Difference between revisions of "Timeline of brain preservation"

Revision as of 23:36, 14 February 2019

This is a timeline of brain preservation.

Brain preservation is the attempt to preserve a human or non-human animal with the hope that partial or complete resuscitation may be possible in the future.

Cryonics is the most popular method of brain preservation, and preserves individuals using low-temperature. But other methods are being used and developed as well, notably fixation, and a combination of both called aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation.

Alternative names for brain preservation include biostasis and neural archiving.

Often confused with cryonics, suspended animation (or anabiosis) is a distinct practice where a patient body would remain biologically intact, and could be reanimated without the need to deeply repair the brain, or transfer its information to another substrate.^[1] However, improvements in suspended animation would also improve the quality of cryopreservations given a patient could be maintained alive at lower temperature before undergoing the damaging cryonics procedure. So this timeline also includes some important milestones with regards to suspended animation.

Trends

Popularity

Interests

The following graph shows the relative popularity of web searches on the topic of cryonics on Google.

The following graph shows the number of views the Wikipedia page "Cryonics" had every day since July 2015. Note that the y-axis is logarithmic, with 5 main peaks.

Patients

The first people to start advocating for cryonics emerged in 1962, and the first preservation happened 4 years later. From 1966 until 1973, of the 17 attempts at freezing, only one person remained cryopreserved^[2] (hence the bumps at the beginning of the curve in the graph below). Consequently, the "pay-as-you-go" funding model was abandoned by the cryonics community as relatives had shown to generally eventually lose interest in paying maintenance fees. From then onward, the number of cryopreservations would grow exponentially, but to this day still represent a trivial amount in comparison to the number of burials and cremations. Since cryonics was first publicized, an estimated 2.9 billion people have died,^[3] which could represent about 2.7% of humans to have ever lived.^[4] As of January 2019, 416 people are known to be cryopreserved.

The following graph shows a history of the number of bodies preserved (complete or neuro-only). Given that the quality of preservations varies a lot, and it can often take many hours or even days before someone gets preserved from the time of their clinical death,^[5]^[6] the graph below represents an upper bound of the number of people that are preserved: some have probably been irreversibly lost, and some might only have been partially preserved. Given that we don't currently know how effective current preservation methods are, the lower bound for the number of people that have been preserved remains 0.

Members

Memberships statistics can be tricky to track for a couple of reasons:

Lack of present data: some organizations don't publicize their membership statistics
Lack of historical data: some organizations only started tracking their membership statistics later in their history
Lack of cryonics membership data: the Cryonics Institute stopped publicizing the number of their members that are fully-funded since 2015, and now only reports the number of members they have; some are also members only for other of their services, such as DNA preservation
Dual memberships: some cryonicists are members of more than one organization, often to support several organizations, or as a fall-back for themselves if one organization was to fail in some ways.

Alcor is the only large cryonics organization that has tracked the number of fully-funded members it has had since its beginnings.^[7] All Alcor members are subscribed to standby services. The Cryonics Institute has tracked the number of members it has signed up with standby services since it started offering it in 2006.^[8] It also has a lot of members that are signed up but plan to use the services of a funeral director for transport – this number is however unknown to the public. The graph below tracks those two numbers. The recent growth has been pretty linear. However, given that there are more and more cryonics organizations, worldwide cryonics memberships is likely growing exponentially.

Cost

Alcor and the Cryonics Institute are the main cryonics providers that have existed for decades.^{[note 1]} Alcor has been adjusting its prices according to the Consumer Price Index (which has been lower than medical inflation), while the Cryonics Institute has maintained its initial price. The first graph below shows the nominal cost charged by the organization, while the second graph shows the real cost (that is inflation adjusted) of various cryonics services.

While the graphs start in 1976, it is worth noting that before 1982, Alcor was contracting Trans Time for its storage services, and the Institute for Advanced Biological Studies for its stabilization services. Also, besides Ettinger's mother and wife, the first patient of the Cryonics Institute was preserved in 1991.

A direct comparison between the prices of different organizations is difficult because of the different services provided, and different types of payments. For example, Alcor has an annual membership fee and has surcharges for late-minute cases. Some of the reason for Alcor's higher price than the Cryonics Institute includes the cost of stabilization and transport, as well as being more financially conservative by putting more money aside in a patient care trust.

The graphs below show the price of cryonics for whole-body and / or neuro-only as offered by Alcor^[9]^[10], the Cryonics Institute^[11], OregonCryo^[12], KrioRus^[13]. The second graph has prices inflation adjusted in 2018 USD.

Big picture

Time period	Development summary
1897-1961	Early cryobiology research starts, and reaches one of the first important success by cryopreserving human sperms by 1961. During that time, the idea of cryonics is conceived by various people; presumably independently from each other. In 1901, Porfiry Ivanovich Bakhmetyev suggests using the phenomenon of anabiosis to prolong human life, to “travel to the future”. In 1931, Neil R. Jones writes a story about someone preserved in orbit because of the cold temperature. In 1948, Robert Ettinger publishes a story explaining the idea of cryonics. In 1962, Evan Cooper publishes "Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now" and coins the slogan "freeze, wait, reanimate".
1960-1966	The first cryonics activists start grouping and developing the capabilities to perform cryopreservations. They have difficulty finding a first person interested in receiving the procedure.
1966-1975	Early cryonics organizations struggle to maintain their patients in liquid nitrogen. Out of 22 cryopreservations done during that period, only 3 would remain preserved to this day [2019].
1976-1990	The two cryonics organizations that have provided continuous service for the longest time and have the most members are created in 1976. They would slowly grow during the following years.
1991-2000	The Cryonics Institute preserves their third patient in 1991 – the first two being relatives from the founder, Robert Ettinger. Alcor and the Cryonics Institute start getting more members and patients.
2001-2018	Alcor starts using a vitrification solution in 2001, and the Cryonics Institute follows in 2004. Some CT scans analyzed in 2018 by Mike Darwin would reveal that Alcor member Fred Chamberlain III, cryopreserved in 2012, was the first patient that was demonstrated to have their brain cryopreserved essentially ice-free. In 2015, 21st Century Medicine wins a prize from the Brain Preservation Foundation for having demonstrably preserved the connectome of a pig with a technique combining vitrification and fixation.

Full timeline

The events in the timeline are sometimes classified in the following categories and sub-categories:

science: paper, observation
R&D
technological adoption: cold, cryonics, vitrification, field cryoprotection, fixation, intermediate storage temperature
writing: letter, fiction, communication, non-fiction, newsletter
social: meeting, conference
political
organization: pref-founding, founding, first
legal: right-to-die

You can click on the header to sort the events by type or subtype.

