dialdehyde) gas plasma sterilization method is patented by G. Boucher.[17] | ||
1984 | Statistics | Hospital-acquired infection | A survey in Australia documents that 6.3% of 28,643 hospitalized patients in the country have a hospital-acquired infection, with the highest rates in larger hospitals.[113] | Australia |
1985 | Disinfectant research | A.A. Rosenblatt, D.H. Rosenblatt and J.E. Knapp find chlorine to be a sterilant in a gaseous phase.[114][115] | ||
1985–1988 | HIV infection | A document entitled Universal precautions is issued in response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. It dictates application of blood and body fluid precautions to all patients, regardless of infection status.[116][117] | ||
1986 | Disinfection method introduction | Pulsed laser sterilization is described.[17] | ||
1988 | Disinfection method introduction | Joslyn introduces a post-steam sterilization process for removing ethylene oxide residuals more effectively, than mere heated aeration.[17] | ||
1989 | Disinfection method introduction | The use of the vapor phase of hydrogen peroxide as a surface decontaminant and sterilant is discovered.[17] | ||
1980s | Disinfectant introduction | Alcohol-based hand sanitizer starts being commonly used in Europe.[118] | ||
1991 | Disinfection method introduction | Karlson patents a gaseous ozone sterilization process.[17] | ||
1995 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Ebola | A cordon sanitaire is used to control an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Kikwit, Zaire.[119][120] | Congo D.R. |
1995 | Statistics | Hospital-acquired infection | The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that approximately 1.9 million cases of hospital-acquired infection occurred in the United States.[121] | United States |
1998 | Statistics | Hospital-acquired infection | According to CDC, approximately one third of healthcare acquired infections are preventable.[122] | |
1998 | Global Campaign for Microbicides | |||
1999 | Disinfection method introduction | A new plasma sterilizer is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[123] | United States | |
1990s | Disinfectant introduction | Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide systems (NAV-CO2 System) are developed in Japan in the 1990s to sanitize hospitals and ambulances. | Japan | |
2001 | Disinfectant research | General | Disinfection with performic acid is noted.[17] | |
2001 | Protection (hand washing) | The Global Handwashing Partnership (GHP) is established as a coalition of international stakeholders "working to promote handwashing with soap and recognize hygiene as a pillar of international development and public health."[124] | ||
2002 | Publication | The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners publishes a revised standard for office-based infection control which covers the sections of managing immunization, sterilization and disease surveillance.[125][126] | Australia | |
2002 | International Partnership for Microbicides | |||
2003 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Severe acute respiratory syndrome | During the 2003 SARS outbreak in Canada, "community quarantine" is used to successfully reduce transmission of the disease.[127] | Canada |
2003 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Severe acute respiratory syndrome | During the 2003 SARS outbreak in mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, large-scale quarantine is imposed on travelers arriving from other SARS areas, work and school contacts of suspected cases, and, in a few instances, entire apartment complexes where high attack rates of SARS were occurring.[128] | China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore |
2004 | Publication | Microbial infection | Ferric Fang publishes a paper on antimicrobial reactive oxygen and nitrogen species.[129] | |
2004 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Ebola | A cordon sanitaire is established around some of the most affected areas of the 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak.[130][131] On 19 August, the Liberian government quarantines the entirety of West Point, Monrovia and issued a curfew statewide.[132] | Liberia |
2005 | Publication | Hospital-acquired infection | The American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America publish guidelines suggesting antibiotics specifically for hospital-acquired pneumonia.[133] | United States |
2005 | International Rectal Microbicide Advocates | |||
2006 | Microbicide Trials Network | |||
2006 | Microbicides Development Programme | United Kingdom | ||
2008 (February) | Disinfection method introduction | The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approves the registrations of five different groups of copper alloys as "antimicrobial materials" with public health benefits.[134] | United States | |
2008 (April) | Publication | Respiratory infection | The World Health Organization publishes Early recognition, reporting and infection control management of acute respiratory diseases of potential international concern, an aide-mémoire on emergencies preparedness and response.[135] | |
2008 (June) | Publication | The World Health Organization publishes Core components for infection prevention and control programmes, a report of the Second Meeting of the Informal Network on Infection Prevention and Control in Health Care.[136] | Switzerland (Geneva) | |
