Difference between revisions of "Timeline of bioethics"

From Timelines
Jump to: navigation, search
(6 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 55: Line 55:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1620 || || "Francis Bacon publishes The Novum Organon, in which he argues that scientific research should benefit humanity."<ref>{{cite web |title=Francis Bacon (1561—1626) |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/bacon/ |website=iep.utm.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
| 1620 || || "Francis Bacon publishes The Novum Organon, in which he argues that scientific research should benefit humanity."<ref>{{cite web |title=Francis Bacon (1561—1626) |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/bacon/ |website=iep.utm.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 1775 – 1780 || Field development || German philosopher {{w|Immanuel Kant}} in his lectures on ethics argues against the sale of human body parts.<ref name="Bioethicsbritannica.com"/> ||
 
|-
 
| 1779 || || "Johann Peter Frank , a German physician, writes strict ethical guidelines for public health and sanitation to improve the quality of life" ||
 
|-
 
| 1794 || || "Sir Thomas Percival an English physician, writes first modern code of medical ethics" ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1796 || || "Edward Jenner inoculates eight-year-old James Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to immunize him against smallpox."<ref>{{cite web |title=Early smallpox vaccine is tested |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jenner-tests-smallpox-vaccine |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Riedel |first1=Stefan |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |doi=10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028 |pmid=16200144 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200696/ |pmc=1200696}}</ref> ||
 
| 1796 || || "Edward Jenner inoculates eight-year-old James Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to immunize him against smallpox."<ref>{{cite web |title=Early smallpox vaccine is tested |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jenner-tests-smallpox-vaccine |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Riedel |first1=Stefan |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |doi=10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028 |pmid=16200144 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200696/ |pmc=1200696}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1830 || || "Charles Babbage writes the book Reflections on the Decline of Science in England. This was one of books to catalog scientific misdeeds. Originated such terms as data trimming, data fudging, data falsification, and data cooking." ||
 
| 1830 || || "Charles Babbage writes the book Reflections on the Decline of Science in England. This was one of books to catalog scientific misdeeds. Originated such terms as data trimming, data fudging, data falsification, and data cooking." ||
|-
 
| 1847 || || The {{w|American Medical Association}} adopts its first [[w:ethical code|code of ethics]], with this being based in large part upon the work of {{w|Thomas Percival}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-10-16 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060704201058/http://www.uab.edu/reynolds/MajMedFigs/Percival.htm}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1859 || Literature || English naturalist {{w|Charles Darwin}} publishes {{w|On the Origin of Species}}, which proposes a theory of evolution of living things by {{w|natural selection}}. The book would generate much controversy because it proposes that human beings were not created by God (as most religions claimed) but descended from apes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wallace and Darwin |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4448600?seq=1 |website=jstor.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
| 1859 || Literature || English naturalist {{w|Charles Darwin}} publishes {{w|On the Origin of Species}}, which proposes a theory of evolution of living things by {{w|natural selection}}. The book would generate much controversy because it proposes that human beings were not created by God (as most religions claimed) but descended from apes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wallace and Darwin |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4448600?seq=1 |website=jstor.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
|-
 
| 1874 || || "Robert Bartholomew inserts electrodes into a hole in the skull of Mary Rafferty caused by a tumor. He notes that small amounts electric current caused bodily movements and that larger amounts caused pain. Rafferty, who was mentally ill, fell into a coma and died a few days after the experiment."<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Background |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68756-8_2#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20in%201874%20Robert,inserted%20electrodes%20into%20the%20hole. |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1885 || || "Louis Pasteur administers an experimental rabies vaccine to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without testing it on animals first."<ref>{{cite web |title=Louis Pasteur and the Development of the Attenuated Vaccine |url=https://www.vbivaccines.com/wire/louis-pasteur-attenuated-vaccine/#:~:text=Then%2C%20in%201885%2C%20while%20studying,Louis%20Pasteur%20performing%20an%20experiment. |website=vbivaccines.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=July 6, 1885: Rabies Vaccine Saves Boy – and Pasteur |url=https://www.wired.com/2007/07/dayintech-0706/ |website=wired.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Rabies Vaccine Backstory |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/the-rabies-vaccine-backstory-33441 |website=the-scientist.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
 
| 1885 || || "Louis Pasteur administers an experimental rabies vaccine to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without testing it on animals first."<ref>{{cite web |title=Louis Pasteur and the Development of the Attenuated Vaccine |url=https://www.vbivaccines.com/wire/louis-pasteur-attenuated-vaccine/#:~:text=Then%2C%20in%201885%2C%20while%20studying,Louis%20Pasteur%20performing%20an%20experiment. |website=vbivaccines.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=July 6, 1885: Rabies Vaccine Saves Boy – and Pasteur |url=https://www.wired.com/2007/07/dayintech-0706/ |website=wired.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Rabies Vaccine Backstory |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/the-rabies-vaccine-backstory-33441 |website=the-scientist.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
|-
 
| 1897 || || "Giuseppe Sanarelli injects the yellow fever bacteria into five patients without their consent. All the patients developed the disease and three died."<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Background |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68756-8_2#:~:text=In%201897%2C%20Giuseppe%20Sanarelli%20(1864,fever%20symptoms%20and%20three%20died. |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Case 5 Roots of Informed Consent |url=https://highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu/units/cases/unit3_5.html |website=highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Resnik |first1=David B. |title=The Ethics of Research with Human Subjects: Protecting People, Advancing Science, Promoting Trust |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uQdGDwAAQBAJ&dq=1897+%22Giuseppe+Sanarelli+injects+the+yellow+fever+bacteria&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
 
|-
 
| 1900 || || "Walter Reed experiments to determine the cause of yellow fever. Thirty-three participants, including eighteen Americans and six Cubans, were exposed to mosquitoes infected with yellow fever or injected with blood from yellow fever patients. Six participants died, including two researcher-volunteers. The participants all signed consent forms, some of which were translated into Spanish."<ref>{{cite web |title=Major Walter Reed and the Eradication of Yellow Fever |url=https://armyhistory.org/major-walter-reed-and-the-eradication-of-yellow-fever/#:~:text=In%20a%20series%20of%20experiments,to%20person%20with%20their%20bites. |website=armyhistory.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Politics of Participation: Walter Reed's Yellow-Fever Experiments |url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/politics-participation-walter-reeds-yellow-fever-experiments/2009-04 |website=journalofethics.ama-assn.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Walter Reed and Yellow Fever |url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/insects/reed/ |website=exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1920 || Policy (reproductive rights) || "Lenin legalized all abortions in the Soviet Union"<ref>{{cite web |title=ABORTION AND BIRTH CONTROL IN SOVIET RUSSIA |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/field-alice/protect/ch04.html |website=marxists.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savage |first1=Mark |title=The Law of Abortion in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the People's Republic of China: Women's Rights in Two Socialist Countries |doi=10.2307/1228777 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228777?seq=1}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1926 || Literature || German theologian {{w|Fritz Jahr}}, referring to European and Oriental traditions, publishes an article entitled ''Natural sciences and teaching ethics'' where he gives the subtitle “Old Knowledge in new clothes” describing the function of natural sciences for education and teaching biological research ethics.<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> || {{w|Germany}}
 
| 1926 || Literature || German theologian {{w|Fritz Jahr}}, referring to European and Oriental traditions, publishes an article entitled ''Natural sciences and teaching ethics'' where he gives the subtitle “Old Knowledge in new clothes” describing the function of natural sciences for education and teaching biological research ethics.<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> || {{w|Germany}}
Line 89: Line 73:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1932 || || The {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} is conducted.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newton-Matza |first1=Mitchell |title=Disasters and Tragic Events: An Encyclopedia of Catastrophes in American History [2 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=8o6dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA307&dq=1932+Tuskegee+syphilis+experiment&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwipuKTj7MbqAhXeIbkGHQv_BJ4Q6AEwCHoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=1932%20Tuskegee%20syphilis%20experiment&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Suffering and Bioethics |edition=Ronald Michael Green, Nathan J. Palpant |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=c2cJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165&dq=1932+Tuskegee+syphilis+experiment&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI2ZHr7MbqAhUlIbkGHYEkAaM4ChDoATAAegQIAxAC#v=onepage&q=1932%20Tuskegee%20syphilis%20experiment&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1932 || || The {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} is conducted.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newton-Matza |first1=Mitchell |title=Disasters and Tragic Events: An Encyclopedia of Catastrophes in American History [2 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=8o6dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA307&dq=1932+Tuskegee+syphilis+experiment&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwipuKTj7MbqAhXeIbkGHQv_BJ4Q6AEwCHoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=1932%20Tuskegee%20syphilis%20experiment&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Suffering and Bioethics |edition=Ronald Michael Green, Nathan J. Palpant |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=c2cJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165&dq=1932+Tuskegee+syphilis+experiment&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI2ZHr7MbqAhUlIbkGHYEkAaM4ChDoATAAegQIAxAC#v=onepage&q=1932%20Tuskegee%20syphilis%20experiment&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 1932–1945 || || Japanese scientists working at {{w|Unit 731}} conduct abominable experiments on thousands of Chinese {{w|war prisoner}}. Experiments include biological and chemical weapons experiments, vaccination experiments, and wound-healing and surgical studies, including vivisections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brody |first1=Howard |last2=Leonard |first2=Sarah E. |last3=Nie |first3=Jing-Bao |last4=Weindling |first4=Paul |title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency |doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 |pmid=24534743 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829/ |pmc=4487829}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 
|-
 
| 1943–1944 || || {{w|Nazi human experimentation}}. "German scientists conducted morally abominable research on concentration camp prisoners, including experiments that exposed subjects to freezing temperatures, low air pressures, ionizing radiation and electricity, and infectious diseases; as well as wound-healing and surgical studies. " "The central leader of the experiments was [[Josef Mengele]], who from 1943 to 1944 performed experiments on nearly 1,500 sets of imprisoned twins at Auschwitz. About 200 people survived these studies."<ref>[http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html Josef Mengele and Experimentation on Human Twins at Auschwitz] {{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414074936/http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html |date=14 April 2015 }}, ''Children of the Flames; Dr. Josef Mengele and the Untold Story of the Twins of Auschwitz'', Lucette Matalon Lagnado and Sheila Cohn Dekel, and ''Mengele: the Complete Story'' by Gerald Posner and John Ware.</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1947 || || The {{w|Nuremberg Code}} is adopted as a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation. It is set as a result of the {{w|Subsequent Nuremberg trials}} at the end of the {{w|Second World War}}.<ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> || {{w|Germany}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1947 || || American ecologist {{w|Aldo Leopold}} publishes ''The Land Ethic'', a chapter in ''{{w|A Sand County Almanac}}''. Leopold argues that there is a critical need for a "new ethic," an "ethic dealing with human's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it".<ref name=Leopold1949>Leopold, A. 1949. ''A Sand County Almanac''. Oxford University Press, New York.</ref>
 