Date	Category	Type	Subtype	Organisation or individual	Event
1773-04	cryonics	futurism		Benjamin Franklin	In a letter to Jacques Dubourg, Benjamin Franklin says: "I wish it were possible ...to invent a method of embalming drowned persons, in such a manner that they might be recalled to life at any period, however distant; for having a very ardent desire to see and observe the state of America a hundred years hence, I should prefer to an ordinary death, being immersed with a few friends in a cask of Madeira, until that time, then to be recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country! But ... in all probability, we live in a century too little advanced, and too near the infancy of science, to see such an art brought in our time to its perfection ...".^[14]
1883-04-15	cryogenics	technological development	cold	Jagiellonian University	Nitrogen is liquefied by Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.^[15]
1897	cryobiology	science		Porfiry Ivanovich Bakhmetyev	Porfiry Ivanovich Bakhmetyev starts studying the phenomena of anabiosis during overcooling of animals.
1901	cryonics	futurism		Porfiry Ivanovich Bakhmetyev	In his essay “The Recipe for Survival to the 21st Century” (“Natural Science and Geography”, 1901), Porfiry Ivanovich Bakhmetyev suggests using the phenomenon of anabiosis to prolong human life, to “travel to the future”.^[16]
1931-07	cryonics	writing	fiction	Robert Ettinger	Robert Ettinger reads Neil R. Jones' newly published story, "The Jameson Satellite",^[17], in which a professor has his corpse sent into earth orbit where it would remain preserved indefinitely at near absolute zero (note: this is not scientifically accurate), until millions of years later, when, with humanity extinct, a race of mechanical beings discovers, revives, and repairs him by transferring his brain in a mechanical body.^[18]
1936	reanimatology	organisation	founding	Negovsky	Negovsky founds the first resuscitation research laboratory in the world. In 1986 his laboratory would be renamed Institute of Reanimatology of the USSR (since 1991 of the Russian) Academy of Medical Sciences. This marks the inception of both reanimatology (resuscitation medicine) and critical care medicine both of which would be crucial to the credibility of cryonics paradigm.^[19]
1938	cryobiology				Alexander Goetz and S. Scott Goetz publish a paper discussing vitrification and crystallization of organic cells at low temperatures.
1940	cryobiology	writing	book	Basil Luyet, Marie Pierre Gehino	Basil Luyet and Marie Pierre Gehino publish "Life and Death at Low Temperatures", the book which marks the beginning of cryobiology as a formal area of study. In this landmark work they document the survival of a wide variety of cells and some tissues after ultra-rapid cooling to -194.5°C providing that ice formation in the tissue is inhibited by vitrification due to the ultra-rapid cooling.^[20]
1940s	cryogenics	technological development	cold		Liquid nitrogen becomes commercially available.^[21]
1947	cryogenics			Polge, Smith, Parkes	Robert Ettinger, while in the hospital for his battle wounds, discovers Jean Rostand research in cryogenics.^[22]
1948	cryobiology	technological development	vitrification		Polge, Smith and Parkes discover the cryoprotective effects of glycerol and publish a paper documenting the successful hatching of chicks from fowl sperm cryopreserved with glycerol.^[23]
1948-03	cryonics	writing	fiction	Robert Ettinger	Robert Ettinger publishes the story The Penultimate Trump, in which the explicit idea of cryopreservation of legally dead people for future repair is promulgated. This story was written in 1947.^[24]
1950-05	cryobiology	technological development	vitrification	Luyet, Gonzales	Luyet and Gonzales achieve successful vitrification of chicken embryo hearts using ethylene glycol.^[25]
1954-06	suspended animation	science	nature	Smith et al.	Smith et al., demonstrate the ability of golden hamsters to recover and survive long term following freezing of ~60% of the water in their brains and the survival a full recovery of hamsters cooled to -5°C.^[26]
1959-05	cryobiology	technological development	vitrification	Lovelock, Bishop	Lovelock and Bishop discover the cryoprotective properties of dimethyl sulfoxide (Me2SO). Me2SO would subsequently become a mainstay of most experimental vitrification solutions used in organ preservation.^[27]
1960	cryonics	writing	communication	Robert Ettinger	Robert Ettinger expected other scientists to advocate for cryonics. Given that this still hasn't happened, Ettinger finally makes the scientific case for cryonics. He sends this to approximately 200 people whom he selected from Who's Who in America, but got little response.^[17]
1960s	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation	Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation in Phoenix, Arizona is founded by Ed Hope (not the same as the California organization with similar name). Unlike the others, it would build its own capsules, horizontal units on wheels for easy transport. Cryo-Care would not use cryoprotectants or perfusion with its patients but would only do straight freezes to liquid nitrogen temperature. These freezings would be advertised as being for cosmetic purposes rather than eventual reanimation, though the cryonics issue would naturally arise. ^[2]
1961	cryobiology	technological development	cryoprotection	Lovelock, Bishop	By 1961 the work of Lovelock and Bishop is rapidly extended to other animal sperm, including human sperm, and glycerol is also shown to be an effective cryoprotectant for both red cells and many nucleated mammalian cells.^[28]
1962	reanimatology	writing	book	Vladimir A. Negovsky	Vladimir A. Negovsky publishes his landmark book, "Resuscitation and Artificial Hypothermia".^[29]^[30]
1962	cryonics	writing	non-fiction	Evan Cooper	Evan Cooper publishes "Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now" under the pseudonym Nathan Duhring.^[31] He coins the immortal "freeze, wait, reanimate" slogan.^[32]^[33]
1962	cryonics	futurism		Robert Ettinger	Ettinger privately publishes a preliminary version of The Prospect of Immortality, in which he makes the case for cryonics.^[17]
1962	cryonics	social	meeting		About 20 people attend the first informal cryonics meeting.^[31]
1962	cryonics	social		Evan Cooper	After the first cryonics meeting, Cooper and a few other individuals form the Immortality Communication Exchange (ICE), an informal, "special-interest group" for the "freeze and wait" idea that would later be known as cryonics.^[31]
1963	cryonics	organisation	founding	Life Extension Society	During the conference, the Life Extension Society, the first cryonics organization, is founded by Evan Cooper. It would be situated in Washington, D.C.^[33]
1963-12-29	cryonics	social	conference		The first cryonics conference happens.^[31]^[34]
1964	cryonics	futurism		Robert Ettinger	Robert Ettinger's The Prospect of Immortality finally attracts attention of a major publisher, Doubleday, which sends a copy to Isaac Asimov; Asimov says that the science behind cryonics is sound, so the book is published. The book becomes a selection of the Book of the Month Club and is published in nine languages. Ettinger becomes a media celebrity, discussed in many periodicals, television shows, and radio programs.^[17]
1964-01	cryonics	writing	newsletter		The first issue of the Life Extension Society Newsletter is published.^[31]^[34]
1965	cryonics			Karl Werner	Karl Werner coins the word "cryonics".^[35]
1965	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryonics Society of New York	The Cryonics Society of New York (CSNY) is founded by Saul Kent, Curtis Henderson and Karl Werner. CSNY is a non-profit organisation contracting with the for-profit organisation Cryospan for cryonics freezing and storage.^[35]^[36]
1965-03	cryobiology	technological development	cryoprotection	James Farrant	James Farrant shows that viable ice free cryopreservation of a highly organized tissue is possible and that eliminating ice formation, even at -79 °C, eliminates virtually all of the extensive mechanical (histological) and ultrastructural disruption observed with conventional cryoprotection and freezing of complex tissues.^[37]
1965-05-20	cryonics			Life Extension Society	Wilma Jean McLaughlin of Springfield, Ohio dies from heart and circulatory problems. Ev Cooper would fill a report the following day "The woman who almost became the first person frozen for a possible reanimation in the future died yesterday." The attempt to freeze her is abandoned. While reports on this event would vary, many would mention the lack of preparation, cooperation from various people, and explicit consent as obstacles to the freezing.^[38]
1965-06	cryonics	organisation		Life Extension Society	The Life Extension Society offers to freeze the first person for free: "The Life Extension Society now has primitive facilities for emergency short term freezing and storing our friend the large homeotherm (man). LES offers to freeze free of charge the first person desirous and in need of cryogenic suspension." No one would take them on their offer.^[38]
1965-10-30	cryonics			Dandridge M. Cole	Dandridge M. Cole suffers a fatal heart attack. Cole had read The Prospect of Immortality in 1963. In his more recent book, Beyond Tomorrow, he had devoted several pages to the subject. He had expressed a wish to be frozen after death. After some delay a call was placed to Ettinger, who later would write, "I was consulted by long-distance telephone several hours after he died, but in the end the family did what was to be expected – nothing."^[38]
1966	cryonics	organisation	founding	Immortalist Soceity	The Cryonics Society of Michigan (later renamed the Cryonics Association, and then, in 1985, the Immortalist Society) is founded with Ettinger elected as its president.^[39]
1966	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryonics Society of California	The Cryonics Society of California (CSC) is founded by Robert Nelson. CSC is a non-profit organisation contracting with the for-profit organisation Cryonic Interment for cryonics freezing and storage. Cryonics Interment would later be renamed General Fluidics by Robert Nelson and Marshal Neel.^[2]^[39]
1966	cryobiology	science	paper	Kroener and Luyet	Kroener and Luyet observe fracturing in vitrified glycerol solutions.^[40]^[41]
1966-04-22	cryonics			Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation	An elderly woman (probably from Los Angeles – never identified) who has been embalmed for two months and maintained slightly above-freezing temperature is straight-frozen.^[38] There is some thought of the cryonics premise of eventual reanimation, but within a year she would be thawed and buried by relatives.^[42]^[43]
1966-10-15	cryonics	science	paper		The first paper showing recovery of brain electrical activity after freezing to −20 °C is published.^[44]
1967-01-12	cryonics	technological adoption	cryonics	Cryonics Society of California	James Bedford is the first human to be cryopreserved. The freezing is carried out by affiliates of the newly-formed Cryonics Society of California: Robert Prehoda, author and cryobiological researcher; Dante Brunol, physician and biophysicist; and Robert Nelson, President of the Society. Also assisting is Bedford's physician, Renault Able. 6 days later, relatives would move Bedford to the Cryo-Care facility in Phoenix. Later, his son would store him, and finally on September 22, 1987, Bedford would be moved to Alcor.^[38]^[5]
1968	cryonics	organisation		Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation	Ed Hope closes Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation after seeing it wouldn't turn a profit. The remaining patients are turn over to other organizations or to relatives.^[2]
1968	cryobiology	technological development	cryoprotection		Dog kidneys are cryopreserved using Farrant's technique resulting in no ice formation and with excellent structural preservation, and the ability to tolerate reperfusion with blood in the animal without immediate failure.^[45]
1968	cryonics	writing	non-fiction	Robert Nelson	Robert Nelson publishes the book We Froze the First Man telling the story of Bedford's cryopreservation. However, his description is largely inaccurate. A more accurate description would be written later on DEAR DR. BEDFORD (and those who will care for you after I do).^[46]
1968-02	cryonics	science	resuscitation	Ames, et al.	Ames, et al., discover the cerebral no-re-flow phenomenon which prevents adequate reperfusion of the brain after ~10 minutes of global cerebral ischemia and identifies this as the likely cause of failure to achieve brain resuscitation after 6-10 minutes of normothermic ischemia rather than the acute death of brain cells as the supposed cause.^[47]
1969	cryonics	organisation	founding	American Cryonics Society	The Bay Area Cryonics Society is founded by two physicians, prominent allergist and editor of Annals of Allergy, Dr. M. Coleman Harris, and Dr. Grace Talbot. It would be renamed to the American Cryonics Society in 1985.^[35]^[48]^[49]
1969	cryonics			Evan Cooper	Cooper ends his involvement in cryonics. He feels overloaded and burned-out, and thinks cryonics is not going to be a viable option for himself for practical (political, social, economic) reasons and that he is not going to spend the time he had left trying to obtain the impossible. He is also concerned with the commercial and political aspects within cryonics.^[32]
1969-04-11	cryonics	futurism		Jerome White	Jerome White, one of the founders of the Bay Area Cryonics Society, proposes the use of specially engineered viruses to effect repair of cells that are damaged by freezing and compromised by aging.^[50]
1970	cryonics	science		Hossmann, Sato	Hossmann and Sato demonstrate that, contrary to decades of biomedical dogma, it is possible to restore robust electrical activity and demonstrate evoked potentials in cat brains that had been subjected to 1 hour of normothermic ischemia. This marks the beginning of the debunking of 3-6 minute limit on brain viability under conditions of normothermic ischemia. It also shows that brain cells do not undergo autolysis after ~10 minutes of normothermic ischemia, a view that was commonly held by both many physicians and neurologists prior to this time.^[51]
1970	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryonics Society of America	The Cryonics Society of America (CSA) is incorporated. The purpose of the CSA is to establish “standards and practices” of operations for all of the cryonics societies, to mandate validation of human freezing by requiring the submission of photographic proof along with a death certificate, and a description of the procedure used and the location where the patient was being stored (essentially establishing a registry of cryonics patients). It is also created to allow for the creation of a Scientific Advisory Board which would, in fact, formed in March of 1968. CSA itself never got off the ground due to noncompliance with the "standards and practices" by the Cryonics Society of California.^[52]
1970-05-15	cryonics	organization		Cryonics Society of California	Nelson moves the 4 patients from the Cryonics Society of California into an underground vault he recently had designed and built under the aegis of Cryonics Interment. The vault is located in Oakwood Cemetery in Chatsworth, Los Angeles.^[2]
1970-05-22	cryobiology	science	theory	Peter Mazur	Peter Mazur publishes his “two-factor theory” elucidating the basic mechanisms of freezing damage to living cells: solution effects injury and/or intracellular freezing. This insight facilitates more rational design of freezing and thawing protocols allowing the development of freezing techniques for animal embryos.^[53]
1971	resuscitation	science		Hossmann	Hossmann demonstrates possible recovery of the cat brain after complete ischemia for 1 hour. The field of cerebral resuscitation is born.^[54]
1971	cryonics	futurism		Martin	Cryonics by neuropreservation is proposed.^[55]
1971-08	cryonics	writing	journal	Manrise Technical Review	Fred and Linda Chamberlain begin publishing a bi-monthly technical journal, Manrise Technical Review and in 1972 they publish the first comprehensive technical manual of human cryopreservation procedures. This marks the beginning of a biomedically informed and rigorously scientific approach to cryonics. In this manual the Chamberlains suggest apoplication of the Farrant technique to cryonics patients.^[56]
1971 (end of) - 1979-04	cryonics	organisation		Cryonics Society of California	9 patients are thawed by the Cryonics Society of California. This would become known as the Chatsworth Scandal, because the patients were stored in an underground vault at a cemetery in Chatsworth.^[2]
1972	cryonics	technological adoption		Trans Time	A collaborative working group led by Trans Time President Art Quaife and consisting of Gregory Fahy, Peter Gouras, M.D., Fred and Linda Chamberlain and Mike Darwin begin working on a standardized protocol for the cryoprotection of cryonics patients. Quaife publishes the first results of this effort, a modification of Collins’ organ preservation solution for use as the carrier solution for Me2SO during cryoprotective perfusion. This marks the first attempt at creating a standardized, science-based human cryopreservation protocol.^[57]
1972	cryonics	organisation	founding	Trans Time	Trans Time, Inc., (TT) a cryonics service provider, is founded by Art Quaife, along with John Day, Paul Segall and other cryonicists. It is a for-profit organisation. It's initially a perfusion service-provider for the Bay Area Cryonics Society. They buy the perfusion equipment from Manrise Corporation.^[35] They would be the first to undertake the effort of clarifying legal issues around cryonics, and to actively market cryonics.^[35] The name "Trans Time" is inspired by Trans World Airlines, a prominent airline.^[58]^[59]
1972	cryonics			Mike Darwin	Mike Darwin is the first full-time cryonics researcher. He would work at Alcor for a year.^[60]
1972-01-12	suspended animation	technological adoption		Klebanoff	Klebanoff reports survival of the first human after blood washout and induction of profound hypothermia with full recovery of heath and normal mentation, Air Force Seargent Tor Olsen who, as of 2018, would still be alive and well.^[61]
1972-02-23	cryonics	organisation	founding	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	The Alcor Life Extension Foundation, a cryonics service provider, is founded by Fred and Linda Chamberlain in the State of California. The organisation is named after a star in the Big Dipper used in ancient times as a test of visual acuity. It would serve as a response team for the Cryonics Society of California. Alcor is initially incorporated as the Alcor Society for Solid State Hypothermia, but would change its name to the "Alcor Life Extension Foundation" in 1977.^[35]^[62]
1973-08	cryobiology	technological development	cryoprotection, re-warming	Hamilton, Lehr	Hamilton and Lehr demonstrate successful preservation of canine small intestine allografts using Me2SO as the cryoprotectant, and cooling and warming using vascular perfusion with helium gas suggesting that even controlled cooling and emptying of the vasculature's fluid/ice are beneficial in organ freezing. The organ is successfully transplanted.^[63]^[64]
1973-03	cryonics			Cryonics Society of New York	Fahy and Darwin publish the first technical case report documenting the procedures, problems and responses of a human patient (Clara Dostal) to cryoprotective perfusion and freezing. The report is severely critical of the way cryonics patients are being treated and suggests many reform and inprovements.^[65]
1974	cryonics	organisation		Trans Time	Due to the closure of the storage facility in New York, the Bay Area Cryonics Society and the Alcor Life Extension Foundation change their plan to preserve their patients to the Trans Time facility instead of the New York one, and would do so until the 1980s.^[35]
1974	cryonics	science			The first paper showing partial recovery of brain electrical activity after 7 years of frozen storage is published.^[66]
1974	cryonics	organisation		Cryonics Society of New York	Curtis Henderson, who has been maintaining three cryonics patients for the Cryonics Society of New York, is told by the New York Department of Public Health that he must close down his cryonics facility. The three cryonics patients are returned to their families, and would later be thawed.^[35]
1975-07	suspended animation	technological development		Gerald Klebanoff	Gerald Klebanoff demonstrates recovery of dogs from total blood washout and profound hypothermia with no neurological deficit using a defined asanguineous solution. Klebanoff documents the critical importance of adequate amounts of colloid in the perfusate to prevent death from pulmonary edema.^[67]