2008 (November) | Bacterial infection | A non-peer-reviewed[137] study is presented to the European Tissue Symposium by the University of Westminster, London, comparing the bacteria levels present after the use of paper towels, warm air hand dryers, and modern jet-air hand dryers.[138] Of those three methods, only paper towels reduced the total number of bacteria on hands, with "through-air dried" towels the most effective. | ||
2009 | Publication | The World Health Organization publishes Natural ventilation for infection control in health-care settings.[139] | ||
2009 | Publication | The World Health Organization publishes Infection-control measures for health care of patients with acute respiratory diseases in community settings.[140] | ||
2011 (April) | Publication | The World Health Organization publishes Core components for infection prevention and control programmes.[141] | ||
2011 | Statistics | Hospital-acquired infection | Researchers estimate that by this time, 648,000 hospitalized patients in then United States have to battle at least one hospital-acquired infection. The total number of infections is estimated at 721,800. To put that number in perspective, about 34 million people are admitted to 5,000 community hospitals in the country each year.[142] | United States |
2012 | Scientific development | General | A published study claims that "new mathematical modelling, diagnostic, communications, and informatics technologies can identify and report hitherto unknown microbes in other species, and thus new risk assessment approaches are needed to identify microbes most likely to cause human disease". The study investigates challenges in moving the global pandemic strategy from response to pre-emption.[143] | |
2014 | Organization | General | The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) is launched as global partnership devoted to the purpose of strengthening the world’s ability to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease threats. As of 2020 it has 67 member countries.[144] | |
2014 | Protection (hand washing) | A study shows that Saudi Arabia has the highest rate of hand washing with soap, with 97 percent; the United States near the middle with 77 percent; and China with the lowest rate of 23 percent.[145] | ||
2015 | Protection (hand washing) | A study of hand washing in 54 countries finds that on average, 38.7% of households practice hand washing with soap. | ||
2019 | Disinfection research | A number of studies find that copper surfaces may help prevent infection in the healthcare environment.[146] | ||
2020 | Protection (‘‘cordon sanitaire’’) | Coronavirus disease 2019 | A multiple number of lockdowns are imposed worldwide in response to the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic. | Worldwide |
2020 (April 22) | Publication | The World Health Organization publishes How To Pun On And Take Off Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), a series of posters on emergencies preparedness and response.[147] |
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External links
References
- ↑ Zelinsky, Marilyn. "Clients talk about... cubicle curtains." Interiors 156.9 (Sept 1997): 58.
- ↑ "Google Trends". trends.google.com. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
- ↑ "Wikipedia views". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
- ↑ "Wikipedia views". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
- ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 BLANCOU, J. "History of disinfection from early times until the end of the 18th century" (PDF). oie.int. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Block, Seymour Stanton. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation.
- ↑ Luttrell, Anthony. The Making of Christian Malta: From the Early Middle Ages to 1530.
- ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 Block, Seymour Stanton. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation.
- ↑ Ahmed, Khalid Abdelazez Mohamed. "Exploitation of KMnO4 material as precursors for the fabrication of manganese oxide nanomaterials". doi:10.1016/j.jtusci.2015.06.005.
- ↑ Report of the ... Annual Proceedings of the Louisiana State Pharmaceutical Association. Louisiana State Pharmaceutical Association.
- ↑ Brauer, Fred; Castillo-Chavez, Carlos; Feng, Zhilan. Mathematical Models in Epidemiology.
- ↑ Rhodes, Ebenezer. Peak Scenery; Or, The Derbyshire Tourist.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 "History and Evolution of Surface Disinfectants". pdihc.com. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
- ↑ "Great Northern War plague outbreak". alchetron.com. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- ↑ Spinage, Clive. Cattle Plague: A History.
- ↑ Taylor, William P. Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants: Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants.
- ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 17.24 17.25 17.26 17.27 17.28 17.29 17.30 17.31 17.32 17.33 17.34 17.35 17.36 17.37 17.38 17.39 17.40 17.41 17.42 17.43 17.44 17.45 17.46 17.47 17.48 17.49 17.50 17.51 17.52 17.53 17.54 17.55 17.56 17.57 17.58 17.59 17.60 17.61 17.62 17.63 17.64 17.65 17.66 17.67 17.68 17.69 17.70 17.71 17.72 17.73 17.74 17.75 17.76 17.77 17.78 17.79 17.80 17.81 17.82 17.83 17.84 17.85 17.86 17.87 17.88 17.89 17.90 17.91 17.92 17.93 17.94 17.95 Rogers, Wayne J. Healthcare Sterilisation: Introduction & Standard Practices, Volume 1, Volume 1.
