Difference between revisions of "Timeline of bacteriology"
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| 1891 || Publication || J. Buchanan publishes ''An Encyclopedia of the Practice of Medicine Based on Bacteriology''.<ref name="Bacteriology, c.1810-c.1917: Chronology of a Victorian Medical Advance"/> || | | 1891 || Publication || J. Buchanan publishes ''An Encyclopedia of the Practice of Medicine Based on Bacteriology''.<ref name="Bacteriology, c.1810-c.1917: Chronology of a Victorian Medical Advance"/> || | ||
|- | |- | ||
− | | 1892 || Scientific development || | + | | 1892 || Scientific development || American bacteriologists {{w|William H. Welch}} and {{w|George Nuttall}} identify and isolate ''{{w|Clostridium perfringens}}'', the organism responsible for causing {{w|gangrene}}.<ref name="Significant Events By Years"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Oriani|first1=Giorgio|last2=Marroni|first2=Alessandro|last3=Wattel|first3=Frances|title=Handbook on Hyperbaric Medicine|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=BELzCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA362&dq=%22in+1892%22+%22Welch%22+%22Nuttall%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJjrGegrXaAhUBE5AKHQBpDl4Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201892%22%20%22Welch%22%20%22Nuttall%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Finegold|first1=Sydney|title=Anaerobic Infections in Humans|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=bqjcWN19WvsC&pg=PA10&dq=%22in+1892%22+%22Welch%22+%22Nuttall%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJjrGegrXaAhUBE5AKHQBpDl4Q6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201892%22%20%22Welch%22%20%22Nuttall%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kumar Biswas|first1=Samar|title=Orthopedics: A Postgraduate Companion|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ty7uopVrr6UC&pg=PA207&dq=%22in+1892%22+%22Welch%22+%22Nuttall%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJjrGegrXaAhUBE5AKHQBpDl4Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201892%22%20%22Welch%22%20%22Nuttall%22&f=false}}</ref> || |
|- | |- | ||
| 1892 || Publication || Alexander C. Abbott publishes ''The Principles of Bacteriology: A Practical Manual for Students and Physicians''.<ref name="Bacteriology, c.1810-c.1917: Chronology of a Victorian Medical Advance"/> || {{w|United States}} | | 1892 || Publication || Alexander C. Abbott publishes ''The Principles of Bacteriology: A Practical Manual for Students and Physicians''.<ref name="Bacteriology, c.1810-c.1917: Chronology of a Victorian Medical Advance"/> || {{w|United States}} |
Revision as of 08:14, 12 April 2018
This is a timeline of bacteriology.
Contents
Big picture
Time period | Development summary |
---|---|
1854–1920 | This period is known as the "golden age of microbiology", in which standardized microbiological techniques are developed and most of the disease-causing bacteria are discovered. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch stand out as the great scientists in the field.[1] |
1940s | The genetics of bacteriophage begin to be studied vigorously, after the development of techniques for the study of bacteriophage infection in single bacteria.[2] |
Full timeline
Year | Event type | Details | Geographical location |
---|---|---|---|
2 billion BC | A bacterium becomes symbiotic with the cell from which animals and plants later develop. Chromosomes from this bacterium’s mitochondria would later carry 37 genes in the human body.[3] | ||
1590 | Scientific development | Dutch spectacle-maker Zacharias Janssen and his brother Hans Janssen produce the operational compound microscope.[4] | |
1676 | Scientific development | Dutch merchant Antony Van Leeuwenhoek observes microorganisms using a single lens microscope designed by him and names them animalcules.[5] Van Leeuwenhoek is considered the first to discover microorganisms.[6] | |
1749 | Scientific development | English biologist John Needham indicates that bacteria and other microorganisms arose spontaneously from meat.[4][7][8][9] | United Kingdom |
1762 | Scientific development | Austrian medical doctor Marcus Antonius Von Plenciz in Vienna publishes a germ theory of infectious diseases and reports that each disease is caused by a separate organism.[4][10][1][11] | Austria |
1828 | Scientific development | German naturalist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg coins the name bacterium.[5][12] | |
1835 | Scientific development | Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg coins the term Bacillus to contain rod-shaped bacteria.[13][14][15] | |
1839 | Scientific development | German physiologist Theodor Schwann demonstrates the cellular basis of the body, asserting that all organs and tissues are composed of a multitude of structural units called cells.[16][17][18] | |