1976	cryonics	R&D		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Manrise Corporation provides initial funding to Alcor for cryonics research.
1976-04-28	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryonics Institute	Cryonics Institute is founded, and starts offering cryonics services: preparation, cooling, and long term storage.^[68]
1976-07-16	cryonics	technological adoption		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor carries out the first human cryopreservation where cardiopulmonary support is initiated immediately post pronouncement and is continued until the patient is cooled to 15°C (~400 minutes) and where a scientifically designed custom perfusion machine with heat exchanger was used to carry out cryoprotective perfusion (as opposed to an embalming pump) with control over flow, pressure and temperature and incorporating a bubble trap was used. This is also the first neurocryopreservation (head only) patient. The patient was the father of Fred Chamberlain, the co-founder of the organisation.^[69]^[60]
1977	cryonics	organisation		Institute for Advanced Biological Studies	The Institute for Advanced Biological Studies (IABS) is incorporated by Steve Bridge. IABS is a nonprofit research startup.^[70]
1977	cryonics	organisation		Soma, Inc.	Soma, Inc. is incorporated. Soma is intended as a for-profit organization to provide cryopreservation and human storage services. Its president is Mike Darwin.
1977	cryonics	organisation		Cryonics Institute	The Cryonics Institute preserves its first patient, Rhea Ettinger. She would be preserved in dry ice for 10 years, and then switch to liquid nitrogen.
1977(?) - 1986	cryonics	social		Life Extension Festival	The Life Extension Festival is run by Fred and Linda Chamberlain.^[71]
1977-07	cryonics	futurism		Darwin	Darwin is the first to conceive of the idea of an autonomous, bioengineered cell repair and replacement device to reverse cryo-injury and aging, which he called the “anabolocyte”.^[72]
1978	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryovita Laboratories	Cryovita Laboratories is founded by Jerry Leaf^[73], who had been teaching surgery at the University of California, Los Angeles. Cryovita is a for-profit organization which would provide cryopreservation services for Alcor and Trans Time in the 1980s.^[35]
1978-07	cryonics	technological adoption		Cryovita Laboratories	Jerry Leaf of Cryovita Laboratories introduces the principles and equipment of extracorporeal medicine into cryonics with the cryopreservation of Samuel Berkowitz. This included the use the heart-lung machine, closed circuit perfusion, 40µ arterial filtration and sterile technique and Universal Precautions to protect the staff caring for the patient:^[74]
1979	cryonics			Institute for Advanced Biological Studies	Darwin et al., place the first long term storage marker animal into cryopreservation at the Institute for Advanced Biological Studies in Indianapolis, IN, using glycerol cryoprotection. This animal’s cephalon was subsequently transferred to Alcor where it remains in cryopreservation through the present. This was also the first cryopreservation of a companion animal, which was M. Darwin’s childhood dog “Mitzi”.^[75]
1979	cryonics			Institute for Advanced Biological Studies	The Institute for Advanced Biological Studies (IABS) puts Mitzi into cryopreservation, the first companion animal to receive the procedure. Alcor would later store the animal starting in 1982.
1980	cryonics	technological development		Leaf et al.	Leaf et al., carry out the first closed circuit perfusions with stepped increase in cryoprotectant concentration under well controlled conditions with physiological and biochemical monitoring of the patients in real-time. This is also the first case where remote standby and stabilization using continuous heart-lung resuscitator support is carried out.^[76]
1980	cryonics	organisation	founding	Life Extension Foundation	The Life Extension Foundation (LEF) is founded. It would later helped fund various cryonics organisations, notably Alcor, 21st Century Medicine, Critical Care Research, and Suspended Animation, Inc.^[35]
1980	cryonics	organisation	founding	Institute for Cryobiological Extension	The Institute for Cryobiological Extension is founded, and would soon published its first volume of ICE Proceedings.
1981	cryonics	futurism			The first paper suggesting that nanotechnology could reverse freezing injury is published.^[77]
1981	cryonics	organisation		Cryovita Laboratories	Soma, Inc. merges with Cryovita Laboratories.
1981-03	cryonics	writing	journal	Darwin, Bridge	Michael Darwin and Stephen Bridge begin publication of the monthly magazine Cryonics which, for the next 10 years, would be the principle vehicle for publication of technical and scientific papers in cryonics.^[78]
1982	cryobiology	science	toxicity	Fahy, et al.	Fahy, et al., publish papers which extensively documents the role of cryoprotectant toxicity as a barrier to tissue and organ cryopreservation suggest possible molecular mechanisms.^[79]^[80]
1982	cryonics	organisation		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor begins storing its own patients. It was previously storing its patients with Trans Time, Inc.
1982	cryonics	organisation		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	The Institute for Advanced Biological Studies merges with Alcor.
1982-09-15	cryonics	social		Society for Cryobiology	The Society for Cryobiology adopts new bylaws denying membership to organizations or individuals supporting cryonics.^[81]^[82]
1983-01	cryonics	technological development		Darwin, et al.	Darwin, et al. carry out an extensive study to evaluate the efficacy of a human cryopreservation protocol on whole mammals (rabbits). This research discloses extensive ultrastructural disruption of the brain even when freezing in the presence of 3 M glycerol is employed. This work also documentes the extremely adverse effects of prolonged cold ischemia on cryoprotective perfusion.^[83]^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]
1983	cryonics	organisation		Institute for Cryobiological Extension	Leaf changes hats to President of the Institute for Cryobiological Extension (ICE) with the intention to devise a new project with the goal of having animal heads frozen, thawed, and reattached to a new body in such a way that would allow for neurocognitive evaluation. The project would later be deemed impractical. ^[91]
1984	cryonics	science		Darwin et al.	Darwin et al., publish the first paper documenting the effects of cryopreservation protocols on human patients. This paper documents the presence of extensive macro-tissue fracturing in all three patients examined and shows relatively good histological preservation in the patient treated with 3 M glycerol.^[92]
1984	suspended animation	technological development		Leaf, Darwin, Hixon	Leaf, Darwin and Hixon complete 3-years of research demonstrating successful 4-hour asanguineous perfusion of dogs at 5°C with full recovery of health, mentation and long term memory. The paper documenting this work is rejected by the Society for Cryobiology because the work was conducted by cryonicists. The perfusate developed during this research, MHP-2 continues to be used for total body washout through the present.^[93]
1984	cryobiology	science	paper		The first paper showing that large organs can be cryopreserved without structural damage from ice is published.^[94]
1984	cryonics	science	observation	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor observes fractures in human cryopreservation patients. ^[40]^[95]
1985	cryonics	technological adoption	remote stabilization		For the first time, a cryonics patient is given remote standby with in-field total body washout. Cardiopulmonary support (CPS) is initiated within 2 minutes following monitored cardiac arrest. This is also the first case where anesthesia is used to inhibit consciousness during cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) and external cooling.^[96]^[97]^[98]
1985	cryobiology	vitrification	vitrification	Fahy, Rall	Fahy and Rall successfully apply vitrification to embryo preservation introducing the technique to mainstream medicine and highlighting its potential utility in solid organ cryopreservation.^[99]
1980s (mid)	cryonics	legal		Jackson National	Jackson National is the first life insurance company to definitively state that it acknowledges that cryonics arrangements constitute a legitimate insurable interest.^[100]
1980s (mid)	cryobiology	technological adoption	vitrification	Greg Fahy and William F. Rall	Researchers Greg Fahy and William F. Rall help introduce vitrification to reproductive cryopreservation.
1986	cryonics	writing	textbook	Darwin	M. Darwin publishes the first textbook on acute stabilization of human cryopreservation patients.^[101]
1986	cryobiology	science	vitrification	Fahy	Greg Fahy proposes vitrification as a mean of achieving viable parenchymatous organ preservation.^[102]
1986	cryonics	futurism		K. Eric Drexler	K. Eric Drexler publishes Engines of Creation^[103] -- the first book on molecular nanotechnology --. The book has a chapter on cryonics. It creates a surge in growth in cryonics interest and membership.
1986	suspended animation	science	paper		The first paper showing that large mammals can be recovered after three hours of total circulatory arrest (“clinical death”) at +3°C (37°F) is published. This supports the reversibility of the hypothermic phase of cryonics.^[104]
1986	cryonics	organisation	organisation's first	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor cryopreserves a member's companion animal for the first time.
1986	cryonics	futurism		Drexler	Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation is proposed under the name of "fixation and vitrification".^[105]
1987	cryonics	organisation	founding	Cryonics Society of Canada	Douglas Quinn launches the Cryonics Society of Canada and Canadian Cryonics News.^[106]
1987	cryonics	technological adoption	cold	Cryonics Institute	The Cryonics Institute starts using liquid nitrogen instead of dry ice.^[35]
1987-06	cryonics	technological development	extracorporeal membrane oxygenation	Leaf, Darwin, Hixon	Leaf, Darwin and Hixon develop a mobile extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) cart which is capable of providing acute, in-field extracorporeal life support and cooling providing the first truly adequate method of maintaining viability and achieving rapid induction of hypothermia in cryonics patients.^[107]^[108]
1987-06-08	cryonics	technological adoption	extracorporeal membrane oxygenation		First use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support on a cryonics patient.^[109]
1987-12	cryonics	legal		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Saul Kent brings his terminally ill mother (Dora Kent) into the Alcor facility where she deanimates. Her head would be cryopreserved. The rest of the body would be given to a coroner. The coroner's office wouldn't understand that circulation would be artificially restarted after legal death, and that barbiturate would be given to slow down the brain metabolism. Seeing the distributed barbiturate throughout the body, they would change the cause of death from natural causes to homicide. In January 1988, Alcor would be raided by coroner's deputies, a SWAT team, and UCLA police. The Alcor staff would be taken to the police station in handcuffs and the Alcor facility would be ransacked, with computers and records being seized. The coroner's office would want to seize Dora Kent's head for autopsy, but the head would be removed from the Alcor facility and taken to a location that would never be disclosed. Alcor would later sue for false arrest and for illegal seizures, and would win both cases.^[35]
1988	cryonics	social			The Cryonet email list starts.^[110]
1988	cryonics	legal		Dick Clair	Alcor member Dick Clair (who is dying of AIDS) sues for, and ultimately wins for everyone, the right to be cryopreserved in the State of California.^[111]
1989	cryonics	technological development	cooling rate	Darwin	M. Darwin creates the portable ice bath (PIB) to substantially increase the efficacy of external cooling with Fred Chamberlain subsequently developing a surface convective cooling device to further improve heat exchange doubling the rate of cooling during external cooling for induction of hypothermia.^[112]
1989	cryonics	technological adoption		Darwin	M. Darwin introduces high impulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) improving cardiac output during cardiopulmonary support (CPS).^[113]
1989-02	cryonics	writing	textbook	Wowk, Darwin	Wowk and Darwin author the first comprehensive textbook on cryonics, "Cryonics: Reaching for Tomorrow", designed for use in recruiting new members to Alcor. It would be published in 1991.^[114]
1980s (late)	cryonics	legal		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor Member Dick Clair – who was dying of AIDS – fights in court for the legal right to practice cryonics in California, a battle that would ultimately be won.^[35]
1990	cryonics	technological development	pre-medication	Darwin	M. Darwin publishes the first pre-medication protocol to minimize ischemia reperfusion injury in cryonics patients.^[115]
1990	cryonics	quality assessment		Darwin	M. Darwin introduces end-tidal CO2 monitoring to cryonics and sets out a comprehensive set of guidelines for determining the efficacy of in-field cardiopulmonary support.^[116]
1990	cryonics	legal	right-to-die	Thomas K. Donaldson	Thomas K. Donaldson, after being diagnosed with terminal brain cancer, petitions the California courts, seeking a declaration that he has a constitutional right to achieve cryonic suspension before his natural death. Donaldson and his doctors build their argument in light of the recent right-to-die legislation where patients could have life-sustaining medical treatment withdrawn. The trial court would dismiss the complaint for failure to state a cause of action, and Donaldson would then appeal. The court holds that he does not have a constitutional right to assisted death because the cryonic process would necessarily involve physician-assisted death, or the aiding, advising, or encouraging of another to commit suicide.^[117]
1990	cryobiology	science	intermediate storage temperature	Greg Fahy	Fahy publishes a detailed study of fracturing in large volumes of vitrification solution.^[40]^[118]
1990	cryonics			Trygve Bauge	Trygve Bauge, a member of the American Cryonics Society, brings his deceased grandfather from Norvegia to the United States. He would store his body at Trans Time from 1990 to 1993. Bauge would then transport his grandfather to Nederland, Colorado in dry ice with the intention of starting his own cryonics company. After media turmoil, the town would outlaw cryonics, but would "grandfather the grandfather" who would remain there on dry ice.^[35]
1990-06	cryonics	technological adoption	remote stabilization	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor patient A-1239 receives a field cryoprotection with glycerol in Australia before being transported on dry ice to Alcor.^[119]
1990-06-09	cryonics	quality assessment		Alcor	First evaluation of viability in a cryonics patient using Na+/K+ ratio in the renal cortex demonstrating good tissue viability following application of the Alcor Transport Protocol, including rapid post-arrest in-field washout and rapid air transport of the patient to the cryoprotective perfusion facility.^[120]
1990-10	cryobiology	technological development	re-warming	Ruggera, Fahy	Ruggera and Fahy demonstrate uniform radio frequency re-warming of vitrified solution in volumes compsarable to those of the rabbit kidney without thermal runaway and at rates of re-warming sufficient to inhibit devitrification in their model system.^[121]
1990-10	cryobiology	science	vitrification	Fahy, et al.	Fahy, et al., publish first paper documenting the behavior of large volumes of vitrification solution with respect to fracture temperature, thermal gradient, cooling rate, ice nucleation and crystal growth as a preliminary step to avoid fracturing in vitrified organs and tissues and to prevent devitrification during re-warming.^[118]
1992	cryonics	futurism	paper		The application of nanotechnology to reverse human cryopreservation is discussed in a paper for the first time.^[122]
1982	cryonics	organisation		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor starts providing its own cryopreservation as well as patient-storage services.
1992-02	cryonics	technological adoption	extracorporeal membrane oxygenation		First application of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ECMO in the patient’s home followed by ~8 hours of continuous ECMO support prior to perfusion.^[123]
1993	cryonics	organisation	founding	21st Century Medicine	21st Century Medicine, a cryogenics and cryonics research organisation, is founded.^[124]
1993	cryonics	organisation	founding	CryoCare	The CryoCare Foundation is founded. It would provide human cryopreservation with assistance from two separate businesses: BioPreservation, which would provide remote standby, stabilization, and transport, and CryoSpan, which would provide the long-term storage of patients in liquid-nitrogen. About 50 former Alcor members join in the founding of the organisation.^[60]^[125]
1993-03	cryonics	R&D	intermediate storage temperature	CryoNet	Through the CryoNet email list, collaborative effort is put into designing a room to preserve up to 100 people at −130 ºC.^[40]
1994	cryonics	R&D	intermediate storage temperature	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor observes fractures in the brain of a patient following removal from cryopreservation. Alcor thinks of intermediate temperature storage systems, and the development of a new acoustic fracturing monitoring device, the "crackphone."^[40]^[126]
1994	cryonics	R&D	intermediate storage temperature	Timeship	Architect Stephen Valentine begins studying Cold Room intermediate temperature storage design concepts as part of a large cryonics facility design that would eventually be called Timeship.^[40]
1994-02	cryonics	risk management	natural catastrophes, legal environment	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor moves to Scottsdale, Arizona, with all its patients.^[35]^[127]
1995	cryonics	technological adoption	cryoprotection	Alcor, Biopreservation	Both Alcor and Biopreservation begin using high morality glycerol (7.5 to 8. M) as their cryoprotective strategy.^[128]
1995	cryonics	technological adoption	pre-medication	Darwin	Darwin et al., document the first use of a premedication protocol to mitigate ischemia-reperfusion injury in a cryonics patient.^[129]
1995-05-31	cryobiology	science	cryoprotection	Darwin	Darwin, et al., demonstrate much improved ultrastructural preservation in the dog brain and preservation of vascular integrity after perfusion with 7.5 M glycerol and freezing to -100 °C.^[130]^[131]
1997	cryonics	technological adoption	intermediate storage temperature	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor brings the crackphone (an acoustic fracturing monitoring device) into clinical use.^[40] The Alcor crackphone has never been tested or validated in any animal or human model, nor in bulk [[wikipedia:cryoprotectant\|cryoprotective agents] solutions cooled to deep subzero temperatures.
1997	cryonics	risk management	economic stability	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	After a substantial effort led by then-president Steve Bridge, Alcor forms the Patient Care Trust as an entirely separate entity to manage and protect the funding for cryopatients.
1998	cryonics	technological development	cooling rate	Darwin, Harris, Russell	Darwin, Harris, and Russell invent liquid assisted pulmonary cooling allowing for rapid, non-invasive cooling of dogs at rate of 0.5 °C per minute.^[132]^[133]
1999	cryonics	organisation	closing	CryoCare	BioPreservation doesn't renew its contract with CryoCare, and stops offering cryonics services altogether.^[35] CryoCare doesn't find a new provider.^[35] They would transfer their 10 patients from the American Cryonics Society to the Cryonics Institute on 2004-04-06, and their 2 other patients to Alcor on 2001-01-24.^[5]^[60]^[125]
2000-03	cryobiology	science	vitrification	Song, et al.	The application of vitrification to a relatively large tissue of medical interest, vascular grafts, is successful for the first time.^[134]
2000	cryonics	technological adoption	intermediate storage temperature	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor acquires a −130 ºC Harris CryoStar laboratory freezer from GS Laboratory Equipment and begins testing its utility for possible storage of neuropatients.^[40]^[135]