- ↑ Stanton Block, Seymour. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation.
- ↑ Neuman, Carolo (1724). "De Camphora" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 33 (389): 321–332. doi:10.1098/rstl.1724.0061. On page 324, Neumann mentions that in 1719 (MDCCXIX) he distilled some essential oils from various herbs. On page 326, he mentions that during the course of these experiments, he obtained a crystalline substance from thyme oil, which he called "Camphora Thymi" (camphor of thyme). (Neumann gave the name "camphor" not only to the specific substance that today is called camphor, but to any crystalline substance that precipitated from a volatile, fragrant oil from some plant.)
- ↑ "Top 10 Historic Ways To Beat Plagues". listverse.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 21.14 21.15 21.16 21.17 21.18 21.19 21.20 21.21 21.22 21.23 21.24 21.25 Hugo, W.B. "A brief history of heat and chemical preservation and disinfect ion". Journal of Applied Bacteriology. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
- ↑ "Bleach". hydro-land.com. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- ↑ Stéphane, Bernard; Giesbert, Franz-Olivier. Petite et grande histoire des rues de Paris, Volume 1.
- ↑ Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714-1837: An Encyclopedia (Gerald Newman, Leslie Ellen Brown, A. J. Graham Cummings, Jack Fruchtman (Jr.).), Peter A. Tasch ed.).
- ↑ Materials and Expertise in Early Modern Europe: Between Market and Laboratory (Ursula Klein, E. C. Spary ed.).
- ↑ Cohn, Samuel K. "Yellow Fever". doi:10.1093/oso/9780198819660.003.0018.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Wright, David. "Infection control throughout history". doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70726-1.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Smith, Philip W.; Watkins, Kristin; Hewlett, Angela. "Infection control through the ages" (PDF). American Journal of Infection Control.
- ↑ "OVERVIEW OF CHLORINE DIOXIDE (CLO2)". afinitica.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ Wilson, Charles L.; Droby, Samir. Microbial Food Contamination.
- ↑ Schmidt, Ronald H.; Rodrick, Gary E. Food Safety Handbook.
- ↑ "Inspector of Hospitals Ralph Green – Introduction". maltaramc.com. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- ↑ "Aspects of the demography of modern Malta.: a study of the human geography of the Maltese Islands" (PDF). etheses.dur.ac.uk. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
- ↑ L. J. Thénard (1818). "Observations sur des nouvelles combinaisons entre l'oxigène et divers acides". Annales de chimie et de physique. 2nd Series. 8: 306–312.
- ↑ Smart, William. Economic Annals of the Nineteenth Century ...: 1821-1830.
- ↑ Bourgon, Jean Ignace Joseph. Abrégé de l'histoire de France, Volume 2.
- ↑ Salas-Vives, Pere; Pujadas-Mora, Joana-Maria. "Cordons Sanitaires and the Rationalisation Process in Southern Europe (Nineteenth-Century Majorca)". PMID 29886862. doi:10.1017/mdh.2018.25.
- ↑ Preedy, Victor R.; Burrow, Gerard N.; Watson, Ronald Ross (2009). Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects. Academic Press. p. 135.
- ↑ Sneader, Walter (2005). Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 67.
- ↑ Hugo, W.B. "A brief history of heat and chemical preservation and disinfection". Journal of Applied Bacteriology.
- ↑ See:
- Balard, A. J. (1834). "Recherches sur la nature des combinaisons décolorantes du chlore" [Investigations into the nature of bleaching compounds of chlorine]. Annales de Chimie et de Physique. 2nd series (in French). 57: 225–304. From p. 246: " … il est beaucoup plus commode … environ d'eau distillée." ( … it is much easier to pour, into flasks full of chlorine, red mercury oxide [that has been] reduced to a fine powder by grinding and diluted in about twelve times its weight of distilled water.)