1840 | Scientific development | German pathologist Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle offers his theory of contagion by arguing that the "material of contagions is endowed with a life of its own, which is, in relation to the diseased body, a parasitic organism.[19] | |
1844 | Scientific development | Italian entomologist Agostino Bassi asserts that microorganisms cause human disease.[6] | |
1847 | Publication | Cranston R. Low and T.C. Dodds publish the illustrated Atlas of Bacteriology.[20] | |
1857 | Scientific development | German scientific instrument maker Carl Zeiss launches its first Zeiss compound microscope.[21] | Germany |
1858 | Publication | French biologist Louis Pasteur publishes Memoire sur la fermentation appelée lactique (Memoir on Lactic Fermentation) which is considered a foundation stone of the cell theory, microbiology, and bacteriology.[22][23] | France |
1865 | Scientific development | British surgeon Joseph Lister develops antiseptic surgery, which greatly increases survival rates.[24] | |
c.1868 | German botanist Ferdinand Cohn starts studying bacteria. From his accurate studies of their morphology, or bodily form, Cohn is among the first to attempt to arrange the different varieties of bacteria into genera and species on a systematic basis.[25] Cohn studies on algae and photosynthetic bacteria would lead him to describe several bacteria including Bacillus and Beggiatoa. The field of bacteriology is considered by many to have been founded by Ferdinand Cohn.[5] | ||
1872 | Scientific development | "The German botanist Brefeld reported growing fungal colonies from single spores on gelatin surfaces. Prior to this innovation that resulted in the isolation of pure culture of microorganisms, pigmented bacterial colonies were isolated by the German biologist Schroeter on slices of potato incubated in a moist environment."[26] | |
1872 | Publication | Ferdinand Cohn publishes Untersuchungen ueber Bacterien (Investigations on Bacteria).[20] | Germany |
1873 | Scientific development | "Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen described how he observed the leprosy bacillus, Mycobacterium leprae, as "rod-like bodies" after cutting through a leprosy nodule, scraping the edge of the cut with a knife and rubbing the material onto a glass slide. After adding a drop of water, the human cells swelled and released more and more rods seen unstained in his microscope. Based on his initial clinical and epidemiological studies, Armauer Hansen clearly demonstrated that these rods represented the infectious origin of leprosy. This is the first time that a chronic infectious disease in humans was shown to be related to a bacillus"[26] | |
1876 | Scientific development | Louis Pasteur discards the theory of spontaneous generation and investigates the principles of the process later called pasteurization.[4] | France |
1876 | Scientific development | German physician and microbiologist Robert Koch in Berlin isolates the anthrax bacillus, and becomes the first to show a specific organism as the cause of a disease.[4][27][28][29] | Germany |
1877 | Publication | English microbiologist Edgar Crookshank publishes Manual of Bacteriology.[20] | United Kingdom |
1877 | Scientific development | Louis Pasteur notes that some bacteria produce substances that kill other bacteria, setting the basis of antibiotics.[30] | France |
1878 | Scientific development | Robert Koch observes bacteria bearing a close resemblance to staphylococci.[31] | |
1878 | Scientific development | British pioneer of antiseptic surgery Joseph Lister becomes the first person to obtain a pure culture of a bacterium (Streptococcus lactis) in a liquid medium. Lister isolates a pure culture from sour milk and names it Bacterium lactis.[32][33][34][35] | |
1878 | Scientific development | American botanist Thomas Jonathan Burrill, professor at the University of Illinois, describes the causative agent as a bacterium, demonstrating for the first time a bacterial disease of plants.[26][36][37][38] | United States |
1879 | Scientific development | German physician Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser identifies what would later be called Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the pathogen that causes gonorrhea.[26][39][40][41] | |
1880 | Scientific development | Louis Pasteur manages to isolate the bacterium responsible for chicken cholera and grows it in pure culture. [31][42][30] | France |
1880 | Publication | George M. Sternberg M.D. translation of Les bactéries becomes the first general bacteriology book in English.[43] | |
1881 | Scientific development | German Jewish physician Paul Ehrlich introduces the dye methylene blue into bacteriology.[44] | |
1881 | Scientific development | British surgeon Alexander Ogston, Professor at the University of Aberdeen, carries out the first detailed studies on staphylococci.[4] After injecting the bacteria into animals and producing experimental infections in the laboratory, Ogston links staphylococcus to the serious infections then called "hospital sepsis".[45][46] | United Kingdom |