| 1947 || || American ecologist {{w|Aldo Leopold}} publishes ''The Land Ethic'', a chapter in ''{{w|A Sand County Almanac}}''. Leopold argues that there is a critical need for a "new ethic," an "ethic dealing with human's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it".<ref name=Leopold1949>Leopold, A. 1949. ''A Sand County Almanac''. Oxford University Press, New York.</ref>
Line 101: Line 79:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1948 || || "Alfred Kinsey publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Five years later, he publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. These books were very controversial, because they examined topics which were regarded as taboo at the time, such as masturbation, orgasm, intercourse, promiscuity, and sexual fantasies. Kinsey could not obtain public funding for the research, so he funded it privately through the Kinsey Institute."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charles Kinsey |first1=Alfred |last2=Baxter Pomeroy |first2=Wardell |last3=Eugene Martin |first3=Clyde |title=Sexual Behavior in the Human Male |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Sexual_Behavior_in_the_Human_Male.html?id=pfMKrY3VvigC&redir_esc=y}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sexual Behavior in the Human Male |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sexual-Behavior-in-the-Human-Male |website=britannica.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
| 1948 || || "Alfred Kinsey publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Five years later, he publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. These books were very controversial, because they examined topics which were regarded as taboo at the time, such as masturbation, orgasm, intercourse, promiscuity, and sexual fantasies. Kinsey could not obtain public funding for the research, so he funded it privately through the Kinsey Institute."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charles Kinsey |first1=Alfred |last2=Baxter Pomeroy |first2=Wardell |last3=Eugene Martin |first3=Clyde |title=Sexual Behavior in the Human Male |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Sexual_Behavior_in_the_Human_Male.html?id=pfMKrY3VvigC&redir_esc=y}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sexual Behavior in the Human Male |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sexual-Behavior-in-the-Human-Male |website=britannica.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 1954 || Literature || Joseph F. Fletcher publishes ''Morals and Medicine: The Moral Problems of the Patient’s Right to Know the Truth, Contraception, Artificial Insemination, Sterilization, and Euthanasia''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morals and Medicine |url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/549.html |website=press.princeton.edu |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1956–1980 || || Research team led by Saul Krugman and Joan Giles conducts hepatitis experiments on mentally disabled children at The {{w|Willowbrook State School}}. The subjects are intentionally infected with the disease and researchers ovserve its natural progression. The experiments are approved by the [[w:New York State Department of Health|New York Department of Health]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shamoo |first1=Adil E. |last2=Resnik |first2=David B. |title=Responsible Conduct of Research |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dP7oKntCUUUC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=1956%E2%80%931980+%22Saul+Krugman,+Joan+Giles+and+other+researchers+conduct+hepatitis+experiments+on+mentally+disabled+children+at+The+Willowbrook+State+School&source=bl&ots=PF80NaLudm&sig=ACfU3U33xOo6F0mFchm1BiGwMuGC9NbdlQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXtrnJlcjqAhU7K7kGHWAXDmQQ6AEwCHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=1956%E2%80%931980%20%22Saul%20Krugman%2C%20Joan%20Giles%20and%20other%20researchers%20conduct%20hepatitis%20experiments%20on%20mentally%20disabled%20children%20at%20The%20Willowbrook%20State%20School&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Research Ethics: Where are we,  How did we get here, and Where  are we going? |url=https://research.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/content/HRPO/MIM%20files/ResearchEthicsMIM_4_18_19.pdf |website=research.columbia.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1956–1980 || || Research team led by Saul Krugman and Joan Giles conducts hepatitis experiments on mentally disabled children at The {{w|Willowbrook State School}}. The subjects are intentionally infected with the disease and researchers ovserve its natural progression. The experiments are approved by the [[w:New York State Department of Health|New York Department of Health]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shamoo |first1=Adil E. |last2=Resnik |first2=David B. |title=Responsible Conduct of Research |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dP7oKntCUUUC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=1956%E2%80%931980+%22Saul+Krugman,+Joan+Giles+and+other+researchers+conduct+hepatitis+experiments+on+mentally+disabled+children+at+The+Willowbrook+State+School&source=bl&ots=PF80NaLudm&sig=ACfU3U33xOo6F0mFchm1BiGwMuGC9NbdlQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXtrnJlcjqAhU7K7kGHWAXDmQQ6AEwCHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=1956%E2%80%931980%20%22Saul%20Krugman%2C%20Joan%20Giles%20and%20other%20researchers%20conduct%20hepatitis%20experiments%20on%20mentally%20disabled%20children%20at%20The%20Willowbrook%20State%20School&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Research Ethics: Where are we,  How did we get here, and Where  are we going? |url=https://research.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/content/HRPO/MIM%20files/ResearchEthicsMIM_4_18_19.pdf |website=research.columbia.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1961 || || "The Milgram Experiment was conducted to test how far a subject would go to earn approval of an authority figure. The experiment was thought to violate many ethical standards due to extenuating emotional conflict and stress." ||
 
| 1961 || || "The Milgram Experiment was conducted to test how far a subject would go to earn approval of an authority figure. The experiment was thought to violate many ethical standards due to extenuating emotional conflict and stress." ||
|-
 
| 1964 || || The {{w|Declaration of Helsinki}} is created in order to provide researchers and physicians with ethical guidelines. It is developed for the medical community by the {{w|World Medical Association}}.<ref name="Bioethicsvv"/><ref>{{cite web |title=DECLARATION OF HELSINKI |url=https://www.wma.net/what-we-do/medical-ethics/declaration-of-helsinki/ |website=wma.net |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Finland}}
 
|-
 
| 1966 || Organization || The [[W:Schlesinger Institute|Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research]] is founded.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research |url=http://www.medethics.org.il/website/index.php/en/ |website=medethics.org.il |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Partnership with the Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research and the International Responsa Project |url=https://www.israelrabbis.org/about-barkai-practical-rabbinics/newsletter-articles/90-bulletin/96-partnership-with-the-dr-falk-schlesinger-institute-for-medical-halachic-research-and-the-international-responsa-project |website=israelrabbis.org |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
 
|-
 
| 1966 || Organization || The first medical ethics committees in Europe emerge in the United Kingdom and Sweden.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective">{{cite book |last1=Have |first1=Ten |last2=Gordijn |first2=Bert |title=Bioethics in a European Perspective |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6kf8CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA242&lpg=PA242&dq=%22bioethics%22+%22in+1980..1990%22&source=bl&ots=EqKIhtbEXd&sig=nouvRbqMAo4_002jQdhY4WH_GSE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih_fi8yJrdAhXHQZAKHaJGCI8Q6AEwAXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22bioethics%22%20%22in%201980..1990%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|Sweden}}
 
|-
 
| 1966 || Field development || American anesthesiologist {{w|Henry K. Beecher}} publishes an article in ''{{w|The New England Journal of Medicine}}'' exposing 22 unethical studies in biomedicine, including the {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} and the [[w:Willowbrook State School|Willowbrook hepatitis study]].<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)">{{cite web |title=Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present) |url=https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm |website=niehs.nih.gov |accessdate=18 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethics and clinical research / Henry K. Beecher |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/74765 |website=apps.who.int |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Henry Knowles Beecher and the Development of Informed Consent in Anesthesia Research |url=https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1946793 |website=anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref>  || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1969 || Organization || {{w|The Hastings Center}} is founded as a bioethics research institute. It is located in {{w|Garrison, New York}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hastings Center |url=https://www.thehastingscenter.org/who-we-are/ |website=thehastingscenter.org |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About The Hastings Center |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hast.965 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1969 || Organization || {{w|The Hastings Center}} is founded as a bioethics research institute. It is located in {{w|Garrison, New York}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hastings Center |url=https://www.thehastingscenter.org/who-we-are/ |website=thehastingscenter.org |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About The Hastings Center |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hast.965 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
Line 135: Line 103:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1973 || || "After conducting hearings on unethical research involving human subjects, including the Tuskegee study, Congress passes the National Research Act in 1973, which President Nixon signs in 1974. The Act authorizes federal agencies (e.g. the NIH and FDA) to develop human research regulations. The regulations require institutions to form Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) to review and oversee research with human subjects."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Tuskegee Timeline |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm |website=cdc.gov |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study |url=https://www.history.com/news/the-infamous-40-year-tuskegee-study |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}     
 
| 1973 || || "After conducting hearings on unethical research involving human subjects, including the Tuskegee study, Congress passes the National Research Act in 1973, which President Nixon signs in 1974. The Act authorizes federal agencies (e.g. the NIH and FDA) to develop human research regulations. The regulations require institutions to form Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) to review and oversee research with human subjects."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Tuskegee Timeline |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm |website=cdc.gov |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study |url=https://www.history.com/news/the-infamous-40-year-tuskegee-study |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}     
|-
 
| 1975 || Literature || The ''{{w|Journal of Medical Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Editor-in-Chief Journal of Medical Ethics |url=https://blogs.bmj.com/medical-ethics/2017/07/05/editor-in-chief-journal-of-medical-ethics/ |website=blogs.bmj.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=VEATCH |first1=ROBERT M. |title=How Philosophy of Medicine Has Changed Medical Ethics |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03605310601009315 |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1975 || Field development || {{w|Peter Singer}} claims that human beings must consider the equal interests of human beings and animals alike.<ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> ||
 
| 1975 || Field development || {{w|Peter Singer}} claims that human beings must consider the equal interests of human beings and animals alike.<ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> ||
Line 142: Line 108:
 
| 1975 || Field development || At a gathering at the {{w|Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA}}, scientists discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA research; the NIH forms the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee." "Scientists gather at Asilomar, California to discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA experiments and agree upon a temporary moratorium for this research until they can develop biosafety standards. The NIH forms the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to provide guidance for researchers and institutions. Research institutions form Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs) to review and oversee research involving hazardous biological materials." <ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Events in the rDNA Debate |url=https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/debate/debate3.htm |website=ndsu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asilomar Conference on Laboratory Precautions When Conducting Recombinant DNA Research – Case Summary |url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=edethicsinscience |website=scholarworks.umass.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1975 || Field development || At a gathering at the {{w|Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA}}, scientists discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA research; the NIH forms the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee." "Scientists gather at Asilomar, California to discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA experiments and agree upon a temporary moratorium for this research until they can develop biosafety standards. The NIH forms the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to provide guidance for researchers and institutions. Research institutions form Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs) to review and oversee research involving hazardous biological materials." <ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Events in the rDNA Debate |url=https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/debate/debate3.htm |website=ndsu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asilomar Conference on Laboratory Precautions When Conducting Recombinant DNA Research – Case Summary |url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=edethicsinscience |website=scholarworks.umass.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1975 || || "The right to die movement in the US began with the case of [[w:Karen Ann Quinlan|Karen Quinlan]] in 1975 and continues to raise bioethical questions of one's quality of life and the legal process of death. Karen Quinlan, 21, lost consciousness  after consuming alcohol and tranquilizers at a party."<ref name="McFadden_1985">{{cite web | vauthors = McFadden RD | title = Karen Ann Quinlan, 31, Dies; Focus of '76 Right to Die Case | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/nyregion/karen-ann-quinlan-31-dies-focus-of-76-right-to-die-case.html | work = The New York Times | date = 12 June 1985 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 1978 || Scientific development || {{w|Louise Brown}} is born as the world's first test-tube baby.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
 