- Graham, Thomas (1840). Elements of Chemistry. vol. 4. London, England: H. Baillière. p. 367.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Fraise, Adam P.; Lambert, Peter A.; Maillard, Jean-Yves. Russell, Hugo & Ayliffe's Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization.
- ↑ "Control of Health-Care--Associated Infections, 1961--2011". cdc.gov. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
- ↑ "Eucalyptus Essential Oil". bosistos.com.au. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
- ↑ Love, Shayla (2020-03-18). "Copper Destroys Viruses and Bacteria. Why Isn't It Everywhere?". Vice. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
- ↑ von Hofmann, August Wilhelm (1859). "Einwirkung des Chlorkohlenstoffs auf Anilin. Cyantriphenyldiamin". Journal für Praktische Chemie. 77: 190. doi:10.1002/prac.18590770130.
- ↑ von Hofmann, August Wilhelm (1858). "Action of Bichloride of Carbon on Aniline". Philosophical Magazine: 131–142.
- ↑ Rodgman, Alan; Perfetti, Thomas A. The Chemical Components of Tobacco and Tobacco Smoke.
- ↑ Analytical Methods for a Textile Laboratory. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.
- ↑ Lister, Joseph (21 September 1867). "On the Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery". The Lancet. 90 (2299): 353–356. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)51827-4.
- ↑ Lister, Joseph (1 January 1870). "On the Effects of the Antiseptic System of Treatment Upon the Salubrity of a Surgical Hospital". The Lancet. 95 (2418): 2–4. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)31273-X.
- ↑ Gardner, W. M., ed. (1915), The British coal-tar industry : its origin, development, and decline, Philadelphia: Lippincott, p. 173
- ↑ "Böses Komma". sueddeutsche.de. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ "MARCEL PROUST and the medicine of the Belle Epoque" (PDF). rsm.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ Chantre, Luc. "Entre pandémie et panislamisme". doi:10.4000/assr.25258.
- ↑ Stark, James F. The Making of Modern Anthrax, 1875–1920: Uniting Local, National and Global Histories of Disease.
- ↑ "Part II: Yellow Fever Comes to the Valley". valleymorningstar.com. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ↑ "Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues" (PDF). academia.dk. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ↑ Tatjana Topalović (2007). Catalytic Bleaching of Cotton: Molecular and Macroscopic Aspects p 16. Thesis, University of Twente, the Netherlands. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
- ↑ "1888 Epidemic in Jacksonville". exhibits.lib.usf.edu. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
- ↑ Annual report of the Surgeon General.
- ↑ For a report on the 1892 International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature, see:* Armstrong H (1892). "The International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature". Nature. 46 (1177): 56–59. doi:10.1038/046056c0.
- Armstrong's report is reprinted with the resolutions in English in: Armstrong H (1892). "The International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature". The Journal of Analytical and Applied Chemistry. 6 (1177): 390–400 (398). doi:10.1038/046056c0.
The alcohols and the phenols will be called after the name of the hydrocarbon from which they are derived, terminated with the suffix ol (ex. pentanol, pentynol, etc.)
- Armstrong's report is reprinted with the resolutions in English in: Armstrong H (1892). "The International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature". The Journal of Analytical and Applied Chemistry. 6 (1177): 390–400 (398). doi:10.1038/046056c0.
- ↑ Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation. Seymour Stanton Block.
- ↑ Clark, Janet H. "THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF LIGHT". doi:10.1152/physrev.1922.2.2.277.
- ↑ "Ultraviolet (UV) Light". spectralinnovations.com. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ "Country Selector". A History of Health, lifebuoy.com
- ↑ FALK, S.; WINSLOW, E. A. "A CONTRIBUTION TO THE DYNAMICS OF TOXICITY AND THE THEORY OF DISINFECTION" (PDF).
- ↑ "Handbook of water and wastewater microbiology".
- ↑ "BACTERICIDAL FLUORESCENCE EXCITED BY X-RAYS." (PDF). core.ac.uk. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
- ↑ "Plague in San Francisco: 1900, the Year of the Rat". niaid.nih.gov. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ "When epidemics change the world: Can we learn anything from the third plague pandemic?". sciencenordic.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ Block, Seymour Stanton. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation.
- ↑ Lyons, Maryinez. "From 'Death Camps' to Cordon Sanitaire: The Development of Sleeping Sickness Policy in the Uele District of the Belgian Congo, 1903–19141". doi:10.1017/S0021853700023094.