1882 | Scientific development | German pathologist and microbiologist Carl Friedländer discovers the microorganism that he believes causes bacterial pneumonia. The organism would later be named Bacillus friedlanderi.[47][48][49] | |
1882 | Scientific development | Robert Koch discovers Mycobacterium tuberculosis as the cause of tuberculosis.[27] | |
1883 | Publication | Belfield publishes the first original general bacteriology book in English, On the Relations of Micro-organisms to Disease.[43] | |
1883 | Scientific development | Robert Koch leads an expedition to Egypt and India, and discovers bacterium Vibrio cholerae as the cause of cholera.[27] | Egypt, India |
1883 | Scientific development | French biochemists Ulysse Gayon and Gabriel Dupetit isolate in pure culture two strains of denitrifying bacteria, and show that individual organic compounds, such as sugars and alcohols, can replace complex organics and serve as reductants for nitrate, as well as serving as carbon sources.[26] | |
1884 | Scientific development | German Jewish internist Arthur Nicolaier discovers the causal agent of tetanus Clostridium tetani.[4][50][51][52] | Germany |
1884 | Scientific development | Hans Christian Gram discovers a differential stain used the identification of bacteria.[4] | |
1884 | Scientific development | French microbiologist Charles Chamberland develops an unglazed porcelain filter that retains bacteria.[26] | |
1884 | Scientific development | "Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff demonstrates that certain body cells move to damaged areas of the body where they consume bacteria and other foreign particles. He calls the process phagocytosis. He proposes a theory of cellular immunity"[26] | |
1885 | Scientific development | German-Austrian pediatrician Theodor Escherich identifies a bacterium, a natural inhabitant of the human gut, and names it Bacterium coli. Escherich shows that certain strains are responsible for infant diarrhea and gastroenteritis.[53][54][55] | |
1886 | Scientific development | German agricultural chemist Hermann Hellriegel and Hermann Wilfarth establish the relationship between legumes and nitrogen fixing bacteria.[4] | |
1886 | Scientific development | F. Frankel isolates Pneumococcus bacteria.[4] | |
1886 | Publication | E.M. Crookshank publishes An Introduction to Practical Bacteriology. Based Upon the Methods of Koch.[20] | United States |
1886 | Scientific development | American pathologist Theobald Smith isolates the gram-negative bacillus responsible for enteric typhoid.[20] | United States |
1887 | Publication | Loeffler publishes Geschichte zur Bakteriologie (History of Bacteriology).[20] | Germany |
1888 | Scientific development | The first work on nitrogen fixation by the root nodule bacteria is performed by Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck, who discovers bacteria living inside small lumps or nodules on the roots of Vicia and Lathyrus (yellow pea) plants.[4][56][57][58] | |
1889 | Organization | The Society of American Bacteriologists is founded.[20] | United States |
1890 | Scientific development | Ukrainian microbiologist Sergei Winogradsky first demonstrates N2 fixation by free living soil bacteria.[4] | |
1891 | Scientific development | Poland-born German botanist Walter Migula discoveres the gram-negative, flagellated-motile rod-like microbe, bacillus Pseudomonas sp, later renamed Pseudomonas pyocyaneas (aeruginosa), a dangerous "hospital pathogen.[20] | |
1891 | Publication | J. Buchanan publishes An Encyclopedia of the Practice of Medicine Based on Bacteriology.[20] | |
1892 | Scientific development | American bacteriologists William H. Welch and George Nuttall identify and isolate Clostridium perfringens, the organism responsible for causing gangrene.[26][59][60][61] | |
1892 | Publication | Alexander C. Abbott publishes The Principles of Bacteriology: A Practical Manual for Students and Physicians.[20] | United States |
1893 | Publication | British chemist Percy F. Frankland publishes Bacteriology in its Relations to Chemical Science.[20] | United Kingdom |
1893 | Scientific development | "Theobald Smith and F.L. Kilbourne establish that ticks carry Babesia microti, which causes babesiosis in animals and humans. This is the first account of a zoonotic disease and also the foundation of all later work on the animal host and the arthropod vector."[26] | |
1893 | Publication | Volume 1 appears of Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, with both Rudolf Virchow and Élie Metchnikoff contributing to the opening issues.[20] | |
1893 | Publication | Vienna} publishes Grundrisse der Bakteriologie fur Aertze und Studierende (Elements of Bacteriology for Practitioners and Students).[20] | Austria |