|-
 
 
| 1978 || || "With its starting publication in 1978 (1st edition), the Encyclopedia of Bioethics became the first reference book to focus exclusively on the new and promising field of bioethics, helping to define the discipline"<ref>{{cite web |title=The new edition (4th) of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics |url=http://www.saocamilo-sp.br/pdf/bioethikos/155567/Editorialen.pdf |website=saocamilo-sp.br |accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> ||
 
| 1978 || || "With its starting publication in 1978 (1st edition), the Encyclopedia of Bioethics became the first reference book to focus exclusively on the new and promising field of bioethics, helping to define the discipline"<ref>{{cite web |title=The new edition (4th) of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics |url=http://www.saocamilo-sp.br/pdf/bioethikos/155567/Editorialen.pdf |website=saocamilo-sp.br |accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> ||
|-
 
| 1978 || || "Louise Brown, the world’s first baby conceived by in vitro fertilization, is born in the U.K. She is currently alive and healthy."<ref>{{cite web |title=THIS DAY IN HISTORY |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/worlds-first-test-tube-baby-born |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Louise Brown Biography |url=https://www.biography.com/personality/louise-brown |website=biography.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1979 || || "The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research publishes The Belmont Report: Principles of Ethical Research on Human Subjects. The Report provides the conceptual foundation for a major revision of the U.S. research regulations in 1981."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Resnik |first1=David B. |title=Playing Politics with Science: Balancing Scientific Independence and Government Oversight |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=I-MQEWXLrXUC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1979+%22The+National+Commission+for+the+Protection+of+Human+Subjects+in+Biomedical+and+Behavioral+Research+publishes+The+Belmont+Report:+Principles+of+Ethical+Research+on+Human+Subjects.+The+Report+provides+the+conceptual+foundation+for+a+major+revision+of+the+U.S.+research+regulations+in+1981&source=bl&ots=oAgfAik88e&sig=ACfU3U2OKd_knXpOtiUVuoCbiTRVuKV_dQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD9I71_8jqAhX_GbkGHfyqCMIQ6AEwC3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=1979%20%22The%20National%20Commission%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Human%20Subjects%20in%20Biomedical%20and%20Behavioral%20Research%20publishes%20The%20Belmont%20Report%3A%20Principles%20of%20Ethical%20Research%20on%20Human%20Subjects.%20The%20Report%20provides%20the%20conceptual%20foundation%20for%20a%20major%20revision%20of%20the%20U.S.%20research%20regulations%20in%201981&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metcalf |first1=Jacob |last2=Crawford |first2=Kate |title=Where are human subjects in Big Data research? The emerging ethics divide |doi=10.1177/2053951716650211 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053951716650211}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1978 || || "The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) is formed. It consists of a group of medical journal editors who create and each year revise Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts." ||
 
|-
 
| 1979 || Literature || {{w|IRB: Ethics & Human Research}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Announcing Ethics & Human Research |url=https://www.thehastingscenter.org/news/announcing-ethics-human-research/ |website=thehastingscenter.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1979 || Organization || The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Switzerland}}
 
|-
 
| 1979 || Organization || {{w|Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics}}<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Center for Health Care Ethics |url=https://www.slu.edu/arts-and-sciences/bioethics/about/index.php |website=slu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics |url=https://catalog.slu.edu/colleges-schools/arts-sciences/health-care-ethics/ |website=catalog.slu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 1979 || || The {{w|Belmont Report}} is released by the {{w| National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research}}. The Report becomes a key document in human research ethics regulations in the United States.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=The Belmont Report |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html |website=hhs.gov |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1980 || Policy || In the {{w|Diamond v. Chakrabarty}} case the {{w|United States Supreme Court}} rules that a genetically modified bacterium can be patented because it is the product of human ingenuity. This sets a precedent for patents on other life forms and helps to establish solid intellectual property protection for the new biotechnology industry.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1980 || Policy || In the {{w|Diamond v. Chakrabarty}} case the {{w|United States Supreme Court}} rules that a genetically modified bacterium can be patented because it is the product of human ingenuity. This sets a precedent for patents on other life forms and helps to establish solid intellectual property protection for the new biotechnology industry.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 1981 || Organization || Japan establishes its first ethics committee, at the Medical Institute of Tokyo University.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Japan}}
 
|-
 
| 1981 || Organization || {{w|MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Steven Miles Wins MacLean Prize |url=https://macleanethics.uchicago.edu/ |website=macleanethics.uchicago.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Laura Weiss |last2=Siegler |first2=Mark |title=Clinical Medical Ethics: Landmark Works of Mark Siegler, MD |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=M3ckDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=1981++MacLean+Center+for+Clinical+Medical+Ethics&source=bl&ots=8DkQOp1Zll&sig=ACfU3U3FGPbvVjfEjGA5sQxGamQvGhDtnA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYndjPvMbqAhUSIbkGHfIbDw0Q6AEwA3oECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=1981%20%20MacLean%20Center%20for%20Clinical%20Medical%20Ethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1982 || || "William Broad and Nicholas Wade publish Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science. This book helps to to reveal much of the scientific misconduct that was going on at the time." ||
 
| 1982 || || "William Broad and Nicholas Wade publish Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science. This book helps to to reveal much of the scientific misconduct that was going on at the time." ||
|-
 
| 1985 || Literature || Zhi-zheng Du's ''Outline of Medical Ethics'' is published in China as the first systematic textbook of medical ethics after the cultural revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics"/> || {{w|China}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1986 || Literature || Peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|Biology and Philosophy}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biology and Philosophy |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10539-016-9559-6 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
| 1986 || Literature || Peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|Biology and Philosophy}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biology and Philosophy |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10539-016-9559-6 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 1987 || Organization || The European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Health Care is founded by an international company of philosophers, physicians, ethicists and other interested professionals in the field.<ref name="The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare">{{cite web |title=The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare |url=http://www.espmh.org/about.php |website=espmh.org |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1987 || Literature || Ren-zong Qiu's ''Bioethics'' is published as the first bioethics book in China.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics">{{cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Mark J. |last2=Peppin |first2=John F. |title=Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=CUB5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248&dq=%22in+1987%22+Journal+Bioethics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiWuKHx_8DdAhVGlZAKHQ2DArwQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201987%22%20Journal%20Bioethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 
| 1987 || Literature || Ren-zong Qiu's ''Bioethics'' is published as the first bioethics book in China.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics">{{cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Mark J. |last2=Peppin |first2=John F. |title=Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=CUB5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248&dq=%22in+1987%22+Journal+Bioethics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiWuKHx_8DdAhVGlZAKHQ2DArwQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201987%22%20Journal%20Bioethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
Line 183: Line 123:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1988 || Scientific development || {{w|Harvard University}} and {{w|Dow Chemical Company}} patent a genetically engineered mouse used to study cancer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bioethics and Patent Law: The Case of the Oncomouse |url=https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2006/03/article_0006.html |website=wipo.int |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Harvard Gets Mouse Patent, A World First |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/04/13/us/harvard-gets-mouse-patent-a-world-first.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Mouse That Changed Science |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/the-mouse-that-changed-science |website=sciencehistory.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1988 || Scientific development || {{w|Harvard University}} and {{w|Dow Chemical Company}} patent a genetically engineered mouse used to study cancer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bioethics and Patent Law: The Case of the Oncomouse |url=https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2006/03/article_0006.html |website=wipo.int |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Harvard Gets Mouse Patent, A World First |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/04/13/us/harvard-gets-mouse-patent-a-world-first.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Mouse That Changed Science |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/the-mouse-that-changed-science |website=sciencehistory.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 1988 || Literature || Zhao-xiong He's ''History of Chinese Medical Morality'' is published, providing material on medical ethics from ancient to current China.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics"/> || {{w|China}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1988 || Literature || Van Rensselaer Potter publishes ''Global bioethics''.<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present">{{cite web |title=Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present |url=https://www.intechopen.com/books/reflections-on-bioethics/russian-school-of-bioethics-history-and-the-present- |website=intechopen.com |accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> ||
 