- ↑ LEPESCHKIN., W. W. "THE HEAT-COAGULATION OF PROTEINS" (PDF). From the Botanical Laboratory, the University of Kasan. PMC 1259127.
- ↑ "Ultraviolet light disinfection in the use of individual water purification devices" (PDF). U.S. Army Public Health Command. Retrieved 2014-01-08.
- ↑ Peter Oliver Okin, The Yellow Flag of Quarantine: An Analysis of the Historical and Prospective Impacts of Socio-Legal Controls Over Contagion, doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida, January 2012; p. 232
- ↑ John Poyer, Commander, US Navy, Navy Cross citation
- ↑ R. Davis, The Spanish Flu: Narrative and Cultural Identity in Spain, 1918, Springer, 2013.
- ↑ Biofuels Production and Processing Technology (M.R. Riazi, David Chiaramonti ed.).
- ↑ "Isopropyl alcohol". britannica.com. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ Esty, J. R.; Williams, C. C. "Heat resistance studies: I. A new method for the determination of heat resistance of bacterial spores". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. doi:10.1093/infdis/34.5.516. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ Giese, Arthur C. Photophysiology: Current Topics.
- ↑ Stanton Block, Seymour. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation.
- ↑ "Our History". dettol.co.in. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ "Keeping you and your loved ones healthy". rb.com. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ "Coronavirus drives demand for Dettol - RB's flagship product spikes sales online". business-live.co.uk. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ COMMITTEE ON FORMALDEHYDE DISINFECTION. "DISINFECTION OF FABRICS WITH GASEOUS FORMALDEHYDE" (PDF).
- ↑ Weston, Debbie. Infection Prevention and Control: Theory and Clinical Practice for Healthcare Professionals.
- ↑ DAWES, G. S. "AMIDINES, GUANIDINES AND ADRENALINE INACTIVATION IN THE LIVER".
- ↑ "Antibacterial Action of Some Aromatic Amines, Amidines, Amidoximes, Guanidines and Diguanides" (PDF). watermark.silverchair.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ Navy Medicine, Volume 95, Issue 1.
- ↑ "The organization of infection control in hospitals". doi:10.1016/0195-6701(80)90055-9.
- ↑ Martin, Douglas (1997-06-22). "The Smithsonian Celebrates Barbicide, A Barbershop Germ Killer Born in Brooklyn". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
- ↑ "Our History". www.milton-tm.com. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
- ↑ Sneader, Walter (2005). Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 68. ISBN 9780470015520.
- ↑ "What type of baby wipe is best and how we choose?". medium.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ↑ Block, Seymour Stanton (2001). Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation (5th ed.). Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. p. 215. ISBN 0-683-30740-1.
- ↑ Underwood,, Gerald E.; Weed, Sheldon D. "Glyoxal and Related Compounds as Potential Blood Sterilizing Agents". doi:10.3181/00379727-93-22776.
- ↑ Dixler, Hillary (17 June 2016). "A Brief History of the Wet-Nap, Barbecue Sauce's Worst Nightmare".
- ↑ Schmalz, Gottfried; Bindslev, Dorthe Arenholt (2008). Biocompatibility of Dental Materials. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 351. ISBN 9783540777823.
- ↑ Wilson, Jennie. Infection Control in Clinical Practice Updated Edition E-Book.
- ↑ "The 'Rediscovery' of Infection, 1957-1970". kingscollections.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ "Infection Prevention and Control". worldcat.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ↑ "Lupe Hernandez and the Invention of Hand Sanitizer". invention.si.edu. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
- ↑ Borick, Paul M. "Chemical Sterilizers (Chemosterilizers).". doi:10.1016/S0065-2164(08)70195-3. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
- ↑ Thomas, Sonyja; Russell, A. Denver. "Temperature-induced changes in the sporicidal activity and chemical properties of glutaraldehyde.". doi:10.1128/aem.28.3.331-335.1974.
- ↑ Booth, Anne (1998). Sterilization of Medical Devices. CRC Press. p. 8. ISBN 9781574910872.
- ↑ National Communicable Disease Center. Isolation Techniques for Use in Hospitals. 1st ed. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office;. PHS publication no 2054 1970
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