1893 | Publication | Russian bacteriologist Georgy Gabrichevsky in Saint Petersburg publishes Rukovodstvok klinicheskoj bacteriologii (Guide to Clinical Bacteriology for Doctors and Students).[20] | Russia |
1894 | Scientific development | "Martinus Beijerinck isolates the first sulfate-reducing bacterium, Spirillum desulfuricans (Desulfovibrio desulfuricans)"[26] | |
1894 | Publication | American bacteriologist Frederick George Novy publishes Directions for Laboratory Work in Bacteriology.[20] | |
1894 | Scientific development | Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin discovers Pasteurella pestis.[4] | |
1894 | Scientific development | Japanese physician Kitasato Shibasaburō discovers the plague bacillus Yersinia pestis.[4][62][63][64] | Hong Kong |
1894 | Scientific development | "Richard Pfeiffer observes that a heat stable toxic material bound to the membrane of Vibrio Cholerae is released only after the cells are disintegrated. He calls the material endotoxin, to distinguish it from filterable material released by bacteria."[26] | |
1895 | Publication | E.V. Freudenreich publishes Dairy Bacteriology: a Short Manual.[20] | |
1895 | Scientific development | "Sergei Winogradsky isolates the first free-living nitrogen-fixing organism, Clostridum pasteurianum."[26] | |
1896 | Scientific development | "Max Gruber and Herbert Durham extend the 1889 observation of Charrin and Roger to show the agglutination of bacteria by serum is specific. This was recognized as a new disease diagnostic tool."[26] | |
1898 | Scientific development | Japanese bacteriologist Shiga Kiyoshi discovers dysentery bacillus Shigella (named after him).[4][65][66][67] | Japan |
1900 | Scientific development | Shiga Kiyoshi develops a dysentery antiserum.[65] | Japan |
1904 | Scientific development | Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck obtains the first pure culture of sulfur-oxidizing bacterium, Thiobacillus denitrificans. Under anaerobic conditions it uses carbon dioxide as a source of carbon.[26] | |
1905 | Scientific development | "Franz Schardinger isolates aerobic bacilli which produce acetone, ethanol, and acetic acid. These are important industrial chemicals."[26] | |
1905 | Scientific development | "Fritz R. Schaudinn and Erich Hoffman identify Treponema pallidum, the cause of syphilis. The bacterium is isolated from fluid leaking from a syphylitic chancre and is spiral in appearance."[26] | |
1905 | Scientific development | "Shigetane Ishiwata discovers that the cause of a disease outbreak in silkworms is a new species of bacteria, later called Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt. Ishiwata called the organism "Sotto-Bacillen." ("Sotto" in Japanese signifies sudden collapse.)"[26] | |
1906 | Scientific development | "N. L. Sohngen presents groundbreaking work on methane-using and methane-producing bacteria. This is the first proof that methane can serve as an energy and carbon source." [26] | |
1907 | Publication | Edward B. Voorhees and Jacob G. Lipman publish A Review of Investigations in Soil Bacteriology.[20] | United States |
1907 | Scientific development | "Erwin Smith and C.O. Townsend discover that the cause of crown galls is a bacterium called Agrobacterium tumefaciens."[26] | |
1908 | Publication | Samuel Cate Prescott and Charles Winslow publish Elements of Water Bacteriology.[20] | United States |
1908 | Publication | Edwin O. Jordan publishes A Text-Book of General Bacteriology.[20] | United States |
1909 | Publication | Professor Dr. A. Dieudonne and C.F. Bolduan in New York publish Bacterial Food Poisoning. A Concise Exposition of the Etiology, Bacteriology, Pathology, Symptomatology, Prophylaxis and Treatment of So-Called Ptomaine Poisoning.[20] | United States |
1909 | Scientific development | "Howard Ricketts shows that Rocky Mountain spotted fever is caused by an organism that is intermediate in size between an virus and a bacterium. This organism, Rickettsia, is transmitted by ticks. Ricketts dies from typhus, another rickettsial disease, in 1910."[26] | |
1909 | Publication | E.R. Stitt publishes Practical Bacteriology, Blood Work and Animal Parasitology. The book includes bacteriological keys and clinical notes.[20] | United States |
1909 | Scientific development | "Sigurd Orla-Jensen proposes that physiological characteristics of bacteria are of primary importance in their classification. A primary example is a monograph he later publishes on lactic acid bacteria that establishes the criteria for assignment."[26] | |
1910 | Publication | Emily Stoney publishes Bacteriological and Surgical Technique for Nurses.[20] | United States |
1910 | Publication | P. Hanson Hiss Jr. and Hans Zinsser publish The Textbook of Bacteriology.[20] | |
1910 | Scientific development | American plant Erwin Frink Smith publishes the earliest description of the pathogenic relationship of Corynebacterium michiganense to tomato.[4][68][69][70] Smith is considered to have played a major role in demonstrating that bacteria could cause plant disease.[71][72] | |