2000	cryonics	organisation	founding	Critical Care Research	Critical Care Research, a research organisation on critical care medicine, is founded.^[136]
2000-07-15	cryobiology	technological development	vitrification	Fahy, Kheirabadi	Fahy and Kheirabadi achieve permanent life support after perfusion of rabbit kidneys with 7.5 M a vitrification solution demonstrating for the first time that concentrations of cryoprotectant compatible with vitrification are tolerable without the loss of renal viability.^[137]
2001	cryonics	technological adoption	vitrification	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor switches from glycerol (which was reducing ice formation, but not vitrifying the brain) to a proprietary mixture of cryoprotectants designed to eliminate ice formation completely, ideally achieving vitrification of the entire brain.^[138]
2001	cryonics	technological adoption	vitrification	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor begins vitrification perfusion of cryonics patients with a cryoprotectant mixture called B2C, which is developed by 21st Century Medicine.^[35]^[139]
2002	cryonics	science	paper		For the first time, a paper shows rigorous demonstration of memory retention after cooling to +10°C (59°F): "Learning and memory is preserved after induced asanguineous hyperkalemic hypothermic arrest in a swine model of traumatic exsanguination".^[140]
2002	cryonics	R&D	intermediate storage temperature	Timeship Project	Physicist Brian Wowk and Brookhaven National Laboratory cryogenic engineer Mike Iarocci start collaborating with architect Stephen Valentine to design intermediate temperature storage systems suitable for cryonics in connection with the Timeship Project.^[40]
2002	cryonics	organisation	founding	Suspended Animation, Inc	Suspended Animation, Inc, a for profit organisation that provides cryonics standby, stabilization, and transport services, is founded.^[141]"Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs \| California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22. </ref>
2002	cryonics	political		Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor cryopreserves baseball legend Ted Williams. Following this case, journalists at Sports Illustrated would write a sensationalistic exposé of Alcor based on information that would be supplied to them by Alcor employee Larry Johnson, who had surreptitiously recorded several conversations. Following more media turmoil, Arizona state representative Bob Stump would attempt to put Alcor under the control of the Funeral Board. The Arizona Funeral Board Director would tell the New York Times "These companies need to be regulated or deregulated out of business". After a hard fight by Alcor, the legislation would finally be withdrawn in 2004. Alcor would hire a full-time lobbyist to watch after their interests in the Arizona legislature.^[35]
2002	cryonics	social		Frozen Dead Guy Days festival	After media turmoil from Trygve Bauge having brought his cryopreserved grandfather to the town of Nederland, Colorado, some people take this opportunity to create an annual Frozen Dead Guy Days festival which would feature coffin races, snow sculptures, and many other activities. Many cryonicists insist that dry ice is not cold enough for long-term cryopreservation and that the Nederland festival is negative publicity for cryonics.^[35]
2002 summer	cryonics	technological adoption	intermediate storage temperature	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	An Alcor neuropatient receives an excellent uniform perfusion, allowing them to reach the lowest temperature without fracturing ever recorded to date, −128 °C. Cryobiologist consultants would evaluate that this may be the best cryopreservation to date. The patient is transferred to the CryoStar freezer for continued slow cooling and annealing for fracture avoidance. However, the patient would be moved to liquid nitrogen in July 2003 as the maneuver wouldn't be successful. In December, another patient, A-1034, would be also placed into the CryoStar to accommodate the family's preference for this type of storage, and later transferred in a newly validated neuropod in April 2006.^[40]
2002-12-13	cryonics	writing	newsletter	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	The first issue of Alcor News, an online newsletter, is distributed.^[142]
2003	cryonics		procedure	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	There is continued work to create a new patient care bay, operating room, and laboratory area. A truck is purchased for conversion as an ambulance that would be large enough to permit surgical procedures. Alcor makes radical changes to its medications to conform with results of resuscitation research. The research upon which this change in the stabilization medication protocol is based was conducted by Darwin, et al., at 21st Century Medicine from 1995 to 1998. This research was successful in recovering dogs from 16 minutes of normothermic ischemia with 75% of the animals showing no defects in mentation and memory. This research was never published, but a video presentation was made.^[143]
2003-06	cryonics	technological adoption	intermediate storage temperature	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Brian Wowk, Mike Iarocci, and Stephen Valentine present new designs for intermediate temperature storage systems to the Alcor board of directors. Alcor acquires an experimental single-patient "neuropod" intermediate temperature storage system developed by Brian Wowk at 21CM.^[40]
2003-08	cryobiology	R&D	intermediate storage temperature	Carnegie Mellon University	Carnegie Mellon University receives a $1.3 million grant from the U.S. government to study fracturing during vitrification of tissue for medical applications, which would considerably advance the field.^[40]
2003-10	cryonics	R&D	intermediate storage temperature	21st Century Medicine	21st Century Medicine, Inc., constructs a prototype dewar for storage at intermediate temperature in which most of the volume of the dewar is converted into a uniform-temperature storage space kept cold by liquid nitrogen.^[40]
2004	cryobiology	science	vitrification	Fahy, et al.	Fahy, et al., make a major advance in understanding the nature of vitrification cryoprotectant toxicity, and significant advances in moderating it. Fahy, et al., develop several highly stable vitrification solutions using synthetic ice blockers which also have extremely low toxicity. It is possible to perfuse kidneys with 9+ molar vitrification solution (~60%) without loss of viability.^[144]
2004	cryonics	legal		Cryonics Institute	As a result of media coverage of Ted Williams's cryopreservation, even though the Cryonics Institute was not involved in that case, the State of Michigan places the organization under a "Cease and Desist" order for six months, ultimately classifying and regulating the Cryonics Institute as a cemetery in 2004. In the spirit of de-regulation, the new Republican Michigan government would remove the cemetery designation for CI in 2012.^[35]
2004-08	cryonics	technological adoption	vitrification	Cryonics Institute	The Cryonics Institute uses a cryoprotectant, CI-VM-1, for the first time. The dog of a CI member is the patient of the experimental perfusion. The mixture was developed by CI staff cryobiologist Yuri Pichugin.^[22]
2004-10-23	cryonics	technological adoption	remote stabilization	Suspended Animation, Inc	Suspended Animation, Inc performs a field cryoprotection with glycerol for the American Cryonics Society before transporting the patient on dry ice to the Cryonics Institute for long-term care.^[119]
2005	cryonics	science	paper		Cryonics is discussed in a major medical journal for the first time. It addresses the definition of death in the intensive care unit context.^[145]
2005	cryonics	organisation	founding	OregonCryo	Oregon Cryonics is established as a Non Profit Mutual Benefit corporation.^[146]
2005-06				KrioRus	KrioRus is founded by 8 Russian cryonicists, and 4 of them serve as Directors – Danila Medvedev, Valerija Pride, Igor Artyuhov, and Alexey Potapov.
2005 (mid)	cryonics	organisation	founding	Neural Archives Foundation	The Neural Archives Foundation is conceived. The organisation offers brain preservation services. In 2008 it would be incorporated.^[147]
2005-08	cryonics	technological adoptoin	vitrification	Cryonics Institute	CI's 69th patient is CI's first patient to be vitrified. It receives a vitrification solution named CI-VM-1.^[22]
2005-10	cryonics	technological adoption	vitrification	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor starts using a vitrification solution called M22, a cryoprotectant licensed from 21st Century Medicine.^[148]^[149]
2006-04-01	cryobiology	science	vitrification	Pichugin, et al.	Pichugin, et al., demonstrate the conservation of both viability and excellent histological and ultrastructural preservation in the rabbit brain hippocampal brain slice subjected to vitrification as well as proving the vast superiority of vitrification over freezing in preserving viability and tissue architecture in rabbit brain slices.^[150]
2006-01	cryonics	technological adoption	intermediate storage temperature	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	An Alcor neuropatient cryopreserved with M22 vitrification solution sets a new record for lowest temperature reached without fracturing of −134 °C.^[40]
2008	cryonics	writing			A review of scientific justifications of cryonics is published.^[151]
2008	cryonics	organisation	founding	Advanced Neural Biosciences	Advanced Neural Biosciences, Inc., is founded by Aschwin de Wolf. The organisation mainly aims to improve brain preservations. The laboratory would receive funding from the Immortalist Society, the Life Extension Foundation, the Cryonics Institute, the Alcor Life Extension Foundation, as well as various individuals.^[152]^[153]
2008	cryonics	organisation	first	Neural Archives Foundation	Neural Archives Foundation preserves its first human patient.^[147]
2008-12-12	cryonics	popularisation		LessWrong	Robin Hanson, talking about Eliezer Yudkowsky and himself, writes We Agree: Get Froze. Eliezer Yudkowsky would go on writing various articles about cryonics, which would spawn a lot of interest in the topic by people in the LessWrong community – in 2013, 13% of "experienced" respondents to a LessWrong survey (that were part of the community for over two years and had over 1000 karma) reported being signed up for cryonics.^[154]
2009	cryonics	science			A vital mammalian organ is successfully vitrified, transplanted, and reused for the first time.^[155]
2009-05	brain preservation	organisation		Brain Preservation Foundation	The Brain Preservation Foundation is founded by Kenneth Hayworth and John Smart with the goal of furthering research in whole brain preservation.^[156]
2010	cryonics	organisation	standby	Cryonics Institute	The Cryonics Institute starts offering, through Suspended Animation, Inc, standby and transport options.^[157]
2010-05	cryobiology	technological development	cryoprotection	Wowk, et al.	Creation of first synthetic ice blockers and their application to organ and tissue preservation to radically increase the stability of vitrification solutions.^[158]
2010-05	brain preservation	organisation		Brain Preservation Foundation	Saar Wilf donates $100,000 to the Brain Preservation Foundation, which then launches its large and small mammal brain preservation prizes, which would be given to the first groups that could reliably preserve the synaptic structure of the brain.^[156]
2010-07	cryobiology	technological development	toxicity	Fahy, et al.	Fahy, et al., make significant advances in neutralizing cryoprotectant toxicity.^[159]
2011	cryonics	technological development	intermediate storage temperature	Wowk	Brian Wowk develops a passive, non-mechanical, “fail safe” system for intermediate temperature storage in order to reduce or eliminate fracturing in vitrified tissues, organs and patients.^[40]
2011	cryonics	quality assessment	scan	Alcor	Alcor initiates CT scanning of neuropatients after discovering that CT examination reveals regional differences in cryoprotectant concentration in the brain and other soft tissues of patients.^[160]^[161]
2011	cryonics			Cryonics Institute	Robert Ettinger is cryopreserved at the age of 92.^[35]^[162]
2011-01	cryonics	technological adoption	remote stabilization	Cryonics Institute	The Cryonics Institute ships its vitrification solution (CI-VM-1) to the United Kingdom so that European cryonics patients could be vitrified before shipping in dry ice to the United States.^[35]
2012	brain preservation	organisation		Brain Preservation Foundation	Shawn Mikula at the Winfred Denk lab in Germany uses uses plastic embedding to preserve mouse brains, and submits his results for the Small Mammal Brain Preservation Prize. But the preservation quality is not complete.^[156]
2012	brain preservation	organisation		Brain Preservation Foundation	Greg Fahy at 21st Century Medicine (21CM) uses cryobiological techniques to preserve mouse brains, and submits his results for the Small Mammal Brain Preservation Prize. The Brain Preservation Foundation deems the submitted micrographs as inadequate to win the prize because the extensive dehydration produced by M22 perfusions makes an examination of brain ultrastructure and of the connectome at the ultrastructural level impossible using existing FIB-SEM techniques.^[156]^[163]
2012	cryonics	technological research	remote stabilization	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Advanced Neural Biosciences collaborates with Alcor to validate Alcor’s proposed field cryoprotection protocol in the rat model. No ice formation is found after up to 48 hours of storing the brains at dry ice temperature prior to further cooling.^[119]
2012-03-22	cryonics			Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Fred Chamberlain III, a co-founder of Alcor, becomes the first patient to be demonstrably preserved free of ice formation as would observe from CT scans in 2018.
2013	cryobiology	science	vitrification	Fahy, et al.	Fahy, et al., demonstrate recovery of LTP memory electrophysiology for half millimeter thick hippocampal brain slices that had previously been vitrified and stored for weeks.^[164]
2013-05	cryonics	technological adoption	remote stabilization	Cryonics Institute	The wife of UK cryonicist Alan Sinclair receives a field cryoprotection before being shipped to the Cryonics Institute.^[35]
2014	cryonics	writing			68 scientists from relevant disciplines sign an open letter to legitimize cryonics and support the right to be cryopreserved.^[165]
2014	brain preservation	science		21st Century Medicine	Robert McIntyre from 21st Century Medicine wins the Small Mammal Prize from the Brain Preservation Foundation with a technique called vitrifixation, an Aldehyde Stabilized Cryopreservation (ASC). He combines research done by Greg Fahy and Shawn Mikula.^[156]
2014-05-06	cryonics	organisation		OregonCryo	OregonCryo preserves its first patient, a dog named Cupcake.^[166]
2014-07	cryonics	technological adoption	remote stabilization	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor starts implementing a plan to practice field cryoprotection for cases in Canada and Europe.^[35]^[119]
2015	cryonics	science			Memory retention in a cryopreserved and revived animal is demonstrated for the first time.^[167]
2015-12	brain preservation	technological development		21st Century Medicine	Perfect histological and ultrastructural preservation of an entire porcine brain in a nonviable state using aldehyde fixation combined with vitrification.^[168]^[169] In 2016, Robert McIntyre, Greg Fahy, and 21st Century Medicine would win the Large Mammal Prize from the Brain Preservation Foundation with this vitrifixation technique.^[170]
2015-03-13	brain preservation	technological adoption	fixation	OregonCryo	For the first time, a brain is preserved using fixation technology, by having her brain immersed in a fixative solution. The patient was Deborah Cheek, and she was preserved by OregonCryo.^[171] Immersion fixation is well established to be ineffective in halting autolysis (decomposition).^[172]^[173] This is documented in the peer-reviewed literature with the time to fixation of the immersed brain being on the order of 5-15 weeks.^[174] However, this procedure is very inexpensive – Oregon Cryonics charges 1000 USD – so this option is sometimes chosen with the hope that very advance technology might be able to recover some part of the brain.
2016	cryonics	organisation	founding	Osiris	Osiris Back to Life is founded by Dvir Derhy.^[175]
2016	brain preservation	organisation	founding	Nectome	Nectome is started by Robert McIntyre after having won the Brain Preservation Foundation's Large Mammal Prize. Nectome is a research organization developing biological preservation techniques to better preserve the physical traces of memory.^[176]
2016-03-24	cryonics	popularisation		Wait But Why	Tim Urban publishes "Why Cryonics Makes Sense" on his blog "Wait But Why". At the moment the artcile as published, 331,824 people were subscribed to receive new posts by email.^[177] Cryonicists almost unanimously aclaimed this post as the best introduction to cryonics.
2016-05-06	cryonics	organisation	training	OregonCryo	OregonCryo starts training its medical team with body donors.^[171]
2016-06-06	cryonics	risk management	economic stability	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	The Alcor Care Trust Supporting Organization (ACT) is created. The Patient Care Trust (PCT) continues in existence to receive initial funding from new cryopreservations, and to pay for ongoing costs for maintaining patients' cryopreservation. The ACT will make long term investments, continue maintaining the PCT, and possibly eventually fund resuscitation research. Both trusts have different board of directors that can check on each other.^[178]
2016-12-24	brain preservation	technological adoption	fixation	OregonCryo	For the first time, someone is preserved by being perfused with a fixation solution instead of simply being immersed in it. Fixative perfusion and brain removal for this patient is carried out by the individual's sons in cooperation with a local mortuary and a mobile pathology service. Oregon Cryonics (OC) is storing the brain.^[171]
2017-01 to 2017-08	cryonics	R&D		OregonCryo	OregonCryo trains and does R&D with 38 body donations.^[171]
42795	cryobiology	technological development	re-warming	Bischoff, et al.	Bischoff, et al., develop a novel technique of inductive heat re-warming using magnetic nanoparticles in the vasculature allowing for uniform re-warming of organs the size of rabbit kidneys at rates high enough to prevent devitrification of M-22 vitrification solution at a concentration compatible with kidney viability. The system is potentially applicable to larger organs, such as the human brain.^[179]^[180]
2018	cryonics	quality assessment	scan	Darwin	M. Darwin publishes “Preliminary Evaluation of Alcor Patient Cryogenic CT Scans” analyzing three of the four available Alcor neuropatient CT scans. Darwin concludes that it is highly likely that Alcor patient A-1002 was possibly the first human cryonics patient to achieve essentially ice free brain cryopreservation.^[181]
2018 winter	brain preservation	organisation		Nectome	Nectome participates in the startup accelerator Y Combinator.^[176]^[182]
2018-04-06	cryonics	organisation	founding	International Cryomedicine Experts	Alcor signs an agreement with the newly funded International Cryomedicine Experts, a for-profit organisation providing international cryonics standby, stabilization, and transport services.
2018-05-16	cryonics	risk management	economic stability	Alcor Life Extension Foundation	Alcor announces the creation of a sibling organisation called the Alcor Endowment Trust Supporting Organization. Its goal is to maintain funds that are invested, and which support Alcor's general operation and research through giving a fraction of the interests made.^[183]
2018-06-17	cryonics	organisation		Yinfeng Life Science Research Institute	The Yinfeng Life Science Research Institute in Jinan, Shandong, China cryopreserves their first patient.^[184] A documentary documents the procedure: China Whole Body Cryopreservation.
2018-10-30	cryonics	legal		Norman Hardy	For the first time, a cryonics patient uses the Death With Dignity legislation. The patient's name is Norman Hardy.^[185]
2018-11	cryonics	social		Society for Cryobiology	The Society for Cryobiology releases a position statement clarifying their stance in regards to cryonics, saying they respect people's freedom in chosing this option, but that the procedure is speculative, and that the scientific knowledge necessary to sucessfully cryopreserve someone doesn't currently exist.^{[note 2]}^[186]