| 1988 || Literature || Van Rensselaer Potter publishes ''Global bioethics''.<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present">{{cite web |title=Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present |url=https://www.intechopen.com/books/reflections-on-bioethics/russian-school-of-bioethics-history-and-the-present- |website=intechopen.com |accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> ||
Line 195: Line 133:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1990 || Program launch || The {{w|Human Genome Project}} is launched by the {{w|United States}} as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the {{w|human genome}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=1990: Launch of the Human Genome Project |url=https://www.genome.gov/25520329/online-education-kit-1990-launch-of-the-human-genome-project |website=genome.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Human Genome Project (1990-2003) |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/human-genome-project-1990-2003 |website=embryo.asu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1990 || Program launch || The {{w|Human Genome Project}} is launched by the {{w|United States}} as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the {{w|human genome}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=1990: Launch of the Human Genome Project |url=https://www.genome.gov/25520329/online-education-kit-1990-launch-of-the-human-genome-project |website=genome.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Human Genome Project (1990-2003) |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/human-genome-project-1990-2003 |website=embryo.asu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 1990 || || American physician {{w|William French Anderson}} begins the first human gene therapy clinical trial on patients with {{w|adenosine deaminase deficiency}}, a genetic disease that affects the {{w|immune system}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Making History with the 1990 Gene Therapy Trial |url=https://www.genengnews.com/magazine/269/making-history-with-the-1990-gene-therapy-trial/ |website=genengnews.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Reprogenetics: Law, Policy, and Ethical Issues |edition=Lori P. Knowles, Gregory E. Kaebnick |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ZhTGhDlOgsYC&pg=PA1973&lpg=PA1973&dq=1990+%22W.+French+Anderson+begins+the+first+human+gene+therapy+clinical+trial+on+patients+with+ADA+deficiency,+a+genetic+disease+that+affects+the+immune+system&source=bl&ots=dPCjDTfiaF&sig=ACfU3U2Dx_PdGt6fqJW9BLW6vbufuLvx-w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinuqeHlsnqAhWoIbkGHTsTDqoQ6AEwC3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=1990%20%22W.%20French%20Anderson%20begins%20the%20first%20human%20gene%20therapy%20clinical%20trial%20on%20patients%20with%20ADA%20deficiency%2C%20a%20genetic%20disease%20that%20affects%20the%20immune%20system&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 1991 || || "The 1991 {{w|Patient Self-Determination Act}} passed by the {{w|US Congress}} at the request of the financial arm of Medicare does permit elderly Medicare/Medicaid patients (and by implication, all "terminal" patients) to prepare an advance directive in which they elect or choose to refuse life-extending and/or life-saving treatments as a means of shortening their lives to shorten their suffering unto certain death.  The treatment refused in an advance directive under US law, because of the 1991 PSDA,  does not have to be proved to be "medically futile" under some existing due-process procedure developed under state laws, such as TADA in Texas."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kelley K | title = The Patient Self-Determination Act. A matter of life and death | journal = Physician Assistant | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 49, 53–6, 59–60 passim | date = March 1995 | pmid = 10141946 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1991 || Organization || London-based {{w|Nuffield Council on Bioethics}} is established by the {{w|Nuffield Foundation}} to adress numerous bioethical issues in need of analysis.<ref>{{cite book |title=National bioethics committees in action |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=8JtYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP8&dq=%22in+1991%22+%22Nuffield+Council+on+Bioethics%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk2fS-5cLdAhXBE5AKHaqlCOQQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201991%22%20%22Nuffield%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Weir |first1=Robert F. |last2=Olick |first2=Robert S. |last3=Murray |first3=Jeffrey C. |title=The Stored Tissue Issue: Biomedical Research, Ethics, and Law in the Era of Genomic Medicine |publisher= |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=_1ASDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105&dq=%22in+1991%22+%22Nuffield+Council+on+Bioethics%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk2fS-5cLdAhXBE5AKHaqlCOQQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201991%22%20%22Nuffield%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Global Bioethics: The Impact of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee |publisher=Alireza Bagheri, Jonathan D. Moreno, Stefano Semplici |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Kv_NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129&dq=%22in+1991%22+%22Nuffield+Council+on+Bioethics%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk2fS-5cLdAhXBE5AKHaqlCOQQ6AEIOzAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201991%22%20%22Nuffield%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
| 1991 || Organization || London-based {{w|Nuffield Council on Bioethics}} is established by the {{w|Nuffield Foundation}} to adress numerous bioethical issues in need of analysis.<ref>{{cite book |title=National bioethics committees in action |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=8JtYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP8&dq=%22in+1991%22+%22Nuffield+Council+on+Bioethics%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk2fS-5cLdAhXBE5AKHaqlCOQQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201991%22%20%22Nuffield%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Weir |first1=Robert F. |last2=Olick |first2=Robert S. |last3=Murray |first3=Jeffrey C. |title=The Stored Tissue Issue: Biomedical Research, Ethics, and Law in the Era of Genomic Medicine |publisher= |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=_1ASDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105&dq=%22in+1991%22+%22Nuffield+Council+on+Bioethics%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk2fS-5cLdAhXBE5AKHaqlCOQQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201991%22%20%22Nuffield%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Global Bioethics: The Impact of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee |publisher=Alireza Bagheri, Jonathan D. Moreno, Stefano Semplici |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Kv_NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129&dq=%22in+1991%22+%22Nuffield+Council+on+Bioethics%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk2fS-5cLdAhXBE5AKHaqlCOQQ6AEIOzAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201991%22%20%22Nuffield%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
Line 217: Line 151:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1993 || Organization || The {{w|International Bioethics Committee}} is established by {{w|UNESCO}} to provide guidance on ethical and legal issues raised by research in medicine, biological sciences and associated technologies, and to reinforce knowledge in ethics.<ref>{{cite book |title=Global Bioethics: The Impact of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee |edition=Alireza Bagheri, Jonathan D. Moreno, Stefano Semplici |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Kv_NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176&dq=%22in+1993%22+International+Bioethics+Committee&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjztvzxucLdAhVIlpAKHYkRB2AQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201993%22%20International%20Bioethics%20Committee&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=ten Have |first1=Henk |title=Global Bioethics: An introduction |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=mlyFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174&dq=%22in+1993%22+International+Bioethics+Committee&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjztvzxucLdAhVIlpAKHYkRB2AQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201993%22%20International%20Bioethics%20Committee&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
| 1993 || Organization || The {{w|International Bioethics Committee}} is established by {{w|UNESCO}} to provide guidance on ethical and legal issues raised by research in medicine, biological sciences and associated technologies, and to reinforce knowledge in ethics.<ref>{{cite book |title=Global Bioethics: The Impact of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee |edition=Alireza Bagheri, Jonathan D. Moreno, Stefano Semplici |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Kv_NCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176&dq=%22in+1993%22+International+Bioethics+Committee&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjztvzxucLdAhVIlpAKHYkRB2AQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201993%22%20International%20Bioethics%20Committee&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=ten Have |first1=Henk |title=Global Bioethics: An introduction |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=mlyFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174&dq=%22in+1993%22+International+Bioethics+Committee&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjztvzxucLdAhVIlpAKHYkRB2AQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201993%22%20International%20Bioethics%20Committee&f=false}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 1993 || Journal || The ''Indian Journal of Medical Ethics'' is launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jesani |first1=Amar |title=In the 25th year of bioethics publishing: new challenges of the post-truth era |url=http://ijme.in/articles/in-the-25th-year-of-bioethics-publishing-new-challenges-of-the-post-truth-era-2/?galley=html |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 
|-
 
| 1994 || || The United States Government declassifies information about secret human radiation experiments conducted from the 1940s-1980s and issues an apology.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 1994 || Literature || American philosophers {{w|Tom Beauchamp}} and {{w|James Childress}} publish ''The principles of biomedical ethics'', in which they state their basic principles of bioethics as "the principle of respect for patient autonomy, which has grounded, in particular, the concept of informed consent; dates back to the Hippocratic principle of “do no harm,” which requires minimization of damage to the patient during the medical intervention; the principle of “do good” (beneficence), emphasizing the physician’s responsibility to take positive steps to improve the condition of the patient; and the principle of justice, emphasizing the need for fairness and equal treatment of patients, and equitable distribution of resources (which are always limited) in the provision of medical care".<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1994 || || American psychologist {{w|Richard Herrnstein}} and American political scientist [[w:Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]] publish ''{{w|The Bell Curve}}'', a controversial book that reignites the centuries old debate about biology, race and intelligence"<ref>{{cite web |title=Intelligence, Genes, and Success |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/intelligence-genes-and-success/13726156 |website=springerprofessional.de |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1994 || || American psychologist {{w|Richard Herrnstein}} and American political scientist [[w:Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]] publish ''{{w|The Bell Curve}}'', a controversial book that reignites the centuries old debate about biology, race and intelligence"<ref>{{cite web |title=Intelligence, Genes, and Success |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/intelligence-genes-and-success/13726156 |website=springerprofessional.de |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1994 || || {{w|Montreal}} surgeon Roger Poisson admits to fabricating and falsifying patient data in NIH-funded breast cancer clinical trials in order allow his patients to qualify for enrollment and have access to experimental treatments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Doctor Says He Falsified Cancer Data to Help Patients |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/01/us/doctor-says-he-falsified-cancer-data-to-help-patients.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2019 Tri-I Responsible Conduct of Research Course RCR Case Studies |url=https://www.mskcc.org/sites/default/files/node/26556/documents/case-study-instructions-and-guidelines-fall-2019.pdf |website=mskcc.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Canada}}
 
| 1994 || || {{w|Montreal}} surgeon Roger Poisson admits to fabricating and falsifying patient data in NIH-funded breast cancer clinical trials in order allow his patients to qualify for enrollment and have access to experimental treatments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Doctor Says He Falsified Cancer Data to Help Patients |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/01/us/doctor-says-he-falsified-cancer-data-to-help-patients.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2019 Tri-I Responsible Conduct of Research Course RCR Case Studies |url=https://www.mskcc.org/sites/default/files/node/26556/documents/case-study-instructions-and-guidelines-fall-2019.pdf |website=mskcc.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Canada}}
|-
 