1912 | Publication | Albert Schneider in Philadelphia publishes Pharmaceutical Bacteriology with Special Reference to Disinfection and Sterilization.[20] | |
1912 | Publication | John Wright in Bristol publishes Public Health Chemistry and Bacteriology. A Handbook.[20] | United Kingdom |
1912 | Publication | Clemesha William Wesley publishes The Bacteriology of Surface Waters in the Tropics.[20] | |
1915 | Virus discovery | English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovers the micrococcus phage and becomes the first to describe bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).[73][74][75][76][77] | |
1916 | Publication | The Journal of Bacteriology is established.[20] | United States |
1920 | Publication | "The SAB committee presents a report on the Characterization and classification of Bacterial Types that becomes the basis for the classic work of D. H. Bergey, later published in 1923."[26] | |
1923 | Publication | The Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology is published. It is written to provide a modern identification key for bacteria but little of it is based on direct experience of the organisms.[33] | |
1926 | Scientific development | "Thomas Rivers distinguishes between bacteria and viruses, establishing virology as a separate area of study. This paper was published after he presented it at an SAB meeting held in December of 1926."[26] | |
1926 | Scientific development | "Everitt Murray isolates from rabbits a bacterium that is responsible for listeriosis in man. The organism can grow at low temperatures and frequently is found in food. He names it Bacterium monocytogenes. It is later renamed Listeria monocytogenes."[26] | |
1928 | Scientific development | Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming discovers antibiotic penicillin.[4][78][79][80] | United Kingdom |
1928 | Scientific development | English bacteriologist Frederick Griffith discovers transformation in bacteria. Griffith finds that extracts from killed encapsulated streptococci could change the living, harmless bacteria to the disease-producing virulent type. [4][81][82][83] | |
1928 | Scientific development | "Frederick Griffith discovers transformation in bacteria and establishes the foundation of molecular genetics."[26] | |
1931 | Organization | The Society of Agricultural Bacteriologists is founded.[84] | United Kingdom |
1931 | Scientific development | "C. B. van Niel shows that photosynthetic bacteria use reduced compounds as electron donors without producing oxygen. Sulfur bacteria use H2S as a source of electrons for the fixation of carbon dioxide. He posits that plants use water as a source and release oxygen. At this time Van Niel begins offering the storied summer course on microbiology (at the Hopkins Marine Station in Pacific Grove, California), which would draw scientists from diverse fields for more than 30 years."[26] | |
1934 | Scientific development | "Alice Evans accomplishes the first typing of a strain of bacteria with bacteriophage."[26] | |
1937 | Scientific development | Hungarian physicist Ladislaus Laszlo Marton publishes the first electron micrographs of bacteria.[26] | |
1943 | Scientific development | Italian microbiologist Salvador Luria and German–American biophysicist Max Delbrück provides convincing evidence of mutations in bacteria.[85][86][87][88] | |
1944 | Scientific development | Oswald Avery, Colin Munro MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty show the significance of DNA as hereditary material by studies of transformation in bacteria.[4][89][90][91] | |
1945 (February 16) | Organization | The Microbiology Society is formally inaugurated at a meeting in London. Sir Alexander Fleming is elected as the first President.[84] | United Kingdom |
1946 | Scientific development | American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg and American geneticist Edward Tatum discover bacterial conjugation.[2][4][92][93][94] | |
1947 | Scientific development | American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg shows that bacteria can exchange and recombine genes.[85] | |
1951 | Publication | The International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology is established. | |
1952 | Scientific development | American biologists Norton Zinder and Joshua Lederberg discover the transduction in bacteria.[4] | |
1971 | Scientific development | B. Pierson and K. Castenholz discover the green non-sulphus bacteria Chloroflexus.[4][95][96] | |
1977 | Scientific development | American microbiologist Carl Woese recognizes that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria.[97] |
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See also
External links
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Vasanthakumari, R. Textbook of Microbiology.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ravin, Arnold W. The Evolution of Genetics.