More information

Some events that weren't important enough to make it into this timeline are noted in the Google Sheet Timeline of cryonics - not significant enough.

An exhaustive list of publicly known preserved patients (including a yet incomplete evaluation of the quality of their preservation) can be found in the Google Sheet List of cryonics patients.

A detailed account of membership statistics of cryonics organizations has been compiled in the Google Sheet Cryonic members statistics (although not all organizations share all or any of their membership statistics). A detailed account of patient statistics has been compiled in the Google Sheet Cryonic patients statistics. The membership and patient statistics should be updated at the beginning of every year, after the publication of the statistics from last year.

All those external lists are editable, and everyone is encouraged to contribute to them. They are all available in the Google Folder Cryonics Statistics. Mati Roy created and is maintaining all of those Google Sheets. Most of the membership statistics were entered by someone anonymous.

A list of papers tracking the development of cryonics is tracked in the GitHub repository Scientific progress towards cryonics, and is currently maintained by Roman.

The graphs from the Trends section can be updated whenever the relevant external lists are.

Meta information on the timeline

The initial version of the timeline was written by Mati Roy.

Timeline update strategy

As of 2019, Mati Roy is currently roughly staying up-to-date with new major cryonics events, and should, therefore, update the timeline roughly continuously, at least in the near future. The timeline on this wiki is manually synced with the Google Sheet Timeline of cryonics as the main author, Mati Roy, finds it easier to maintain it there. So feel free to edit either, and it will then get manually synced.

If you're interested in helping in any way, feel free to take the initiative. If you have any questions, want guidance or feedback, or want to discuss ways to improve this timeline, let me know on the TimelinesWiki Reddit cryonics post (or if you prefer private conversations, reach out to contact@matiroy.com).

Also see the section "More information" for other related information that can be updated or otherwise improved.

Tracking preservation quality

An interesting addition that could be done to this page is to measure the progress of the quality of cryonics cases. If you're interested in contributing to this project, you can fill the columns related to the quality of the cryopreservation in the Google Sheet List of cryonics patients by going through some of the cases published by the cryonics organizations; see: Alcor (human cases), the Cryonics Institute (human cases), OregonCryo (human cases), OregonCryo (non-human cases), KrioRus (human cases), KrioRus (non-human cases).

While ways to quantify the quality of preservations have been proposed, notably by OregonCryo, there are currently no systematic analyses done about the quality of current preservations by any of the cryonics providers.

As for the improvements done in laboratory conditions, progress is better tracked by noting various discrete technological development as done in the full timeline above.

While having a graph tracking the "biggest mass of a successfully cryopreserved tissue/organ/organism by year, kg" is appealing, it doesn't meaningfully track progress done on brain preservations which pose a series of challenges not present in smaller volumes of tissue as noted by Mike Darwin. This can still be found on the Discussion page.

Improving types of events

The types and subtypes of events in the timelines could be more exhaustive. The science and R&D types could have subtypes for different field of research.

Notes and references

Notes

↑ Trans Time has also existed for a long time, but they haven't always been offering cryonics services, and only have 3 patients in storage. The American Cryonics Society has also existed for a long time, but they contract with other cryonics providers.
↑ "The Society recognizes and respects the freedom of individuals to hold and express their own opinions and to act, within lawful limits, according to their beliefs. Preferences regarding disposition of postmortem human bodies or brains are clearly a matter of personal choice and, therefore, inappropriate subjects of Society policy. The Society does, however, take the position that the knowledge necessary for the revival of live or dead whole mammals following cryopreservation does not currently exist and can come only from conscientious and patient research in cryobiology and medicine. In short, the act of preserving a body, head or brain after clinical death and storing it indefinitely on the chance that some future generation may restore it to life is an act of speculation or hope, not science, and as such is outside the purview of the Society for Cryobiology."