| 1994 || || The {{w|Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments}} is formed to investigate questions of the record of the United States government with respect to human radiation experiments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments |url=https://bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu/achre/ |website=bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments - Executive Summary |url=https://ehss.energy.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/summary.html |website=ehss.energy.gov |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1995 || || About 200 religious leaders join in {{w|Washington, DC.}}, with leading biotechnology critic Jeremy Rifkin in a press conference named the "Joint Appeal against Human and Animal Patenting", protesting the patenting of plants, animals, and human body parts.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=MJ |title=Religious voices in biotechnology: the case of gene patenting. |pmid=12962106 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12962106}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=M J |title=Religious Voices in Biotechnology: The Case of Gene Patenting |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12962106/}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1995 || || About 200 religious leaders join in {{w|Washington, DC.}}, with leading biotechnology critic Jeremy Rifkin in a press conference named the "Joint Appeal against Human and Animal Patenting", protesting the patenting of plants, animals, and human body parts.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=MJ |title=Religious voices in biotechnology: the case of gene patenting. |pmid=12962106 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12962106}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=M J |title=Religious Voices in Biotechnology: The Case of Gene Patenting |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12962106/}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
Line 247: Line 173:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1996 || Literature (book) || American philosopher {{w|H. Tristram Engelhardt Jr.}} publishes ''The Foundation of Bioethics'', in which he states “Moral diversity is real. It is real in fact and in principle. Bioethics and healthcare policy have yet to take this diversity seriously. Those who teach bioethics, those who engage in bioethics committees, even those who produced textbooks tend to discount the diversity of understanding regarding the morality of particular health care choices (e.g., regarding abortion, commercial surrogacy, euthanasia/ germline genetic engineering, inequalities in access to health care, infanticide, organ sales) or the nature of morality (e.g., theological, deontological, virtue-based)".<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1996 || Literature (book) || American philosopher {{w|H. Tristram Engelhardt Jr.}} publishes ''The Foundation of Bioethics'', in which he states “Moral diversity is real. It is real in fact and in principle. Bioethics and healthcare policy have yet to take this diversity seriously. Those who teach bioethics, those who engage in bioethics committees, even those who produced textbooks tend to discount the diversity of understanding regarding the morality of particular health care choices (e.g., regarding abortion, commercial surrogacy, euthanasia/ germline genetic engineering, inequalities in access to health care, infanticide, organ sales) or the nature of morality (e.g., theological, deontological, virtue-based)".<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present"/> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 1997 || || United States President {{w|Bill Clinton}} formally apologizes on behalf of the United States to victims of the [[w:U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee|syphilis study at Tuskegee]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Apology |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/clintonp.htm |website=cdc.gov |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Apology for the Study at Tuskegee |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Presidential-Apology-for-the-Study-at-Tuskegee-1369625 |website=britannica.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 1997 || || {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/HumanGenomeAndHumanRights.aspx |website=ohchr.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mayor |first1=Federico |title=The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human RightsLa Déclaration Universelle sur le Génome Humain et les Droits de l'Homme |doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2003.09.017 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069103002154}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1997 || || "COPE, [The Committee On Publication Ethics] was established in the UK. Its members consist of academic journal editors and others who are concerned about the integrity of what is peer-reviewed and published in journals." || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
| 1997 || || "COPE, [The Committee On Publication Ethics] was established in the UK. Its members consist of academic journal editors and others who are concerned about the integrity of what is peer-reviewed and published in journals." || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1997 || || "As the health of citizens is considered a police power left for individual states to regulate, it was not until 1997 that the US Supreme Court made a ruling on the issue of assisted suicide and one's right to die. That year, the Supreme Court heard two appeals arguing that New York and Washington statutes that made physician-assisted suicide a felony violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment."<ref>{{cite web | title = Vacco, Attorney General of New York, et al. v. Quill et al.| url = https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10644975876581235704&q=vacco+v.+quill&hl=en&as_sdt=40000006 | publisher = United States Supreme Court }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1998 || || As scientists perfect methods for growing human embryonic stem cells, some countries ban the research, while others promote it.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Stem Cell Research as Innovation: Expanding the Ethical and Policy Conversation |doi=10.1111/j.1748-720X.2010.00492.x |pmid=20579255 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2941662/ |pmc=2941662}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 13Embryos, Cloning, Stem Cells, and the Promise of Reprogramming |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK190607/ |website=ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=European Citizens' Initiative: European Commission replies to 'One of Us' – Q&A |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_14_385 |website=ec.europa.eu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 1997 || || "The {{w|Constitutional Court of Colombia}} decriminalised piety homicide, for terminally ill patients, stating that "the medical author cannot be held responsible for the assisted suicide of a terminally ill patient" and urged [[w:Congress of Colombia|Congress]] to regulate {{w|voluntary euthanasia|euthanasia}} "in the shortest time possible"."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dmd.org.co/pdf/sentencia-c-239.pdf|title= REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA Corte Constitucional Sentencia No. C-239/97 |author=Constitutional Court of Colombia |date=20 May 1997 |access-date=13 July 2020|author-link= Constitutional Court of Colombia }}/ref> || {{w|Colombia}}
 
|-
 
| 1998 || || "Scientists perfect methods for growing human embryonic stem cells. Some countries ban the research; others promote it."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Stem Cell Research as Innovation: Expanding the Ethical and Policy Conversation |doi=10.1111/j.1748-720X.2010.00492.x |pmid=20579255 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2941662/ |pmc=2941662}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 13Embryos, Cloning, Stem Cells, and the Promise of Reprogramming |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK190607/ |website=ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=European Citizens' Initiative: European Commission replies to 'One of Us' – Q&A |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_14_385 |website=ec.europa.eu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1998 || Literature (journal) || {{w|Medicine Health Care and Philosophy}} is launched by the European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare.<ref name="The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare"/> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1998 || Scientific development || Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
 
| 1998 || Scientific development || Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
Line 269: Line 185:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1999 || Literature || The ''{{w|American Journal of Bioethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Journal of Bioethics |url=http://www.bioethics.net/about/ |website=bioethics.net |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref>  || {{w|United Sattes}}
 
| 1999 || Literature || The ''{{w|American Journal of Bioethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Journal of Bioethics |url=http://www.bioethics.net/about/ |website=bioethics.net |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref>  || {{w|United Sattes}}
|-
 
| 1999 || Organization || {{w|Human Genetics Alert}} is founded in {{w|London}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Human Genetics Alert |url=http://www.hgalert.org/aboutUs/ |website=hgalert.org |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> It advocates against uses of {{w|reproductive technology}} and {{w|human genetics}} research that it considers harmful.<ref name="detail">{{cite web |title=Participant Detail |url=http://www.biopolitics-berlin2003.org/participants.asp?id=302&od=1 |website=Within and Beyond the Limits to Human Nature |accessdate=18 December 2019}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 1999 || Policy || The {{w|National Institutes of Health}} and the {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research have some training in research ethics.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1999 || Literature || Chinese bioethicist {{w|Lee Shui-chuen}} publishes ''Confucian Bioethics'' (in Chinese).<ref>{{cite web |title=China |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2512-6_11 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Limits of Human Existence According to China’s Bioethics |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6764-8_24 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A Confucian Asian Ethos? Essentials of the Culture of East Asian Bioethics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43150699?seq=1 |website=jstor.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 
| 1999 || Literature || Chinese bioethicist {{w|Lee Shui-chuen}} publishes ''Confucian Bioethics'' (in Chinese).<ref>{{cite web |title=China |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2512-6_11 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Limits of Human Existence According to China’s Bioethics |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6764-8_24 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A Confucian Asian Ethos? Essentials of the Culture of East Asian Bioethics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43150699?seq=1 |website=jstor.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
|-
 
| 1999 || Policy || The United States {{w|National Institutes of Health}} and the {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research to have training in research ethics.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 2000 || Organization || The {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=OHRP History |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/about-ohrp/history/index.html |website=hhs.gov |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2001 || Literature || Peer-reviewed journal ''{{w|The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Curran |first1=Charles E. |title=Catholic Moral Theology in the United States: A History |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=enB4otKhEFwC&pg=PA222&lpg=PA222&dq=%22in+2001%22+The+National+Catholic+Bioethics+Quarterly&source=bl&ots=rH3DEl-Bdr&sig=LifxWKWrmT8Js0w50qyzQHz3GsM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiLlcyFksPdAhULg5AKHfOcBZEQ6AEwB3oECAAQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20The%20National%20Catholic%20Bioethics%20Quarterly&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2001 || Literature || Peer-reviewed journal ''{{w|The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Curran |first1=Charles E. |title=Catholic Moral Theology in the United States: A History |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=enB4otKhEFwC&pg=PA222&lpg=PA222&dq=%22in+2001%22+The+National+Catholic+Bioethics+Quarterly&source=bl&ots=rH3DEl-Bdr&sig=LifxWKWrmT8Js0w50qyzQHz3GsM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiLlcyFksPdAhULg5AKHfOcBZEQ6AEwB3oECAAQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20The%20National%20Catholic%20Bioethics%20Quarterly&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 2001 || Field development || The {{w|United States Congress}} starts debating legislation on human cloning.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2001 || Policy || Several journals start requiring authors to describe their responsibilities when publishing research.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
 
| 2001 || Policy || Several journals start requiring authors to describe their responsibilities when publishing research.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
|-
 