- ↑ "Timeline of Microbiology". timelines.ws. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 "History of Virology and Bacteriology". biologydiscussion.com. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Saini, B.L. Introduction to Biotechnology. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Arp, Robert. 1001 Ideas That Changed the Way We Think.
- ↑ BAGYARAJ, D. J.; RANGASWAMI, G. AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY.
- ↑ Sheehan, Jonathan; Wahrman, Dror. Invisible Hands: Self-Organization and the Eighteenth Century.
- ↑ A system of bactriology in relation to medicine, Volume 1.
- ↑ Murchie, Guy. The Seven Mysteries of Life: An Exploration in Science & Philosophy.
- ↑ Chia, Mantak; Dao, Johnathon. The Eight Immortal Healers: Taoist Wisdom for Radiant Health.
- ↑ Breverton, Terry. Breverton's Encyclopedia of Inventions: A Compendium of Technological Leaps, Groundbreaking Discoveries and Scientific Breakthroughs that Changed the World.
- ↑ Biofilms in the Food and Beverage Industries (P M Fratamico, B A Annous, N W Guenther ed.).
- ↑ Breverton, Terry. Breverton's Encyclopedia of Inventions: A Compendium of Technological Leaps, Groundbreaking Discoveries and Scientific Breakthroughs that Changed the World.
- ↑ Islam, M. Tofazzal; Rahman, Mahfuz; Pandey, Piyush; Jha, Chaitanya Kumar; Aeron, Abhinav. Bacilli and Agrobiotechnology.
- ↑ Ljunggren, Bengt; Bruyn, G. W. The Nobel Prize in Medicine and the Karolinska Institute: The Story of Axel Key and Alfred Nobel.
- ↑ Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Facts On File, Incorporated.
- ↑ Kumar, Rajesh. Biology.
- ↑ MINDELL, David P. The Evolving World.
- ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 20.15 20.16 20.17 20.18 20.19 20.20 20.21 20.22 20.23 20.24 20.25 20.26 Dyer, PhD. "Bacteriology, c.1810-c.1917: Chronology of a Victorian Medical Advance". victorianweb.org. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
- ↑ "Carl Friedrich Zeiss". micro.magnet.fsu.edu. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
- ↑ Smith, Kendall A. "Louis Pasteur, the Father of Immunology?". PMC 3342039. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.00068.
- ↑ Debrac, Patrice. Louis Pasteur.
- ↑ Graf, Noreen M.; Millington, Michael J. Psychosocial Aspects of Disability: Insider Perspectives and Strategies for Counselors.
- ↑ "Ferdinand Cohn". britannica.com. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ 26.00 26.01 26.02 26.03 26.04 26.05 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.09 26.10 26.11 26.12 26.13 26.14 26.15 26.16 26.17 26.18 26.19 26.20 26.21 26.22 26.23 26.24 26.25 26.26 26.27 "Significant Events By Years". asm.org. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Goering, Richard; Dockrell, Hazel; Zuckerman, Mark; Chiodini, Peter L. Mims' Medical Microbiology E-Book.