References

↑ "Oregon Cryonics - Suspended Animation". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-24.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 "Suspension Failures - Lessons from the Early Days". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
↑ Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban; Roser, Max (2019-01-23). "World Population Growth". Our World in Data.
↑ "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth? – Population Reference Bureau". Retrieved 2019-01-23.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 "Alcor Cases". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Case Reports | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
↑ "Alcor: Membership Statistics". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
↑ "Member Statistics | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-02-15.
↑ "Crypreservation Funding and Inflation". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
↑ "Alcor: Membership Info - How to Join". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
↑ "Funding for Cryostasis | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
↑ "Oregon Cryonics - Services". oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
↑ "Human cryopreservation | KrioRus". kriorus.ru. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
↑ "Page:Works of the Late Doctor Benjamin Franklin (1793).djvu/233 - Wikisource, the free online library". en.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
↑ Tilden, William Augustus (2009). A Short History of the Progress of Scientific Chemistry in Our Own Times. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 249. ISBN 1-103-35842-1.
↑ "ЏредвидениЯ ЏорфириЯ Ѓахметьева - "антаст". www.fandom.ru. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 Regis, Ed (1991). Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition: Science Slightly Over The Edge. Westview Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 0-201-56751-2.
↑ "Robert Ettinger". Cryonics Institute. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved May 24, 2009.
↑ Safar, P. (June 2001). "Vladimir A. Negovsky the father of 'reanimatology'". Resuscitation. 49 (3): 223–229. ISSN 0300-9572. PMID 11723996.
↑ J., Luyet, B. (1940). Life and death at low temperatures. Biodynamica. OCLC 716713726.
↑ Cooper, S M; Dawber, R P R (April 2001). "The history of cryosurgery". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 94 (4): 196–201. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1281398. PMID 11317629.
↑ ^22.0 ^22.1 ^22.2 "History/Timeline | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
↑ POLGE, C. (June 1951). "Functional Survival of Fowl Spermatozoa after Freezing at −79° C.". Nature. 167 (4258): 949–950. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/167949b0.
↑ "Title: The Penultimate Trump". www.isfdb.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
↑ Gonzales, F.; Luyet, B. (May 1950). "Resumption of heart-beat in chick embryo frozen in liquid nitrogen". Biodynamica. 7 (126-128): 1–5. ISSN 0006-3010. PMID 15426631.
↑ Parkes, A. S.; Lovelock, J. E.; Smith, A. U. (June 1954). "Resuscitation of Hamsters after Supercooling or Partial Crystallization at Body Temperatures Below 0° C.". Nature. 173 (4415): 1136–1137. ISSN 1476-4687. doi:10.1038/1731136a0.
↑ LOVELOCK, J. E.; BISHOP, M. W. H. (May 1959). "Prevention of Freezing Damage to Living Cells by Dimethyl Sulphoxide". Nature. 183 (4672): 1394–1395. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/1831394a0.
↑ Ursula, Smith, Audrey. Biological effects of freezing and supercooling. OCLC 1027485685.
↑ Negovsky, Vladimir (1962). Resuscitation and Artificial Hypothermia (USSR). New York: Consultants Bureau.
↑ Safar, Peter (2001-06). "Vladimir A. Negovsky the father of 'reanimatology'". Resuscitation. 49 (3): 223–229. ISSN 0300-9572. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(01)00356-2. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 ^31.3 ^31.4 Perry, Michael (August 1992). "Unity and Disunity in Cryonics". Cryonics. 13 (145): 5.
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 "Ev Cooper". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
↑ ^33.0 ^33.1 "Ev Cooper's cryonics classic published online – Biostasis". Retrieved 2019-01-21.
↑ ^34.0 ^34.1 Perry, Mike (2011-01-19). "The First Cryonics Newsletter". Evidence Based Cryonics. Archived from the original on 2016-11-26.
↑ ^35.00 ^35.01 ^35.02 ^35.03 ^35.04 ^35.05 ^35.06 ^35.07 ^35.08 ^35.09 ^35.10 ^35.11 ^35.12 ^35.13 ^35.14 ^35.15 ^35.16 ^35.17 ^35.18 ^35.19 ^35.20 ^35.21 ^35.22 ^35.23 ^35.24 "A HISTORY OF CRYONICS". www.benbest.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Hattenstone, Simon (2009-11-07). "The Dad's Army of British cryonics". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ FARRANT, J. (March 1965). "Mechanism of Cell Damage During Freezing and Thawing and its Prevention". Nature. 205 (4978): 1284–1287. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/2051284a0.
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 ^38.3 ^38.4 "The First Cryonic Suspension". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^39.0 ^39.1 "Search Summary State of Michigan Corporations Division". cofs.lara.state.mi.us. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^40.00 ^40.01 ^40.02 ^40.03 ^40.04 ^40.05 ^40.06 ^40.07 ^40.08 ^40.09 ^40.10 ^40.11 ^40.12 ^40.13 ^40.14 "Systems for Intermediate Temperature Storage for Fracture Reduction and Avoidance". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Kroener, C.; Luyet, B. (1966). "Formation of cracks during the vitrification of glycerol solutions and disappearance of the cracks during rewarming". Biodynamica. 10: 47–52.
↑ F. Nelson, Robert; Stanley, Sandra (1968). We Froze the First Man. New York: Dell. pp. 17–20.
↑ Kraver, Ted (March 1989). "Notes on the First Human Freezing". Cryonics: 11–21.
↑ Adachi, C.; Kito, K.; Suda, I. (1966-10-15). "Viability of Long Term Frozen Cat Brain In Vitro". Nature. 212 (5059): 268–270. ISSN 1476-4687. doi:10.1038/212268a0.
↑ Kemp, E.; Clark, P. B.; Anderson, C. K.; Laursen, T.; Parsons, F. M. (1968). "Low temperature preservation of mammalian kidneys". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology. 2 (3): 183–190. ISSN 0036-5599. PMID 4893380.
↑ Nelson, Robert F., (1968). We froze the first man. [Dell Pub. Co.] OCLC 434744.
↑ Ames, A.; Wright, R. L.; Kowada, M.; Thurston, J. M.; Majno, G. (Feb 1968). "Cerebral ischemia. II. The no-reflow phenomenon.". The American Journal of Pathology. 52 (2): 437–453. ISSN 0002-9440. PMC 2013326. PMID 5635861.
↑ "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "American Cryonics Society - Human Cryopreservation Services for the 21st Century". www.americancryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ White, J. B. (1969-04-11). "Viral Induced Repair of Damaged Neurons with Preservation of Long-Term Information Content," (PDF). Second Annual Cryonics Conference. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
↑ Hossmann, K. -A.; Sato, K. (1970). "The effect of ischemia on sensorimotor cortex of cat". Zeitschrift für Neurologie. 198 (1): 33–45. ISSN 0340-5354. doi:10.1007/bf00316134.
↑ "Informational Message". appext20.dos.ny.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Mazur, P. (1970-05-22). "Cryobiology: the freezing of biological systems". Science (New York, N.Y.). 168 (3934): 939–949. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 5462399.
↑ Hossmann, K.-A.; Lechtape-Grüter, H. (1971). "Blood Flow and Recovery of the Cat Brain after Complete Ischemia for 1 Hour". European Neurology. 6 (1-6): 318–322. ISSN 0014-3022. doi:10.1159/000114515.
↑ Martin, George M. (1971). "On Immortality: An Interim Solution". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 14 (2): 339–340. ISSN 1529-8795. doi:10.1353/pbm.1971.0015.
↑ Chamberlain, FR; Chamberlain, LL (1972). "Instructions for the Induction of Solid State Hypothermia". Manrise Corporation. La Canada, CA.
↑ Quaife, A. (1972). "Recommended modification to Collins' solution for use as the base perfusate for inducing SSH". Manrise Technical Review. 2: 3–9.
↑ "History of cryonics - H+Pedia". hpluspedia.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^60.0 ^60.1 ^60.2 ^60.3 Best, Ben (2008-11-08). "A History of Cryonics" (PDF). Cryonics Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-28.
↑ Klebanoff, G.; Hollander, D.; Cosimi, A. B.; Stanford, W.; Kemmerer, W. T. (January 1972). "Asanguineous hypothermic total body perfusion (TBW) in the treatment of stage IV hepatic coma". The Journal of Surgical Research. 12 (1): 1–7. ISSN 0022-4804. PMID 5058015.
↑ "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ LaRossa, D.; Hamilton, R.; Ketterer, F.; Lehr, H. B. (August 1973). "Preservation of structure and function in canine small intestinal autografts after freezing". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 52 (2): 174–177. ISSN 0032-1052. PMID 4722678.
↑ "Journal of Surgical Research". www.journalofsurgicalresearch.com. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(73)90033-4. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Federowicz, MD (1973). "Perfusion and freezing of a 60-year-old woman" (PDF). Manrise Technical Review. 3(1): 9–32. Retrieved 2010-08-31.
↑ Suda, Isamu; Kito, Kyoko; Adachi, Chizuko (1974-04-26). "Bioelectric discharges of isolated cat brain after revival from years of frozen storage". Brain Research. 70 (3): 527–531. ISSN 0006-8993. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(74)90263-7.
↑ Haff, R. C.; Klebanoff, G.; Brown, B. G.; Koreski, W. R. (July 1975). "Asanguineous hypothermic perfusion as a means of total organism preservation". The Journal of Surgical Research. 19 (1): 13–19. ISSN 0022-4804. PMID 1142760.
↑ "Search Summary State of Michigan Corporations Division". cofs.lara.state.mi.us. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Chamberlain, FRC; Chamberlain, LLC (July 16–17, 1976). "Alcor patient A-1001 Case Notes". Alcor Foundation. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
↑ "The Newsletter of The Institute For Advanced Biological Studies, Inc.". Cryonics. 1981-03-08.
↑ "Report on the Lake Tahoe Life Extension Festival". Cryonics (36): 7–13. July 1983.
↑ Darwin, MG (July 1977). "The anabolocyte: a biological approach to repairing cryoinjury". Life Extension Magazine: A Journal of the Life Extension Sciences. 1.
↑ "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Leaf, JD (March–April 1979). "Cryonic Suspension of Sam Berkowitz,". Long Life Magazine: 30–35. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
↑ Darwin, M. (1979). "Glycerol perfusion and extended storage of the canine central nervous system". Institute for Advanced Biological Studies, Inc. Indpls, IN.
↑ Leaf, JD; Federowicz, Hixon; H. (1985). "Case report: two consecutive suspensions, a comparative study in experimental human suspended animation". Cryonics. 6(11): 13–38.
↑ Drexler, K. Eric (1981-09-01). "Molecular engineering: An approach to the development of general capabilities for molecular manipulation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 78 (9): 5275–5278. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 16593078. doi:10.1073/pnas.78.9.5275.
↑ "Cryonics Magazine". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ Fahy, G. M.; Hirsch, A. (1982), "Prospects for organ preservation by vitrification", Organ Preservation, Springer Netherlands, pp. 399–404, ISBN 9789401162692, retrieved 2019-02-01
↑ Fahy, Gregory M.; Lilley, Terence H.; Linsdell, Helen; Douglas, Mary St.John; Meryman, Harold T. (June 1990). "Cryoprotectant toxicity and cryoprotectant toxicity reduction: In search of molecular mechanisms". Cryobiology. 27 (3): 247–268. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(90)90025-y.
↑ "Paul Crowley's Blog - Society for Cryobiology statements on cryonics". blog.ciphergoth.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Cold War: The Conflict Between Cryonicists and Cryobiologists". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Darwin, M; Leaf, JD. "Cryoprotective perfusion and freezing of the ischemic and nonischemic cat".
↑ "CRYONICS: Freezing Damage (Darwin) Part 2". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ "CRYONICS: Freezing Damage (Darwin) Part 3". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ "CRYONICS: Freezing Damage (Darwin) Part 4". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ Federowicz, MG; Leaf, JD (January 1983). "Tahoe Research Proposals". Cryonics (30): 14.
↑ chronopause. "THE EFFECTS OF CRYOPRESERVATION ON THE CAT, Part 1". CHRONOSPHERE. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ chronopause. "THE EFFECTS OF CRYOPRESERVATION ON THE CAT, Part 2". CHRONOSPHERE. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ chronopause. "THE EFFECTS OF CRYOPRESERVATION ON THE CAT, Part 3". CHRONOSPHERE. Retrieved 2019-02-01.
↑ "Report on the Lake Tahoe Life Extension Festival". Cryonics (36): 7–13. July 1983.
↑ Federowicz, M.; Hixon, H.; Leaf, J. (1984). "Post-mortem examination of three cryonic suspension patients". Cryonics. 5 (9): 16–28. Retrieved 2010-08-31.
↑ Leaf, JD; Darwin, M.; Hixon, H. "A mannitol-based perfusate for reversible 5-hour asanguineous ultraprofound hypothermia in canines (Report on work performed from 1984-87)". 1986. Retrieved 2010-08-31.
↑ Fahy, G. M.; MacFarlane, D. R.; Angell, C. A.; Meryman, H. T. (1984-08-01). "Vitrification as an approach to cryopreservation". Cryobiology. 21 (4): 407–426. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(84)90079-8.
↑ Federowicz, M.; Hixon, H.; Leaf, J. (1984). "Postmortem Examination of Three Cryonic Suspension Patients". Cryonics: 16–28.
↑ Federowicz, MG; Leaf, JD; Hixon, H. (1986). "Case report: neuropreservation of Alcor patient A-1068 (1 of 2)". Cryonics. 7 (2): 17–32.
↑ Federowicz, MG; Leaf, JD; Hixon, H. (1986). "Case report: neuropreservation of Alcor patient A-1068 (2 of 2)". Cryonics. 7 (3): 15–29.
↑ Darwin, M. (18 January 1997). "Securing anesthesia in the human cryopreservation patient". CryoNet.
↑ Rall, W. F.; Fahy, G. M. (14 Feb 1985). "Ice-free cryopreservation of mouse embryos at -196 degrees C by vitrification". Nature. 313 (6003): 573–575. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 3969158.
↑ "Yahoo! Groups". groups.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Darwin, MG (1986). "Transport Protocol for Cryonic suspension of Humans". Alcor Life Extension Foundation. Fullerton, CA.
↑ Fahy, G. M. (1986). "Vitrification: a new approach to organ cryopreservation". Progress in Clinical and Biological Research. 224: 305–335. ISSN 0361-7742. PMID 3540994.
↑ K. Eric, Drexler (1986). Engines of creation. Garden City, N.Y: Anchor Press/Doubleday. ISBN 0385199724.
↑ Haneda, Kiyoshi; Thomas, Robert; Sands, Murray P.; Breazeale, Donald G.; Dillard, David H. (1986-12-01). "Whole body protection during three hours of total circulatory arrest: An experimental study". Cryobiology. 23 (6): 483–494. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(86)90057-X.
↑ Drexler, K. Eric (1986). "9". Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology.
↑ "Cryonics Society of Canada -- The Story of the Organization and Its People". www.cryocdn.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Leaf, Jerry D; Hixon, Hugh; Hugh, Mike (1987). "Development of a mobile advanced life support system for human biostasis operations". Cryonics. 8 (3): 23–40.
↑ Darwin, Michael G.; Leaf, Jerry D.; Hixon, Hugh L. "Cryonic suspension case report: A-1133" (PDF). Alcor Life Extension Foundation.
↑ Darwin, M. "Cryonic suspension case report: A-1133" (PDF).
↑ "administrivia". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "California Appellate Court Decision on Legality of Cryonics". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Pizer, David (1989). "Alcor outstanding support award nominee". Cryonics. 17 (7): 10.
↑ Darwin, M. (1989). "A major advance in suspension patient support". Cryonics. 10 (8): 7–14. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
↑ Wowk, B.; Darwin, M. (1990). "Cryonics: Reaching for Tomorrow," (PDF). Alcor Life Extension Foundation. Riverside, CA. ISBN 1880209004. Retrieved 2010-10-09.
↑ Darwin, M. (1991). "Reducing ischemic damage in cryonic suspension patients by premedication". Cryonics. 12: 13–15. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
↑ Darwin, M. (1990). "Cardiopulmonary support: Evaluation and intervention". Cryonics. 11 (4): 26–31. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
↑ "Donaldson v. Van de Kamp (Abstract)". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^118.0 ^118.1 Fahy, Gregory M.; Saur, Joseph; Williams, Robert J. (October 1990). "Physical problems with the vitrification of large biological systems". Cryobiology. 27 (5): 492–510. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(90)90038-6.
↑ ^119.0 ^119.1 ^119.2 ^119.3 "Field Cryoprotection". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Darwin, MG. "Cryopreservation case report: Arlene Francis Fried, A-1049".
↑ Ruggera, P. S.; Fahy, G. M. (October 1990). "Rapid and uniform electromagnetic heating of aqueous cryoprotectant solutions from cryogenic temperatures". Cryobiology. 27 (5): 465–478. ISSN 0011-2240. PMID 2249450.
↑ Merkle, R. C. (1992-09-01). "The technical feasibility of cryonics". Medical Hypotheses. 39 (1): 6–16. ISSN 0306-9877. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(92)90133-W.
↑ Henson, HK. "The Transport of Patient A-1312S".
↑ "21st Century Medicine --Expanding the Boundaries of Preservation Science". www.21cm.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^125.0 ^125.1 "CryoCare Foundation - Cryonics Services". www.cryocare.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Hixon, H. (1995). "Exploring Cracking Phenomena" (PDF). Cryonics: 27–32.
↑ "A Brief History of Alcor Research". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Jones, Tanya L. (July 1995). "Alcor Member Anatole Epstein Suspended" (PDF). Cryonics Magazine. 16 (3): 8–11.
↑ Darwin, M. "Cryopreservation of James Gallagher, CryoCare patient #C-2150".
↑ Darwin, M.; Russell, S.; Wakfer, P.; Wood, L.; Wood, C. (1995-05-31). "Effect of Human Cryopreservation Protocol on the Ultrastucture of the Canine Brain". BioPreservation, Inc.
↑ Platt, C. (July 1995). "New Brain Study Shows Reduced Tissue Damage". CryoCare Report.
↑ EP1117455A1, Michael Gregory Darwin; Steven Bradley Harris & Sandra Renee Russell, "Mixed-mode liquid ventilation gas and heat exchange", assigned to Critical Care Research Inc
↑ Harris, S. B.; Darwin, M. G.; Russell, S. R.; O'Farrell, J. M.; Fletcher, M.; Wowk, B. (August 2001). "Rapid (0.5 degrees C/min) minimally invasive induction of hypothermia using cold perfluorochemical lung lavage in dogs". Resuscitation. 50 (2): 189–204. ISSN 0300-9572. PMID 11719148.
↑ Taylor, Michael J.; Brockbank, Kelvin G. M.; Lightfoot, Fred; Khirabadi, Bijan S.; Song, Ying C. (March 2000). "Vitreous cryopreservation maintains the function of vascular grafts". Nature Biotechnology. 18 (3): 296–299. ISSN 1546-1696. doi:10.1038/73737.
↑ "BioTransport Purchases CryoStar Freezer" (PDF). Cryonics: 11. 2000.
↑ "Steven B. Harris | Canine respiratory and hypothermia physiology lab". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Kheirabadi, B. S.; Fahy, G. M. (2000-07-15). "Permanent life support by kidneys perfused with a vitrifiable (7.5 molar) cryoprotectant solution". Transplantation. 70 (1): 51–57. ISSN 0041-1337. PMID 10919575.
↑ "Scientists' Cryonics FAQ". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "New Cryopreservation technology.". Alcor News. October 2005.
↑ "Surgery". www.surgjournal.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Alcor2018-2
↑ "Alcor News Archive". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Alcor: About Alcor". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Fahy, GM; Wowk, B; Wu, J; Paynter, S (2004). "Improved vitrification solutions based on the predictability of vitrification solution toxicity". Cryobiology. 48 (1): 22–35.
↑ Whetstine, Leslie; Streat, Stephen; Darwin, Mike; Crippen, David (2005-10-31). "Pro/con ethics debate: When is dead really dead?". Critical Care. 9 (6): 538. ISSN 1364-8535. doi:10.1186/cc3894.
↑ "Oregon Cryonics - About OC". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^147.0 ^147.1 "NAF". neuralarchivesfoundation.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "New Cryopreservation Technology". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "M22 Implementation". Alcor News Bulletin (44).
↑ Pichugin, Yuri; Fahy, Gregory M.; Morin, Robert (2006-04-01). "Cryopreservation of rat hippocampal slices by vitrification". Cryobiology. 52 (2): 228–240. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2005.11.006.
↑ Best, Benjamin P. (2008-04-28). "Scientific Justification of Cryonics Practice". Rejuvenation Research. 11 (2): 493–503. ISSN 1549-1684. PMC 4733321. PMID 18321197. doi:10.1089/rej.2008.0661.
↑ "Advanced Neural Biosciences". Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ de Wol, Aschwin; Phaedra, Chana. "Human Cryopreservation Research at Advanced Neural Biosciences". Immortalist Society. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Alexander, Scott. "Rationalists Are Less Credulous But Better At Taking Ideas Seriously". www.lesswrong.com. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
↑ Fahy, Gregory M.; Wowk, Brian; Pagotan, Roberto; Chang, Alice; Phan, John; Thomson, Bruce; Phan, Laura (July 2009). "Physical and biological aspects of renal vitrification". Organogenesis. 5 (3): 167–175. ISSN 1547-6278. doi:10.4161/org.5.3.9974.
↑ ^156.0 ^156.1 ^156.2 ^156.3 ^156.4 "Small Mammal BPF Prize Winning Announcement – The Brain Preservation Foundation". Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Resources | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Wowk, B.; Leitl, E.; Rasch, C. M.; Mesbah-Karimi, N.; Harris, S. B.; Fahy, G. M. (May 2000). "Vitrification enhancement by synthetic ice blocking agents". Cryobiology. 40 (3): 228–236. ISSN 0011-2240. PMID 10860622. doi:10.1006/cryo.2000.2243.
↑ Fahy, Gregory M. (July 2010). "Cryoprotectant toxicity neutralization". Cryobiology. 60 (3 Suppl): S45–53. ISSN 1090-2392. PMID 19501081. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2009.05.005.
↑ Sullivan, Mathew (August 2013). "Alcor A-1088 Case Report" (PDF). Alcor.
↑ Drake, Aaron (January 2012). "Alcor A-1546 Case Report" (PDF). Alcor.
↑ Brown, Emma (2011-06-24). "Robert Ettinger, founder of the cryonics movement, dies at 92". Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "21CM Cryopreservation Eval Page – The Brain Preservation Foundation". Retrieved 2019-02-03.
↑ Fahy, Gregory M.; Guan, Na; de Graaf, Inge A. M.; Tan, Yuansheng; Griffin, Lenetta; Groothuis, Geny M. M. (2012-10-30). "Cryopreservation of precision-cut tissue slices". Xenobiotica. 43 (1): 113–132. ISSN 0049-8254. doi:10.3109/00498254.2012.728300.
↑ "Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics – Biostasis". Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Oregon Cryonics - Pet Case Reports". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Vita-More, Natasha; Barranco, Daniel (October 2015). "Persistence of Long-Term Memory in Vitrified and Revived Caenorhabditis elegans". Rejuvenation Research. 18 (5): 458–463. ISSN 1549-1684. PMC 4620520. PMID 25867710. doi:10.1089/rej.2014.1636.
↑ McIntyre, Robert L.; Fahy, Gregory M. (1 December 2015). "Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation". Cryobiology. 71 (3): 448–458. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2015.09.003.
↑ McIntyre, Robert L.; Fahy, Gregory M. (December 2015). "Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation". Cryobiology. 71 (3): 448–458. ISSN 1090-2392. PMID 26408851. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2015.09.003.
↑ "Large Mammal BPF Prize Winning Announcement – The Brain Preservation Foundation". Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^171.0 ^171.1 ^171.2 ^171.3 "Oregon Cryonics - Cases". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Kanawaku, Yoshimasa; Someya, Satoka; Kobayashi, Tomoya; Hirakawa, Keiko; Shiotani, Seiji; Fukunaga, Tatsushige; Ohno, Youkichi; Kawakami, Saki; Kanetake, Jun (July 2014). "High-resolution 3D-MRI of postmortem brain specimens fixed by formalin and gadoteridol". Legal Medicine. 16 (4): 218–221. ISSN 1344-6223. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2014.03.003.
↑ Shatil, Anwar S.; Uddin, Md Nasir; Matsuda, Kant M.; Figley, Chase R. (20 February 2018). "Quantitative Ex Vivo MRI Changes due to Progressive Formalin Fixation in Whole Human Brain Specimens: Longitudinal Characterization of Diffusion, Relaxometry, and Myelin Water Fraction Measurements at 3T". Frontiers in Medicine. 5. ISSN 2296-858X. PMC 5826187. PMID 29515998. doi:10.3389/fmed.2018.00031.
↑ Yong-Hing, Charlotte J.; Obenaus, Andre; Stryker, Rodrick; Tong, Karen; Sarty, Gordon E. (August 2005). "Magnetic resonance imaging and mathematical modeling of progressive formalin fixation of the human brain". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 54 (2): 324–332. ISSN 0740-3194. PMID 16032673. doi:10.1002/mrm.20578.
↑ "Cryogenics Human & Pet Freezing for Preservation and Revival". Osiris | Back to Life. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ ^176.0 ^176.1 "Nectome". nectome.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Why Cryonics Makes Sense - Wait But Why". web.archive.org. 2016-03-25. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
↑ "Alcor Care Trust Supporting Organization". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ Manuchehrabadi, Navid; Gao, Zhe; Zhang, Jinjin; Ring, Hattie L.; Shao, Qi; Liu, Feng; McDermott, Michael; Fok, Alex; Rabin, Yoed (1 March 2017). "Improved tissue cryopreservation using inductive heating of magnetic nanoparticles". Science Translational Medicine. 9 (379). ISSN 1946-6242. PMC 5470364. PMID 28251904. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aah4586.
↑ "Organ cryopreservation is becoming a reality – but bringing whole bodies back still 100 years away". International Business Times UK. 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
↑ Darwin, Michael. "Preliminary Evaluation of Alcor Patient Cryogenic CT Scans".
↑ Combinator, Y. "10 Companies From YC Winter 2018". Y Combinator. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ admin (2018-05-16). "The Alcor Endowment Trust Supporting Organization". Alcor News. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ 李松. "Chinese woman's body frozen in advanced procedure - Chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2019-02-04.
↑ "Alcor Case Summary: A-1990". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.
↑ "Society for Cryobiology Position Statement - Cryonics" (PDF). Society for Cryobiology. November 2018. Retrieved 2019-01-23.

[9] Trans Time has also existed for a long time, but they haven't always been offering cryonics services, and only have 3 patients in storage. The American Cryonics Society has also existed for a long time, but they contract with other cryonics providers.

[187] "The Society recognizes and respects the freedom of individuals to hold and express their own opinions and to act, within lawful limits, according to their beliefs. Preferences regarding disposition of postmortem human bodies or brains are clearly a matter of personal choice and, therefore, inappropriate subjects of Society policy. The Society does, however, take the position that the knowledge necessary for the revival of live or dead whole mammals following cryopreservation does not currently exist and can come only from conscientious and patient research in cryobiology and medicine. In short, the act of preserving a body, head or brain after clinical death and storing it indefinitely on the chance that some future generation may restore it to life is an act of speculation or hope, not science, and as such is outside the purview of the Society for Cryobiology."