| 2001 || || The United States Government announces that the {{w|National Institutes of Health}} will fund research on approximately 64 embryonic stem cell lines created from leftover human {{w|embryo}}s.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 2001 || || "Congress debates legislation on human cloning."<ref>{{cite web |title=THE HUMAN CLONING PROHIBITION ACT OF 2001 AND THE CLONING PROHIBITION |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-107hhrg73733/html/CHRG-107hhrg73733.htm |website=govinfo.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Not Waiting for Congress to Act, Some States Move to Ban Human Cloning |url=https://www.guttmacher.org/gpr/2002/02/not-waiting-congress-act-some-states-move-ban-human-cloning |website=guttmacher.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Stolberg |first1=Sheryl Gay |title=HOUSE BACKS BAN ON HUMAN CLONING FOR ANY OBJECTIVE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/01/us/house-backs-ban-on-human-cloning-for-any-objective.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2001 || Organization || The {{w|International Society for Stem Cell Research}} is established to promote the exchange and dissemination of information and ideas relating to stem cells.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the ISSCR |url=http://www.closerlookatstemcells.org/about-isscr |website=closerlookatstemcells.org |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Marzotto |first1=Toni |last2=Alt |first2=Patricia M. |title=Stem Cell Research: Hope or Hype? |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Vg-lDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1895&dq=%22in+2001%22+International+Society+for+Stem+Cell+Research&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw9vTll8PdAhXCHJAKHW9oD6IQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20International%20Society%20for%20Stem%20Cell%20Research&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
| 2001 || Organization || The {{w|International Society for Stem Cell Research}} is established to promote the exchange and dissemination of information and ideas relating to stem cells.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the ISSCR |url=http://www.closerlookatstemcells.org/about-isscr |website=closerlookatstemcells.org |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Marzotto |first1=Toni |last2=Alt |first2=Patricia M. |title=Stem Cell Research: Hope or Hype? |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Vg-lDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1895&dq=%22in+2001%22+International+Society+for+Stem+Cell+Research&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw9vTll8PdAhXCHJAKHW9oD6IQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20International%20Society%20for%20Stem%20Cell%20Research&f=false}}</ref> ||
Line 295: Line 197:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2001 || Organization || The {{w|Center for Genetics and Society}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=HISTORY OF THE CENTER FOR GENETICS AND SOCIETY |url=https://www.geneticsandsociety.org/history-center-genetics-and-society |website=geneticsandsociety.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2001 || Organization || The {{w|Center for Genetics and Society}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=HISTORY OF THE CENTER FOR GENETICS AND SOCIETY |url=https://www.geneticsandsociety.org/history-center-genetics-and-society |website=geneticsandsociety.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 2001 || || "The Bush Administration announces that the NIH will only fund human embryonic stem cell research on approximately 64 cell lines created from leftover human embryos."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murugan |first1=Varnee |title=Embryonic Stem Cell Research: A Decade of Debate from Bush to Obama |pmid=19774120 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2744932/ |pmc=2744932}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CRS Report for Congress |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31015.pdf |website=fas.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2002 || || {{w|The President's Council on Bioethics}} recommends that the United States ban reproductive cloning and enact a moratorium on research cloning.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Human Cloning |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31358.html#:~:text=In%20July%202002%20the%20President's,cloning%20for%20medical%20research%20purposes. |website=everycrsreport.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Belinda |title=Health Law's Kaleidoscope: Health Law Rights in a Global Age |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YHFBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT58&lpg=PT58&dq=2002+%22The+President%27s+Council+on+Bioethics+recommends+that+the+U.S.+ban+reproductive+cloning+and+enact+a+moratorium+on+research+cloning&source=bl&ots=Po0qN0y9Z2&sig=ACfU3U3EUr4cLlKKGOhQ45U04IxJyY8pFw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj48pH0gMvqAhVuH7kGHfTGBz0Q6AEwAnoECA0QAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%22The%20President's%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%20recommends%20that%20the%20U.S.%20ban%20reproductive%20cloning%20and%20enact%20a%20moratorium%20on%20research%20cloning&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shamoo |first1=Adil E. |last2=Resnik |first2=David B. |title=Responsible Conduct of Research |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dP7oKntCUUUC&pg=PA310&lpg=PA310&dq=2002+%22The+President%27s+Council+on+Bioethics+recommends+that+the+U.S.+ban+reproductive+cloning+and+enact+a+moratorium+on+research+cloning&source=bl&ots=PF80OaJpgn&sig=ACfU3U0fVHT2aIQ1GRcPn17AybGYMnMx6g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj48pH0gMvqAhVuH7kGHfTGBz0Q6AEwA3oECAYQAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%22The%20President's%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%20recommends%20that%20the%20U.S.%20ban%20reproductive%20cloning%20and%20enact%20a%20moratorium%20on%20research%20cloning&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2002 || || {{w|The President's Council on Bioethics}} recommends that the United States ban reproductive cloning and enact a moratorium on research cloning.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Human Cloning |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31358.html#:~:text=In%20July%202002%20the%20President's,cloning%20for%20medical%20research%20purposes. |website=everycrsreport.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Belinda |title=Health Law's Kaleidoscope: Health Law Rights in a Global Age |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YHFBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT58&lpg=PT58&dq=2002+%22The+President%27s+Council+on+Bioethics+recommends+that+the+U.S.+ban+reproductive+cloning+and+enact+a+moratorium+on+research+cloning&source=bl&ots=Po0qN0y9Z2&sig=ACfU3U3EUr4cLlKKGOhQ45U04IxJyY8pFw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj48pH0gMvqAhVuH7kGHfTGBz0Q6AEwAnoECA0QAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%22The%20President's%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%20recommends%20that%20the%20U.S.%20ban%20reproductive%20cloning%20and%20enact%20a%20moratorium%20on%20research%20cloning&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shamoo |first1=Adil E. |last2=Resnik |first2=David B. |title=Responsible Conduct of Research |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dP7oKntCUUUC&pg=PA310&lpg=PA310&dq=2002+%22The+President%27s+Council+on+Bioethics+recommends+that+the+U.S.+ban+reproductive+cloning+and+enact+a+moratorium+on+research+cloning&source=bl&ots=PF80OaJpgn&sig=ACfU3U0fVHT2aIQ1GRcPn17AybGYMnMx6g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj48pH0gMvqAhVuH7kGHfTGBz0Q6AEwA3oECAYQAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%22The%20President's%20Council%20on%20Bioethics%20recommends%20that%20the%20U.S.%20ban%20reproductive%20cloning%20and%20enact%20a%20moratorium%20on%20research%20cloning&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
Line 303: Line 203:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2002 || Organization || The {{w|Toi Te Taiao: The Bioethics Council}} is established.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion and Biopolitics |edition=Mirjam Weiberg-Salzmann, Ulrich Willems |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=jhObDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140&lpg=PA140&dq=2002++Toi+Te+Taiao:+The+Bioethics+Council&source=bl&ots=Vsa2iuTmS-&sig=ACfU3U3UwPcO27xoelpO9PoxeDnUNmA38A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji95zh5cbqAhXpLLkGHYTSB1gQ6AEwB3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%20Toi%20Te%20Taiao%3A%20The%20Bioethics%20Council&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Manning |first1=Joanna |title=The Cartwright Papers: Essays on the Cervical Cancer Inquiry, 1987-88 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=lHfafxmBkVUC&pg=PA220&lpg=PA220&dq=2002++Toi+Te+Taiao:+The+Bioethics+Council&source=bl&ots=e3mOFcOBtw&sig=ACfU3U3oY5uuceOZyiWtHiG4vHSklUS9Nw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji95zh5cbqAhXpLLkGHYTSB1gQ6AEwCHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%20Toi%20Te%20Taiao%3A%20The%20Bioethics%20Council&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|New Zealand}}
 
| 2002 || Organization || The {{w|Toi Te Taiao: The Bioethics Council}} is established.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion and Biopolitics |edition=Mirjam Weiberg-Salzmann, Ulrich Willems |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=jhObDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140&lpg=PA140&dq=2002++Toi+Te+Taiao:+The+Bioethics+Council&source=bl&ots=Vsa2iuTmS-&sig=ACfU3U3UwPcO27xoelpO9PoxeDnUNmA38A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji95zh5cbqAhXpLLkGHYTSB1gQ6AEwB3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%20Toi%20Te%20Taiao%3A%20The%20Bioethics%20Council&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Manning |first1=Joanna |title=The Cartwright Papers: Essays on the Cervical Cancer Inquiry, 1987-88 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=lHfafxmBkVUC&pg=PA220&lpg=PA220&dq=2002++Toi+Te+Taiao:+The+Bioethics+Council&source=bl&ots=e3mOFcOBtw&sig=ACfU3U3oY5uuceOZyiWtHiG4vHSklUS9Nw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji95zh5cbqAhXpLLkGHYTSB1gQ6AEwCHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=2002%20%20Toi%20Te%20Taiao%3A%20The%20Bioethics%20Council&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|New Zealand}}
|-
 
| 2002 || || The Netherlands legalizes {{w|voluntary euthanasia}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Euthanasia in the Netherlands |url=https://www.alliancevita.org/en/2017/11/euthanasia-in-the-netherlands/ |website=alliancevita.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Euthanasia now legal in Holland |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/01/netherlands.euthanasia/ |website=edition.cnn.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Netherlands}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2003 || || " In 2003, the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), the National Academy of Sciences, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies held a meeting to discuss the censorship biological research that poses security risks. Journals agree to self-censor some research."<ref name="Schwester, Richard W.">{{cite book |title=Teaching Research Methods in Public Administration |edition=Schwester, Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MfWfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=In+2003,+the+American+Society+for+Microbiology+(ASM),+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences,+and+the+Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies+held+a+meeting+to+discuss+the+censorship+biological+research+that+poses+security+risks.+Journals+agree+to+self-censor+some+research&source=bl&ots=7bYyab3-UM&sig=ACfU3U2h3BsD2NvuhgnhFJhzBzv6sFevjA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiJooKbp8nqAhX1HrkGHc1tC-EQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=In%202003%2C%20the%20American%20Society%20for%20Microbiology%20(ASM)%2C%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%2C%20and%20the%20Center%20for%20Strategic%20and%20International%20Studies%20held%20a%20meeting%20to%20discuss%20the%20censorship%20biological%20research%20that%20poses%20security%20risks.%20Journals%20agree%20to%20self-censor%20some%20research&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Censoring science |pmid=12796312 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC156663/ |pmc=156663}}</ref> ||
 
| 2003 || || " In 2003, the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), the National Academy of Sciences, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies held a meeting to discuss the censorship biological research that poses security risks. Journals agree to self-censor some research."<ref name="Schwester, Richard W.">{{cite book |title=Teaching Research Methods in Public Administration |edition=Schwester, Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MfWfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=In+2003,+the+American+Society+for+Microbiology+(ASM),+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences,+and+the+Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies+held+a+meeting+to+discuss+the+censorship+biological+research+that+poses+security+risks.+Journals+agree+to+self-censor+some+research&source=bl&ots=7bYyab3-UM&sig=ACfU3U2h3BsD2NvuhgnhFJhzBzv6sFevjA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiJooKbp8nqAhX1HrkGHc1tC-EQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=In%202003%2C%20the%20American%20Society%20for%20Microbiology%20(ASM)%2C%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%2C%20and%20the%20Center%20for%20Strategic%20and%20International%20Studies%20held%20a%20meeting%20to%20discuss%20the%20censorship%20biological%20research%20that%20poses%20security%20risks.%20Journals%20agree%20to%20self-censor%20some%20research&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Censoring science |pmid=12796312 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC156663/ |pmc=156663}}</ref> ||
Line 311: Line 209:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2003 || || The {{w|International Bioethics Committee}} issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Declaration on Human Genetic Data |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/human-genetic-data |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INTERNATIONAL DECLARATION ON HUMAN GENETIC DATA |url=https://www.who.int/genomics/elsi/regulatory_data/region/international/031/en/ |website=who.int |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
| 2003 || || The {{w|International Bioethics Committee}} issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Declaration on Human Genetic Data |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/human-genetic-data |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INTERNATIONAL DECLARATION ON HUMAN GENETIC DATA |url=https://www.who.int/genomics/elsi/regulatory_data/region/international/031/en/ |website=who.int |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 2003 || Organization || {{w|The Regenerative Medicine Institute}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Regenerative Medicine Institute |url=http://www.nuigalway.ie/remedi/about-us |website=nuigalway.ie |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stem Cells, Regenerative Medicine, and Tissue Engineering |url=https://www.fightaging.org/archives/2003/11/stem-cells-regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering/ |website=fightaging.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Ireland}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2004 || Literature || The ''{{w|Journal of Bioethical Inquiry}}'' is released by the {{w|University of Otago}} Bioethics Centre.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Journal of bioethical inquiry |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/101250741}}</ref> || {{w|New Zealand}}
 
| 2004 || Literature || The ''{{w|Journal of Bioethical Inquiry}}'' is released by the {{w|University of Otago}} Bioethics Centre.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Journal of bioethical inquiry |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/101250741}}</ref> || {{w|New Zealand}}
|-
 