- ↑ Vardaxis, Nicholas J. Immunology for the Health Sciences.
- ↑ Susser, Mervyn; Stein, Zena. Eras in Epidemiology: The Evolution of Ideas.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Williams, William F. Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Fairbrother, R. W. A Text-Book of Medical Bacteriology. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ Okeke, Iruka N. Divining Without Seeds: The Case for Strengthening Laboratory Medicine in Africa. p. 165.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Logan, N. A. Bacterial Systematics. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ Hui, Yiu H. Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering, Volume 4.
- ↑ Handbook of Food and Beverage Fermentation Technology (Y. H. Hui, Lisbeth Meunier-Goddik, Jytte Josephsen, Wai-Kit Nip, Peggy S. Stanfield ed.).
- ↑ Paracer, Surindar; Ahmadjian, Vernon. Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations.
- ↑ Schumann, Gail Lynn. Plant diseases: their biology and social impact.
- ↑ Annual Report and Proceedings of the ... Annual Meeting of the Illinois State Horticultural Society for the Year ... Illinois State Horticultural Society.
- ↑ Liu, Dongyou. Molecular Detection of Human Bacterial Pathogens.
- ↑ Borchardt, Kenneth A.; Noble, Michael A. Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Epidemiology, Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment.
- ↑ Ellis, Albert; Abarbanel, Albert. The Encyclopædia of Sexual Behaviour, Volume 2.
- ↑ SONI. FUNDAMENTALS OF BOTANY VOL-1.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, Volumes 85-86. Illinois State Academy of Science. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ Foster, W. D. A History of Medical Bacteriology and Immunology. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ↑ K. Altman, Lawrence. Who Goes First?: The Story of Self-Experimentation in Medicine.
- ↑ Damani, Nizam. Manual of Infection Prevention and Control. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
- ↑ Christodoulides, Myron. Meningitis: Cellular and Molecular Basis. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
- ↑ Grove, David. Tapeworms, Lice, and Prions: A compendium of unpleasant infections.
- ↑ Austrian, Robert. Life with the Pneumococcus: Notes from the Bedside, Laboratory, and Library.
- ↑ Roos, Karen L.; Tunkel, Allan R. Bacterial Infections of the Central Nervous System.
- ↑ Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (vol. 114, No. 5, 1970.
- ↑ Artenstein, Andrew W. Vaccines: A Biography.
- ↑ Aarne Vesilind, P.; Morgan, Susan M.; Heine, Lauren G. Introduction to Environmental Engineering - SI Version.
- ↑ Morabito, Stefano. Pathogenic Escherichia coli.
- ↑ The Name's Familiar II.
- ↑ Maczulak, Anne. Allies and Enemies: How the World Depends on Bacteria.
- ↑ Velazquez, E.; Rodriguez-Barrueco, C. First International Meeting on Microbial Phosphate Solubilization.
- ↑ Fred, Edwin Broun; Baldwin, Ira Lawrence; McCoy, Elizabeth. Root Nodule Bacteria and Leguminous Plants.
- ↑ Oriani, Giorgio; Marroni, Alessandro; Wattel, Frances. Handbook on Hyperbaric Medicine.
- ↑ Finegold, Sydney. Anaerobic Infections in Humans.
- ↑ Kumar Biswas, Samar. Orthopedics: A Postgraduate Companion.
- ↑ Benedict, Carol Ann. Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-century China.
- ↑ Cunningham, Andrew; Williams, Perry. The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine.
- ↑ Simpson, W. J. A Treatise on Plague: Dealing with the Historical, Epidemiological, Clinical, Therapeutic and Preventive Aspects of the Disease.
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 "Shiga Kiyoshi". britannica.com. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ↑ Martinez, Danielle. "Shigellosis". austincc.edu. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ↑ Grove, David. Tapeworms, Lice, and Prions: A compendium of unpleasant infections.
- ↑ Strider, D. L. Bacterial Canker of Tomato Caused by Corynebacterium Michiganense: A Literature Review and Bibliography.
- ↑ BAGYARAJ, D. J.; RANGASWAMI, G. AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY.
- ↑ Plant Pathology Concepts and Laboratory Exercises, Third Edition (Bonnie H. Ownley, Robert N. Trigiano ed.).
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