[1] "Oregon Cryonics - Suspended Animation". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-24.

[SuspensionFailures-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 "Suspension Failures - Lessons from the Early Days". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.

[3] Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban; Roser, Max (2019-01-23). "World Population Growth". Our World in Data.

[4] "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth? – Population Reference Bureau". Retrieved 2019-01-23.

[AlcorCase-5] 5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 "Alcor Cases". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[6] "Case Reports | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-23.

[7] "Alcor: Membership Statistics". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-23.

[8] "Member Statistics | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-02-15.

[10] "Crypreservation Funding and Inflation". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-31.

[11] "Alcor: Membership Info - How to Join". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-31.

[12] "Funding for Cryostasis | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-31.

[13] "Oregon Cryonics - Services". oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-31.

[14] "Human cryopreservation | KrioRus". kriorus.ru. Retrieved 2019-01-31.

[15] "Page:Works of the Late Doctor Benjamin Franklin (1793).djvu/233 - Wikisource, the free online library". en.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.

[16] Tilden, William Augustus (2009). A Short History of the Progress of Scientific Chemistry in Our Own Times. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 249. ISBN 1-103-35842-1.

[17] "ЏредвидениЯ ЏорфириЯ Ѓахметьева - "антаст". www.fandom.ru. Retrieved 2019-02-04.

[regis87-18] 17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 Regis, Ed (1991). Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition: Science Slightly Over The Edge. Westview Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 0-201-56751-2.

[RCWE-19] "Robert Ettinger". Cryonics Institute. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved May 24, 2009.

[20] Safar, P. (June 2001). "Vladimir A. Negovsky the father of 'reanimatology'". Resuscitation. 49 (3): 223–229. ISSN 0300-9572. PMID 11723996.

[21] J., Luyet, B. (1940). Life and death at low temperatures. Biodynamica. OCLC 716713726.

[22] Cooper, S M; Dawber, R P R (April 2001). "The history of cryosurgery". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 94 (4): 196–201. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1281398. PMID 11317629.

[CITimeline-23] 22.0 ^22.1 ^22.2 "History/Timeline | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.

[24] POLGE, C. (June 1951). "Functional Survival of Fowl Spermatozoa after Freezing at −79° C.". Nature. 167 (4258): 949–950. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/167949b0.

[25] "Title: The Penultimate Trump". www.isfdb.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.

[26] Gonzales, F.; Luyet, B. (May 1950). "Resumption of heart-beat in chick embryo frozen in liquid nitrogen". Biodynamica. 7 (126-128): 1–5. ISSN 0006-3010. PMID 15426631.

[27] Parkes, A. S.; Lovelock, J. E.; Smith, A. U. (June 1954). "Resuscitation of Hamsters after Supercooling or Partial Crystallization at Body Temperatures Below 0° C.". Nature. 173 (4415): 1136–1137. ISSN 1476-4687. doi:10.1038/1731136a0.

[28] LOVELOCK, J. E.; BISHOP, M. W. H. (May 1959). "Prevention of Freezing Damage to Living Cells by Dimethyl Sulphoxide". Nature. 183 (4672): 1394–1395. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/1831394a0.

[29] Ursula, Smith, Audrey. Biological effects of freezing and supercooling. OCLC 1027485685.

[30] Negovsky, Vladimir (1962). Resuscitation and Artificial Hypothermia (USSR). New York: Consultants Bureau.

[31] Safar, Peter (2001-06). "Vladimir A. Negovsky the father of 'reanimatology'". Resuscitation. 49 (3): 223–229. ISSN 0300-9572. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(01)00356-2. Check date values in: |date= (help)

[cryonics9208-32] 31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 ^31.3 ^31.4 Perry, Michael (August 1992). "Unity and Disunity in Cryonics". Cryonics. 13 (145): 5.

[cryonet23124-33] 32.0 ^32.1 "Ev Cooper". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-01-21.

[EvCooperClassic-34] 33.0 ^33.1 "Ev Cooper's cryonics classic published online – Biostasis". Retrieved 2019-01-21.

[firstNewsletter-35] 34.0 ^34.1 Perry, Mike (2011-01-19). "The First Cryonics Newsletter". Evidence Based Cryonics. Archived from the original on 2016-11-26.

[BenBestCryonicsHistory-36] 35.00 ^35.01 ^35.02 ^35.03 ^35.04 ^35.05 ^35.06 ^35.07 ^35.08 ^35.09 ^35.10 ^35.11 ^35.12 ^35.13 ^35.14 ^35.15 ^35.16 ^35.17 ^35.18 ^35.19 ^35.20 ^35.21 ^35.22 ^35.23 ^35.24 "A HISTORY OF CRYONICS". www.benbest.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[37] Hattenstone, Simon (2009-11-07). "The Dad's Army of British cryonics". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[38] FARRANT, J. (March 1965). "Mechanism of Cell Damage During Freezing and Thawing and its Prevention". Nature. 205 (4978): 1284–1287. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/2051284a0.

[BedfordSuspension-39] 38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 ^38.3 ^38.4 "The First Cryonic Suspension". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[CorpSummary-40] 39.0 ^39.1 "Search Summary State of Michigan Corporations Division". cofs.lara.state.mi.us. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[IntermediateTemperatureStorage-41] 40.00 ^40.01 ^40.02 ^40.03 ^40.04 ^40.05 ^40.06 ^40.07 ^40.08 ^40.09 ^40.10 ^40.11 ^40.12 ^40.13 ^40.14 "Systems for Intermediate Temperature Storage for Fracture Reduction and Avoidance". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[42] Kroener, C.; Luyet, B. (1966). "Formation of cracks during the vitrification of glycerol solutions and disappearance of the cracks during rewarming". Biodynamica. 10: 47–52.

[43] F. Nelson, Robert; Stanley, Sandra (1968). We Froze the First Man. New York: Dell. pp. 17–20.

[44] Kraver, Ted (March 1989). "Notes on the First Human Freezing". Cryonics: 11–21.

[45] Adachi, C.; Kito, K.; Suda, I. (1966-10-15). "Viability of Long Term Frozen Cat Brain In Vitro". Nature. 212 (5059): 268–270. ISSN 1476-4687. doi:10.1038/212268a0.

[46] Kemp, E.; Clark, P. B.; Anderson, C. K.; Laursen, T.; Parsons, F. M. (1968). "Low temperature preservation of mammalian kidneys". Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology. 2 (3): 183–190. ISSN 0036-5599. PMID 4893380.

[47] Nelson, Robert F., (1968). We froze the first man. [Dell Pub. Co.] OCLC 434744.

[48] Ames, A.; Wright, R. L.; Kowada, M.; Thurston, J. M.; Majno, G. (Feb 1968). "Cerebral ischemia. II. The no-reflow phenomenon.". The American Journal of Pathology. 52 (2): 437–453. ISSN 0002-9440. PMC 2013326. PMID 5635861.

[49] "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[50] "American Cryonics Society - Human Cryopreservation Services for the 21st Century". www.americancryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[51] White, J. B. (1969-04-11). "Viral Induced Repair of Damaged Neurons with Preservation of Long-Term Information Content," (PDF). Second Annual Cryonics Conference. Ann Arbor, Michigan.

[52] Hossmann, K. -A.; Sato, K. (1970). "The effect of ischemia on sensorimotor cortex of cat". Zeitschrift für Neurologie. 198 (1): 33–45. ISSN 0340-5354. doi:10.1007/bf00316134.

[53] "Informational Message". appext20.dos.ny.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[54] Mazur, P. (1970-05-22). "Cryobiology: the freezing of biological systems". Science (New York, N.Y.). 168 (3934): 939–949. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 5462399.

[55] Hossmann, K.-A.; Lechtape-Grüter, H. (1971). "Blood Flow and Recovery of the Cat Brain after Complete Ischemia for 1 Hour". European Neurology. 6 (1-6): 318–322. ISSN 0014-3022. doi:10.1159/000114515.

[56] Martin, George M. (1971). "On Immortality: An Interim Solution". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 14 (2): 339–340. ISSN 1529-8795. doi:10.1353/pbm.1971.0015.

[57] Chamberlain, FR; Chamberlain, LL (1972). "Instructions for the Induction of Solid State Hypothermia". Manrise Corporation. La Canada, CA.

[58] Quaife, A. (1972). "Recommended modification to Collins' solution for use as the base perfusate for inducing SSH". Manrise Technical Review. 2: 3–9.

[59] "History of cryonics - H+Pedia". hpluspedia.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[60] "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[BenBestCryonicsHistoryImmortalist-61] 60.0 ^60.1 ^60.2 ^60.3 Best, Ben (2008-11-08). "A History of Cryonics" (PDF). Cryonics Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-28.

[62] Klebanoff, G.; Hollander, D.; Cosimi, A. B.; Stanford, W.; Kemmerer, W. T. (January 1972). "Asanguineous hypothermic total body perfusion (TBW) in the treatment of stage IV hepatic coma". The Journal of Surgical Research. 12 (1): 1–7. ISSN 0022-4804. PMID 5058015.

[63] "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[64] LaRossa, D.; Hamilton, R.; Ketterer, F.; Lehr, H. B. (August 1973). "Preservation of structure and function in canine small intestinal autografts after freezing". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 52 (2): 174–177. ISSN 0032-1052. PMID 4722678.

[65] "Journal of Surgical Research". www.journalofsurgicalresearch.com. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(73)90033-4. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[66] Federowicz, MD (1973). "Perfusion and freezing of a 60-year-old woman" (PDF). Manrise Technical Review. 3(1): 9–32. Retrieved 2010-08-31.

[67] Suda, Isamu; Kito, Kyoko; Adachi, Chizuko (1974-04-26). "Bioelectric discharges of isolated cat brain after revival from years of frozen storage". Brain Research. 70 (3): 527–531. ISSN 0006-8993. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(74)90263-7.

[68] Haff, R. C.; Klebanoff, G.; Brown, B. G.; Koreski, W. R. (July 1975). "Asanguineous hypothermic perfusion as a means of total organism preservation". The Journal of Surgical Research. 19 (1): 13–19. ISSN 0022-4804. PMID 1142760.

[69] "Search Summary State of Michigan Corporations Division". cofs.lara.state.mi.us. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[70] Chamberlain, FRC; Chamberlain, LLC (July 16–17, 1976). "Alcor patient A-1001 Case Notes". Alcor Foundation. CS1 maint: Date format (link)

[IABS-71] "The Newsletter of The Institute For Advanced Biological Studies, Inc.". Cryonics. 1981-03-08.

[72] "Report on the Lake Tahoe Life Extension Festival". Cryonics (36): 7–13. July 1983.

[73] Darwin, MG (July 1977). "The anabolocyte: a biological approach to repairing cryoinjury". Life Extension Magazine: A Journal of the Life Extension Sciences. 1.

[74] "Business Search - Business Entities - Business Programs | California Secretary of State". businesssearch.sos.ca.gov. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[75] Leaf, JD (March–April 1979). "Cryonic Suspension of Sam Berkowitz,". Long Life Magazine: 30–35. CS1 maint: Date format (link)

[76] Darwin, M. (1979). "Glycerol perfusion and extended storage of the canine central nervous system". Institute for Advanced Biological Studies, Inc. Indpls, IN.

[77] Leaf, JD; Federowicz, Hixon; H. (1985). "Case report: two consecutive suspensions, a comparative study in experimental human suspended animation". Cryonics. 6(11): 13–38.

[78] Drexler, K. Eric (1981-09-01). "Molecular engineering: An approach to the development of general capabilities for molecular manipulation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 78 (9): 5275–5278. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 16593078. doi:10.1073/pnas.78.9.5275.

[79] "Cryonics Magazine". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[80] Fahy, G. M.; Hirsch, A. (1982), "Prospects for organ preservation by vitrification", Organ Preservation, Springer Netherlands, pp. 399–404, ISBN 9789401162692, retrieved 2019-02-01

[81] Fahy, Gregory M.; Lilley, Terence H.; Linsdell, Helen; Douglas, Mary St.John; Meryman, Harold T. (June 1990). "Cryoprotectant toxicity and cryoprotectant toxicity reduction: In search of molecular mechanisms". Cryobiology. 27 (3): 247–268. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(90)90025-y.

[82] "Paul Crowley's Blog - Society for Cryobiology statements on cryonics". blog.ciphergoth.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[83] "Cold War: The Conflict Between Cryonicists and Cryobiologists". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[84] Darwin, M; Leaf, JD. "Cryoprotective perfusion and freezing of the ischemic and nonischemic cat".

[85] "CRYONICS: Freezing Damage (Darwin) Part 2". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[86] "CRYONICS: Freezing Damage (Darwin) Part 3". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[87] "CRYONICS: Freezing Damage (Darwin) Part 4". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[88] Federowicz, MG; Leaf, JD (January 1983). "Tahoe Research Proposals". Cryonics (30): 14.

[89] ronopause. "THE EFFECTS OF CRYOPRESERVATION ON THE CAT, Part 1". CHRONOSPHERE. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[90] ronopause. "THE EFFECTS OF CRYOPRESERVATION ON THE CAT, Part 2". CHRONOSPHERE. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[91] ronopause. "THE EFFECTS OF CRYOPRESERVATION ON THE CAT, Part 3". CHRONOSPHERE. Retrieved 2019-02-01.

[92] "Report on the Lake Tahoe Life Extension Festival". Cryonics (36): 7–13. July 1983.

[93] Federowicz, M.; Hixon, H.; Leaf, J. (1984). "Post-mortem examination of three cryonic suspension patients". Cryonics. 5 (9): 16–28. Retrieved 2010-08-31.

[94] Leaf, JD; Darwin, M.; Hixon, H. "A mannitol-based perfusate for reversible 5-hour asanguineous ultraprofound hypothermia in canines (Report on work performed from 1984-87)". 1986. Retrieved 2010-08-31.

[95] Fahy, G. M.; MacFarlane, D. R.; Angell, C. A.; Meryman, H. T. (1984-08-01). "Vitrification as an approach to cryopreservation". Cryobiology. 21 (4): 407–426. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(84)90079-8.

[96] Federowicz, M.; Hixon, H.; Leaf, J. (1984). "Postmortem Examination of Three Cryonic Suspension Patients". Cryonics: 16–28.

[97] Federowicz, MG; Leaf, JD; Hixon, H. (1986). "Case report: neuropreservation of Alcor patient A-1068 (1 of 2)". Cryonics. 7 (2): 17–32.

[98] Federowicz, MG; Leaf, JD; Hixon, H. (1986). "Case report: neuropreservation of Alcor patient A-1068 (2 of 2)". Cryonics. 7 (3): 15–29.

[99] Darwin, M. (18 January 1997). "Securing anesthesia in the human cryopreservation patient". CryoNet.

[100] Rall, W. F.; Fahy, G. M. (14 Feb 1985). "Ice-free cryopreservation of mouse embryos at -196 degrees C by vitrification". Nature. 313 (6003): 573–575. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 3969158.

[101] "Yahoo! Groups". groups.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[102] Darwin, MG (1986). "Transport Protocol for Cryonic suspension of Humans". Alcor Life Extension Foundation. Fullerton, CA.