| 2004 || Literature || Medical ethicist James Hughes publishes ''{{w|Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future}}'', which argues that technologies pushing the boundaries of humanness can radically improve our quality of life if they are controlled democratically.<ref>{{cite web |title=Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/111902.Citizen_Cyborg |website=goodreads.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 2004 || Literature (book) || {{w|Nicholas Agar}} publishes ''Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement''<ref>{{cite web |title=Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470775004 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Liberal eugenics: In defence of human enhancement |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02448849 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
| 2004 || || "{{w|eTBLAST}} was established. eTBLAST is a search engine designed to search similar texts within the MEDLINE database. It has led to research involving plagiarism and duplicate publications of articles in academic journals. Pairs of similar texts are store in the Deja Vu database." ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2005 || || The {{w|Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights}} is adopted by {{w|UNESCO}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langlois |first1=Adèle |title=The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Perspectives from Kenya and South Africa |doi=10.1007/s10728-007-0055-7 |pmid=18240025 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2226192/#:~:text=In%20October%202005%2C1%20the,on%20Bioethics%20and%20Human%20Rights.&text=The%20onus%20is%20on%20UNESCO's,national%20laws%2C%20regulations%20or%20policies. |pmc=2226192}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/bioethics-and-human-rights |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
| 2005 || || The {{w|Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights}} is adopted by {{w|UNESCO}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langlois |first1=Adèle |title=The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Perspectives from Kenya and South Africa |doi=10.1007/s10728-007-0055-7 |pmid=18240025 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2226192/#:~:text=In%20October%202005%2C1%20the,on%20Bioethics%20and%20Human%20Rights.&text=The%20onus%20is%20on%20UNESCO's,national%20laws%2C%20regulations%20or%20policies. |pmc=2226192}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/bioethics-and-human-rights |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
Line 329: Line 219:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2006 || Literature || Quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal ''{{w|BioSocieties}}'' is released.<ref>{{cite web |title=BioSocieties |url=http://andymiah.net/blog/2006/07/01/biosocieties |website=andymiah.net |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
| 2006 || Literature || Quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal ''{{w|BioSocieties}}'' is released.<ref>{{cite web |title=BioSocieties |url=http://andymiah.net/blog/2006/07/01/biosocieties |website=andymiah.net |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 2006 || Literature || Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|Clinical Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clinical Ethics |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/ceta/1/3 |website=journals.sagepub.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2008 || Literature || The ''{{w|International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics}}'' is launched to encourage more work in feminist bioethics.<ref>{{cite web |title=Feminist Bioethics |url=https://stanford.library.sydney.edu.au/archives/sum2009/entries/feminist-bioethics/ |website=stanford.library.sydney.edu.au |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics |url=https://www.researchgate.net/journal/1937-4577_International_Journal_of_Feminist_Approaches_to_Bioethics |website=researchgate.net |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
| 2008 || Literature || The ''{{w|International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics}}'' is launched to encourage more work in feminist bioethics.<ref>{{cite web |title=Feminist Bioethics |url=https://stanford.library.sydney.edu.au/archives/sum2009/entries/feminist-bioethics/ |website=stanford.library.sydney.edu.au |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics |url=https://www.researchgate.net/journal/1937-4577_International_Journal_of_Feminist_Approaches_to_Bioethics |website=researchgate.net |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
|-
 
| 2008 || || The {{w|Catholic Church}} publishes a document entitled ''{{w|Dignitas Personae}}'', about a range of bioethical issues related to the areas of assisted reproduction and human genetics. The paper analizes and comments the bioethical thinking of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pastor |first1=LM |title=[Ethical analysis and commentary of Dignitas Personae document: from continuity toward the innovation]. |pmid=21692553 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21692553}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INSTRUCTION DIGNITAS PERSONAE |url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20081208_dignitas-personae_en.html |website=vatican.va |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vatican issues new document on biotechnology |url=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all-things-catholic/vatican-issues-new-document-biotechnology |website=ncronline.org |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2009 || Organization || {{w|Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues}} is established by United States President {{w|Barack Obama}} to advise the president and the administration on bioethical issues arising from advances in biomedicine and related areas of science and technology.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hast.726 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2009 || Organization || {{w|Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues}} is established by United States President {{w|Barack Obama}} to advise the president and the administration on bioethical issues arising from advances in biomedicine and related areas of science and technology.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hast.726 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2009 || Organization || The {{w|Bangladesh Bioethics Society}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bangladesh Bioethics Society |url=https://www.ausn.info/worldwide_collaboration/bangladesh_bioethics_society_bbs |website=bioethics.org.bd/ |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|Bangladesh}}
 
| 2009 || Organization || The {{w|Bangladesh Bioethics Society}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bangladesh Bioethics Society |url=https://www.ausn.info/worldwide_collaboration/bangladesh_bioethics_society_bbs |website=bioethics.org.bd/ |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|Bangladesh}}
|-
 
| 2009 || Policy || The Obama Administration announces it will significantly expand {{w|National Institutes of Health}} funding of human embryonic stem cell research which was restricted under the Bush Administration.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolinsky |first1=Howard |title=The pendulum swung. President Barack Obama removes restrictions on stem-cell research, but are expectations now too high? |doi=10.1038/embor.2009.78 |pmid=19415078 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680887/ |pmc=2680887}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2010 || Literature (book) || {{w|George Annas}} publishes ''Worst case bioethics: death, disaster, and public health''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Worst case bioethics: Death, disaster, and public health |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/43845 |website=jci.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2010 || Literature (book) || {{w|George Annas}} publishes ''Worst case bioethics: death, disaster, and public health''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Worst case bioethics: Death, disaster, and public health |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/43845 |website=jci.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 2010 || Literature (book) || {{w|Nicholas Agar}} publishes ''Humanity's End: Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement''. The book argues against the doctrine of radical enhancement sometimes identified with the [[w:Transhumanism|transhumanist movement]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Humanity's end : why we should reject radical enhancement.|last=Nicholas.|first=Agar|date=2013|publisher=Bradford Books|isbn=978-0262525176|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=842500060}}</ref> ||
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2011 || Literature || Triannual academic journal ''{{w|Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics}}'' is first issued.<ref>{{cite web |title=“Reasonable Accommodation” for Families of ‘Brain Dead’ Patients |url=https://bioethics.georgetown.edu/tag/narrative-ethics/ |website=bioethics.georgetown.edu |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
| 2011 || Literature || Triannual academic journal ''{{w|Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics}}'' is first issued.<ref>{{cite web |title=“Reasonable Accommodation” for Families of ‘Brain Dead’ Patients |url=https://bioethics.georgetown.edu/tag/narrative-ethics/ |website=bioethics.georgetown.edu |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
Line 359: Line 241:
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2015 || Literature || American bioethicist {{w|Alice Dreger}} publishes {{w|Galileo's Middle Finger}}, which discusses the ethics of medical research.<ref>{{cite web |title=‘Galileo’s Middle Finger,’ by Alice Dreger |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/books/review/galileos-middle-finger-by-alice-dreger.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2015 || Literature || American bioethicist {{w|Alice Dreger}} publishes {{w|Galileo's Middle Finger}}, which discusses the ethics of medical research.<ref>{{cite web |title=‘Galileo’s Middle Finger,’ by Alice Dreger |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/19/books/review/galileos-middle-finger-by-alice-dreger.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
|-
 
| 2016 || || The United States {{w|National Institutes of Health}} places a temporary moratorium on funding for experiments involving human-animal chimeras.<ref>{{cite web |title=NIH moves to lift moratorium on animal-human chimera research |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/08/nih-moves-lift-moratorium-animal-human-chimera-research |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
| 2018 || || "Since 2018, the Supreme Court of India has legalized passive euthanasia in India during a case involving Aruna Shanbaug under strict conditions, namely that the patient's consent (or relatives) is needed, and that the patient must be terminally ill or vegetative state" || {{w|India}}
 
|-
 
| 2018 || || "In October, He Jiankui, a scientist of the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China, announces the birth of the world’s first gene edited babies, both girls. He claims that he used CRISPR-Cas 9 technology to modify the CCR5 gene to give the girls immunity to HIV. The announcement generates outrage around the world and many scientists and policymakers call for a ban on human germline, genome editing."<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese Scientist Claims to Use Crispr to Make First Genetically Edited Babies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/26/health/gene-editing-babies-china.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The untold story of the ‘circle of trust’ behind the world’s first gene-edited babies |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/08/untold-story-circle-trust-behind-world-s-first-gene-edited-babies |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CRISPR bombshell: Chinese researcher claims to have created gene-edited twins |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/11/crispr-bombshell-chinese-researcher-claims-have-created-gene-edited-twins |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}

Revision as of 13:39, 5 August 2020

This is a timeline of bioethics, listing significant events in the development of the field.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

  • Literature (journal)
  • Literature (book)
  • Organization
  • Treaty
  • Study

Big picture

Time period Development summary
<1960s Discussions of moral issues in medicine already happen in ancient times, with early contributions by Hippocrates and Plato.[1] In the 20th century, German theologian Fritz Jahr publishes three articles in 1927, 1928, and 1934 using the German term “Bio-Ethik”, forcefully arguing an ethical approach to issues concerning human beings and the environment.[2]
1960s Bioethics as a distinct field of academic study is born in the United States, merging from a cluster of scientific and cultural developments in the country during that decade.[3]
1970s Many bioethics programs and degrees are established at universities in the United States in order to provide students – most notably medical, law, and public policy students – with some expertise in medical ethics to deal with complex cases.[2] Feminist bioethics develops from the early 1970s on and is initially focused on medical ethics; proponents later extend the areas of interest to issues in the fields of animal and environmental ethics.[2]
1980s "Universities establish human subjects review committees."[4] In the late 1980s, the Russian school of bioethics originates.[5]
1990s In the last decade of the 20th century, the contributions of social scientists to bioethical research become particularly important. Work of this type involves surveys of public attitudes to advances in the life sciences, including xenotransplantation and genetic modification.[1]
2000s Ethics consultation begins to emerge as another, more enduring model of ethics and science interaction. The concept of research ethics consultation develops.[6]

Visual data

Google Trends

The image below shows Google Trends data for "bioethics" search term from January 1, 2004 to July 13, 2020, when the screenshot was taken. A declining interest is appreciated.[7]

Bioethics Google Trends.jpg

Wikipedia Views

The image below shows Wikipedia views for the article Bioethics for desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from June 2015 to June 2020.[8]