[103] Fahy, G. M. (1986). "Vitrification: a new approach to organ cryopreservation". Progress in Clinical and Biological Research. 224: 305–335. ISSN 0361-7742. PMID 3540994.

[104] K. Eric, Drexler (1986). Engines of creation. Garden City, N.Y: Anchor Press/Doubleday. ISBN 0385199724.

[105] Haneda, Kiyoshi; Thomas, Robert; Sands, Murray P.; Breazeale, Donald G.; Dillard, David H. (1986-12-01). "Whole body protection during three hours of total circulatory arrest: An experimental study". Cryobiology. 23 (6): 483–494. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(86)90057-X.

[106] Drexler, K. Eric (1986). "9". Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology.

[107] "Cryonics Society of Canada -- The Story of the Organization and Its People". www.cryocdn.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[108] Leaf, Jerry D; Hixon, Hugh; Hugh, Mike (1987). "Development of a mobile advanced life support system for human biostasis operations". Cryonics. 8 (3): 23–40.

[109] Darwin, Michael G.; Leaf, Jerry D.; Hixon, Hugh L. "Cryonic suspension case report: A-1133" (PDF). Alcor Life Extension Foundation.

[110] Darwin, M. "Cryonic suspension case report: A-1133" (PDF).

[111] "administrivia". www.cryonet.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[112] "California Appellate Court Decision on Legality of Cryonics". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[113] Pizer, David (1989). "Alcor outstanding support award nominee". Cryonics. 17 (7): 10.

[114] Darwin, M. (1989). "A major advance in suspension patient support". Cryonics. 10 (8): 7–14. Retrieved 2010-09-29.

[115] Wowk, B.; Darwin, M. (1990). "Cryonics: Reaching for Tomorrow," (PDF). Alcor Life Extension Foundation. Riverside, CA. ISBN 1880209004. Retrieved 2010-10-09.

[116] Darwin, M. (1991). "Reducing ischemic damage in cryonic suspension patients by premedication". Cryonics. 12: 13–15. Retrieved 2010-09-29.

[117] Darwin, M. (1990). "Cardiopulmonary support: Evaluation and intervention". Cryonics. 11 (4): 26–31. Retrieved 2010-09-29.

[118] "Donaldson v. Van de Kamp (Abstract)". www.alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[Fahy1990-119] 118.0 ^118.1 Fahy, Gregory M.; Saur, Joseph; Williams, Robert J. (October 1990). "Physical problems with the vitrification of large biological systems". Cryobiology. 27 (5): 492–510. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/0011-2240(90)90038-6.

[fieldcryoprotection-120] 119.0 ^119.1 ^119.2 ^119.3 "Field Cryoprotection". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[121] Darwin, MG. "Cryopreservation case report: Arlene Francis Fried, A-1049".

[122] Ruggera, P. S.; Fahy, G. M. (October 1990). "Rapid and uniform electromagnetic heating of aqueous cryoprotectant solutions from cryogenic temperatures". Cryobiology. 27 (5): 465–478. ISSN 0011-2240. PMID 2249450.

[123] Merkle, R. C. (1992-09-01). "The technical feasibility of cryonics". Medical Hypotheses. 39 (1): 6–16. ISSN 0306-9877. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(92)90133-W.

[124] Henson, HK. "The Transport of Patient A-1312S".

[125] "21st Century Medicine --Expanding the Boundaries of Preservation Science". www.21cm.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[CryoCare-126] 125.0 ^125.1 "CryoCare Foundation - Cryonics Services". www.cryocare.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[127] Hixon, H. (1995). "Exploring Cracking Phenomena" (PDF). Cryonics: 27–32.

[128] "A Brief History of Alcor Research". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[129] Jones, Tanya L. (July 1995). "Alcor Member Anatole Epstein Suspended" (PDF). Cryonics Magazine. 16 (3): 8–11.

[CryoCareFirst-130] Darwin, M. "Cryopreservation of James Gallagher, CryoCare patient #C-2150".

[131] Darwin, M.; Russell, S.; Wakfer, P.; Wood, L.; Wood, C. (1995-05-31). "Effect of Human Cryopreservation Protocol on the Ultrastucture of the Canine Brain". BioPreservation, Inc.

[132] Platt, C. (July 1995). "New Brain Study Shows Reduced Tissue Damage". CryoCare Report.

[133] EP1117455A1, Michael Gregory Darwin; Steven Bradley Harris & Sandra Renee Russell, "Mixed-mode liquid ventilation gas and heat exchange", assigned to Critical Care Research Inc

[134] Harris, S. B.; Darwin, M. G.; Russell, S. R.; O'Farrell, J. M.; Fletcher, M.; Wowk, B. (August 2001). "Rapid (0.5 degrees C/min) minimally invasive induction of hypothermia using cold perfluorochemical lung lavage in dogs". Resuscitation. 50 (2): 189–204. ISSN 0300-9572. PMID 11719148.

[135] Taylor, Michael J.; Brockbank, Kelvin G. M.; Lightfoot, Fred; Khirabadi, Bijan S.; Song, Ying C. (March 2000). "Vitreous cryopreservation maintains the function of vascular grafts". Nature Biotechnology. 18 (3): 296–299. ISSN 1546-1696. doi:10.1038/73737.

[136] "BioTransport Purchases CryoStar Freezer" (PDF). Cryonics: 11. 2000.

[137] "Steven B. Harris | Canine respiratory and hypothermia physiology lab". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[138] Kheirabadi, B. S.; Fahy, G. M. (2000-07-15). "Permanent life support by kidneys perfused with a vitrifiable (7.5 molar) cryoprotectant solution". Transplantation. 70 (1): 51–57. ISSN 0041-1337. PMID 10919575.

[139] "Scientists' Cryonics FAQ". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[140] "New Cryopreservation technology.". Alcor News. October 2005.

[141] "Surgery". www.surgjournal.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[Alcor2018-2-142] Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Alcor2018-2

[143] "Alcor News Archive". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[144] "Alcor: About Alcor". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[145] Fahy, GM; Wowk, B; Wu, J; Paynter, S (2004). "Improved vitrification solutions based on the predictability of vitrification solution toxicity". Cryobiology. 48 (1): 22–35.

[146] Whetstine, Leslie; Streat, Stephen; Darwin, Mike; Crippen, David (2005-10-31). "Pro/con ethics debate: When is dead really dead?". Critical Care. 9 (6): 538. ISSN 1364-8535. doi:10.1186/cc3894.

[147] "Oregon Cryonics - About OC". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[neuralarchivesfoundation-148] 147.0 ^147.1 "NAF". neuralarchivesfoundation.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[149] "New Cryopreservation Technology". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[150] "M22 Implementation". Alcor News Bulletin (44).

[151] Pichugin, Yuri; Fahy, Gregory M.; Morin, Robert (2006-04-01). "Cryopreservation of rat hippocampal slices by vitrification". Cryobiology. 52 (2): 228–240. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2005.11.006.

[152] Best, Benjamin P. (2008-04-28). "Scientific Justification of Cryonics Practice". Rejuvenation Research. 11 (2): 493–503. ISSN 1549-1684. PMC 4733321. PMID 18321197. doi:10.1089/rej.2008.0661.

[153] "Advanced Neural Biosciences". Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[154] Wol, Aschwin; Phaedra, Chana. "Human Cryopreservation Research at Advanced Neural Biosciences". Immortalist Society. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[155] Alexander, Scott. "Rationalists Are Less Credulous But Better At Taking Ideas Seriously". www.lesswrong.com. Retrieved 2019-02-04.

[156] Fahy, Gregory M.; Wowk, Brian; Pagotan, Roberto; Chang, Alice; Phan, John; Thomson, Bruce; Phan, Laura (July 2009). "Physical and biological aspects of renal vitrification". Organogenesis. 5 (3): 167–175. ISSN 1547-6278. doi:10.4161/org.5.3.9974.

[SmallMammalBrainPrize-157] 156.0 ^156.1 ^156.2 ^156.3 ^156.4 "Small Mammal BPF Prize Winning Announcement – The Brain Preservation Foundation". Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[158] "Resources | Cryonics Institute". www.cryonics.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[159] Wowk, B.; Leitl, E.; Rasch, C. M.; Mesbah-Karimi, N.; Harris, S. B.; Fahy, G. M. (May 2000). "Vitrification enhancement by synthetic ice blocking agents". Cryobiology. 40 (3): 228–236. ISSN 0011-2240. PMID 10860622. doi:10.1006/cryo.2000.2243.

[160] Fahy, Gregory M. (July 2010). "Cryoprotectant toxicity neutralization". Cryobiology. 60 (3 Suppl): S45–53. ISSN 1090-2392. PMID 19501081. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2009.05.005.

[161] Sullivan, Mathew (August 2013). "Alcor A-1088 Case Report" (PDF). Alcor.

[162] Drake, Aaron (January 2012). "Alcor A-1546 Case Report" (PDF). Alcor.

[163] Brown, Emma (2011-06-24). "Robert Ettinger, founder of the cryonics movement, dies at 92". Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[164] "21CM Cryopreservation Eval Page – The Brain Preservation Foundation". Retrieved 2019-02-03.

[165] Fahy, Gregory M.; Guan, Na; de Graaf, Inge A. M.; Tan, Yuansheng; Griffin, Lenetta; Groothuis, Geny M. M. (2012-10-30). "Cryopreservation of precision-cut tissue slices". Xenobiotica. 43 (1): 113–132. ISSN 0049-8254. doi:10.3109/00498254.2012.728300.

[166] "Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics – Biostasis". Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[167] "Oregon Cryonics - Pet Case Reports". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[168] Vita-More, Natasha; Barranco, Daniel (October 2015). "Persistence of Long-Term Memory in Vitrified and Revived Caenorhabditis elegans". Rejuvenation Research. 18 (5): 458–463. ISSN 1549-1684. PMC 4620520. PMID 25867710. doi:10.1089/rej.2014.1636.

[169] McIntyre, Robert L.; Fahy, Gregory M. (1 December 2015). "Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation". Cryobiology. 71 (3): 448–458. ISSN 0011-2240. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2015.09.003.

[170] McIntyre, Robert L.; Fahy, Gregory M. (December 2015). "Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation". Cryobiology. 71 (3): 448–458. ISSN 1090-2392. PMID 26408851. doi:10.1016/j.cryobiol.2015.09.003.

[171] "Large Mammal BPF Prize Winning Announcement – The Brain Preservation Foundation". Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[OregonCryoCaseReports-172] 171.0 ^171.1 ^171.2 ^171.3 "Oregon Cryonics - Cases". www.oregoncryo.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[173] Kanawaku, Yoshimasa; Someya, Satoka; Kobayashi, Tomoya; Hirakawa, Keiko; Shiotani, Seiji; Fukunaga, Tatsushige; Ohno, Youkichi; Kawakami, Saki; Kanetake, Jun (July 2014). "High-resolution 3D-MRI of postmortem brain specimens fixed by formalin and gadoteridol". Legal Medicine. 16 (4): 218–221. ISSN 1344-6223. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2014.03.003.

[174] Shatil, Anwar S.; Uddin, Md Nasir; Matsuda, Kant M.; Figley, Chase R. (20 February 2018). "Quantitative Ex Vivo MRI Changes due to Progressive Formalin Fixation in Whole Human Brain Specimens: Longitudinal Characterization of Diffusion, Relaxometry, and Myelin Water Fraction Measurements at 3T". Frontiers in Medicine. 5. ISSN 2296-858X. PMC 5826187. PMID 29515998. doi:10.3389/fmed.2018.00031.

[175] Yong-Hing, Charlotte J.; Obenaus, Andre; Stryker, Rodrick; Tong, Karen; Sarty, Gordon E. (August 2005). "Magnetic resonance imaging and mathematical modeling of progressive formalin fixation of the human brain". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 54 (2): 324–332. ISSN 0740-3194. PMID 16032673. doi:10.1002/mrm.20578.

[176] "Cryogenics Human & Pet Freezing for Preservation and Revival". Osiris | Back to Life. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[Nectome-177] 176.0 ^176.1 "Nectome". nectome.com. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[178] "Why Cryonics Makes Sense - Wait But Why". web.archive.org. 2016-03-25. Retrieved 2019-02-04.

[179] "Alcor Care Trust Supporting Organization". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[180] Manuchehrabadi, Navid; Gao, Zhe; Zhang, Jinjin; Ring, Hattie L.; Shao, Qi; Liu, Feng; McDermott, Michael; Fok, Alex; Rabin, Yoed (1 March 2017). "Improved tissue cryopreservation using inductive heating of magnetic nanoparticles". Science Translational Medicine. 9 (379). ISSN 1946-6242. PMC 5470364. PMID 28251904. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aah4586.

[181] "Organ cryopreservation is becoming a reality – but bringing whole bodies back still 100 years away". International Business Times UK. 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2019-02-04.

[182] Darwin, Michael. "Preliminary Evaluation of Alcor Patient Cryogenic CT Scans".

[183] Combinator, Y. "10 Companies From YC Winter 2018". Y Combinator. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[184] (2018-05-16). "The Alcor Endowment Trust Supporting Organization". Alcor News. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[185] 李松. "Chinese woman's body frozen in advanced procedure - Chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2019-02-04.

[186] "Alcor Case Summary: A-1990". alcor.org. Retrieved 2019-01-22.

[188] "Society for Cryobiology Position Statement - Cryonics" (PDF). Society for Cryobiology. November 2018. Retrieved 2019-01-23.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[note 1]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

@@ Line 35: / Line 35: @@
 * Dual memberships: some cryonicists are members of more than one organization, often to support several organizations, or as a fall-back for themselves if one organization was to fail in some ways.
-Alcor is the only large cryonics organization that has tracked the number of fully-funded members it has had since its beginnings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alcor.org/AboutAlcor/membershipstats.html|title=Alcor: Membership Statistics|website=alcor.org|access-date=2019-01-23}}</ref> The graph below shows the change in its membership quantity. The recent growth has been pretty linear. However, given that there are more and more cryonics organizations, worldwide cryonics memberships is likely growing exponentially.
+Alcor is the only large cryonics organization that has tracked the number of fully-funded members it has had since its beginnings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alcor.org/AboutAlcor/membershipstats.html|title=Alcor: Membership Statistics|website=alcor.org|access-date=2019-01-23}}</ref> All Alcor members are subscribed to standby services. The Cryonics Institute has tracked the number of members it has signed up with standby services since it started offering it in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cryonics.org/ci-landing/member-statistics/|title=Member Statistics {{!}} Cryonics Institute|website=www.cryonics.org|access-date=2019-02-15}}</ref> It also has a lot of members that are signed up but plan to use the services of a funeral director for transport{{snd}}this number is however unknown to the public. The graph below tracks those two numbers. The recent growth has been pretty linear. However, given that there are more and more cryonics organizations, worldwide cryonics memberships is likely growing exponentially.
-[[File:Number_of_Alcor_members.png]]
+[[File:Number_of_members_2019-01.png]]
 === Cost ===

Difference between revisions of "Timeline of brain preservation"

Revision as of 23:36, 14 February 2019

Contents

Trends

Popularity

Interests

Patients

Members

Cost

Big picture

Full timeline

More information

Meta information on the timeline

Timeline update strategy

Tracking preservation quality

Improving types of events

Notes and references

Notes

References

Navigation menu

Personal tools

Namespaces

Variants

Views

More

Search

Navigation

Tools