Bioethics Wikipedia Views.png

Full timeline

Year Event type Details Location
380 BC Field development The Republic of Plato advocates selective human breeding in anticipation of later programs of eugenics.[1]
1259 – 1265 Literature Italian philosopher Thomas Aquinas writes his Summa contra Gentiles, which briefly discusses the permissibility of abortion.[1] Italy
1588 "In 1588, Pope Sixtus V adopted a papal bull adopting the position of St. Thomas Aquinas that contraception and abortion were crimes against nature and sins against marriage. "[9]
1620 "Francis Bacon publishes The Novum Organon, in which he argues that scientific research should benefit humanity."[10]
1796 "Edward Jenner inoculates eight-year-old James Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to immunize him against smallpox."[11][12]
1830 "Charles Babbage writes the book Reflections on the Decline of Science in England. This was one of books to catalog scientific misdeeds. Originated such terms as data trimming, data fudging, data falsification, and data cooking."
1859 Literature English naturalist Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, which proposes a theory of evolution of living things by natural selection. The book would generate much controversy because it proposes that human beings were not created by God (as most religions claimed) but descended from apes.[13] United Kingdom
1885 "Louis Pasteur administers an experimental rabies vaccine to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without testing it on animals first."[14][15][16] France
1926 Literature German theologian Fritz Jahr, referring to European and Oriental traditions, publishes an article entitled Natural sciences and teaching ethics where he gives the subtitle “Old Knowledge in new clothes” describing the function of natural sciences for education and teaching biological research ethics.[5] Germany
1927 Concept development Fritz Jahr publishes article using the German term “Bio-Ethik” (which translates as “Bio-Ethics”) and argues, both for the establishment of a new academic discipline, and for the practice of a new, more civilized, ethical approach to issues concerning human beings and the environment. Jahr would publish similar articles discussing bioethics in 1928, and 1934.[2] Germany
1931 Policy (reproductive rights) Mexico becomes the first country in the world to legalize abortion in cases of rape.[17] Mexico
1932 Literature (journal) Peer-reviewed academic journal The Linacre Quarterly is established.[18] United States
1932 The Tuskegee syphilis experiment is conducted.[19][20] United States
1947 American ecologist Aldo Leopold publishes The Land Ethic, a chapter in A Sand County Almanac. Leopold argues that there is a critical need for a "new ethic," an "ethic dealing with human's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it".[21]
1948 Declaration of Geneva.[22][23] Switzerland
1948 "Alfred Kinsey publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Five years later, he publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. These books were very controversial, because they examined topics which were regarded as taboo at the time, such as masturbation, orgasm, intercourse, promiscuity, and sexual fantasies. Kinsey could not obtain public funding for the research, so he funded it privately through the Kinsey Institute."[24][25]
1956–1980 Research team led by Saul Krugman and Joan Giles conducts hepatitis experiments on mentally disabled children at The Willowbrook State School. The subjects are intentionally infected with the disease and researchers ovserve its natural progression. The experiments are approved by the New York Department of Health.[26][27] United States
1961 "The Milgram Experiment was conducted to test how far a subject would go to earn approval of an authority figure. The experiment was thought to violate many ethical standards due to extenuating emotional conflict and stress."
1969 Organization The Hastings Center is founded as a bioethics research institute. It is located in Garrison, New York.[28][29] United States
1970 Literature Paul Ramsey publishes The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics.[30][2]
1970 Organization The Institute of Society, Ethics and the Life Sciences (later Hastings Center) is founded. A freestanding bioethics center, it is the first institution devoted to the study of bioethical questions.[3][31] United States
1970 Literature American biochemist Van Rensselaer Potter publishes his article Bioethics, the Science of Survival, which suggests viewing bioethics as a global movement in order to foster concern for the environment and ethics.[2][31]
1971 Literature Van Rensselaer Potter publishes book Bioethics: Bridge to the Future.[31] United States
1971 Concept development Georgetown University researcher Andre Hellegers uses the term bioethics to refer to interdisciplinary research moral problems of biomedicine, primarily associated with the need to protect the dignity and rights of patients.[5] United States
1971 Organization The Joseph and Rose Kennedy Center for the Study of Human Reproduction and Bioethics (now known as Kennedy Center) opens at Georgetown University. With similar goals to those of The Hastings Center, the Kennedy Institute is however placed inside the traditional academy.[3][31] Founded by Andre Hellegers, it is the first in the world to establish an institute of bioethics on the basis of interdisciplinary research and approaches.[5] United States
1972 Organization National Catholic Bioethics Center.[32][33][34] United States
1973 Concept development Dan Callahan writes essay Bioethics as a Discipline, whose title is the first entry of the word "bioethics" in the catalogue of the National Library of Congress.[31] In the article, Callahan argues for the establishment of a new academic discipline.[2] United States
1973 "After conducting hearings on unethical research involving human subjects, including the Tuskegee study, Congress passes the National Research Act in 1973, which President Nixon signs in 1974. The Act authorizes federal agencies (e.g. the NIH and FDA) to develop human research regulations. The regulations require institutions to form Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) to review and oversee research with human subjects."[35][36] United States
1975 Field development Peter Singer claims that human beings must consider the equal interests of human beings and animals alike.[2]
1975 Field development At a gathering at the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, scientists discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA research; the NIH forms the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee." "Scientists gather at Asilomar, California to discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA experiments and agree upon a temporary moratorium for this research until they can develop biosafety standards. The NIH forms the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to provide guidance for researchers and institutions. Research institutions form Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs) to review and oversee research involving hazardous biological materials." [37][38][39] United States
1978 "With its starting publication in 1978 (1st edition), the Encyclopedia of Bioethics became the first reference book to focus exclusively on the new and promising field of bioethics, helping to define the discipline"[40][5]
1980 Policy In the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case the United States Supreme Court rules that a genetically modified bacterium can be patented because it is the product of human ingenuity. This sets a precedent for patents on other life forms and helps to establish solid intellectual property protection for the new biotechnology industry.[37] United States
1982 "William Broad and Nicholas Wade publish Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science. This book helps to to reveal much of the scientific misconduct that was going on at the time."
1986 Literature Peer-reviewed academic journal Biology and Philosophy is launched.[41]
1987 Literature Ren-zong Qiu's Bioethics is published as the first bioethics book in China.[42] China
1987 Literature Peer-reviewed academic journal Bioethics is launched.[43]
1988 Literature Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics is established.[44]
1988 Scientific development Harvard University and Dow Chemical Company patent a genetically engineered mouse used to study cancer.[45][46][47][37] United States
1988 Literature Van Rensselaer Potter publishes Global bioethics.[5]
1989 Literature The United States National Academy of Sciences publishes On Being A Scientist, a free, short book on research ethics for scientists in training.[37] United States
1989 Literature The U.S. National Academies Press publishes On Being A Scientist, a free, short book on research ethics for scientists in training.[48][49][50] United States
1990 Legal Trends in Bioethics.[51]
1990 Program launch The Human Genome Project is launched by the United States as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the human genome.[52][53] United States
1991 Organization London-based Nuffield Council on Bioethics is established by the Nuffield Foundation to adress numerous bioethical issues in need of analysis.[54][55][56] United Kingdom
1991 Literature The Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal is launched.[57][58] United States
1992 "NAS publishes Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process. The book estimates the incidence of misconduct, discusses some of the causes of misconduct, proposes a definition of misconduct, and recommends some strategies for preventing misconduct."[59][60]
1992 Literature Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics is launched.[61]
1992 Literature The United States National Academy of Sciences publishes Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process. The book estimates the incidence of misconduct, discusses some of the causes of misconduct, proposes a definition of misconduct, and recommends some strategies for preventing misconduct.[37] United States
1992 Literature Peer-reviewed academic journal Environmental Values is established.[62][63] United Kingdom
1992 The United States Office of Research Integrity is formed.[64] United States
1993 Scientific development Researchers successfully clone human embryos.[37]
1993 Organization The International Bioethics Committee is established by UNESCO to provide guidance on ethical and legal issues raised by research in medicine, biological sciences and associated technologies, and to reinforce knowledge in ethics.[65][66]
1994 American psychologist Richard Herrnstein and American political scientist Charles Murray publish The Bell Curve, a controversial book that reignites the centuries old debate about biology, race and intelligence"[67] United States
1994 Montreal surgeon Roger Poisson admits to fabricating and falsifying patient data in NIH-funded breast cancer clinical trials in order allow his patients to qualify for enrollment and have access to experimental treatments.[68][69] Canada
1995 About 200 religious leaders join in Washington, DC., with leading biotechnology critic Jeremy Rifkin in a press conference named the "Joint Appeal against Human and Animal Patenting", protesting the patenting of plants, animals, and human body parts.[37][70][71] United States
1995 Organization The Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics is established.[72][73] United States
1995 Organization The University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics is established.[74] Canada
1995 Concept development American philosopher Daniel Callahan defines bioethics as a science “which is the product of biomedical achievements related to the environment and social sciences”.[5] United States
1996 "Scientists and defense analysts become concerned about the use of chemical or biological weapons by a terrorist group after Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese doomsday cult, releases sarin gas in a Tokyo subway, killing 12 people and sending 5,500 to hospitals. The group also attempted (unsuccessfully) to spray anthrax spores over Tokyo. In 1998, terrorism experts warn about the use of biological or chemical weapons by Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein."
1996 Scientific development Dolly is born as the first mammal ever to be cloned from another individual’s body cell. Her birth is announced in 1997, followed by several European nations banning human cloning. The United States Congress considers a bill to ban all human cloning but changes its mind after scientists argue that the bill would undermine biomedical research.[37][75][76] United Kingdom
1996 Organization The National Bioethics Advisory Commission is established.[77][78]
1996 Literature (book) American philosopher David Abram publishes The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World. Abram coins the phrase "the more-than-human world" as a way of referring to earthly nature.[79]
1996 Literature (book) American philosopher H. Tristram Engelhardt Jr. publishes The Foundation of Bioethics, in which he states “Moral diversity is real. It is real in fact and in principle. Bioethics and healthcare policy have yet to take this diversity seriously. Those who teach bioethics, those who engage in bioethics committees, even those who produced textbooks tend to discount the diversity of understanding regarding the morality of particular health care choices (e.g., regarding abortion, commercial surrogacy, euthanasia/ germline genetic engineering, inequalities in access to health care, infanticide, organ sales) or the nature of morality (e.g., theological, deontological, virtue-based)".[5] United States
1997 "COPE, [The Committee On Publication Ethics] was established in the UK. Its members consist of academic journal editors and others who are concerned about the integrity of what is peer-reviewed and published in journals." United Kingdom
1998 As scientists perfect methods for growing human embryonic stem cells, some countries ban the research, while others promote it.[80][81][82]
1998 Scientific development Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.[37]
1998 Scientific development American biotechnologist Craig Venter forms Celera Genomics and begins a private effort to sequence the human genome, using dozens of automated sequencing machines.[37]
1999 Literature (journal) AMA Journal of Ethics is launched.[83] United States
1999 Literature The American Journal of Bioethics is launched.[84] United Sattes
1999 Literature Chinese bioethicist Lee Shui-chuen publishes Confucian Bioethics (in Chinese).[85][86][87] China
2001 Literature Peer-reviewed journal The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly is launched.[88] United States
2001 Policy Several journals start requiring authors to describe their responsibilities when publishing research.[37]
2001 Organization The International Society for Stem Cell Research is established to promote the exchange and dissemination of information and ideas relating to stem cells.[89][90]
2001 Organization The President's Council on Bioethics is created by United States President George W. Bush to advice the President on bioethical issues that may emerge as a consequence of advances in biomedical science and technology.[91] United States
2001 Organization The Center for Genetics and Society is established.[92] United States
2002 The President's Council on Bioethics recommends that the United States ban reproductive cloning and enact a moratorium on research cloning.[37][93][94][95] United States
2002 "Scientists publish several papers in prominent journals with direct implications for bioterrorism. A paper published in the Journal of Virology described a method for genetically engineering a form of mousepox virus that is much deadlier than the naturally occurring strain. A paper published in Science showed how to make the poliovirus by obtaining supplies from a mail-order company. A paper published in PNAS develop a mathematical model for showing how many people would be killed by infecting the U.S. milk supply with botulinum toxin."[96]
2002 Organization The Toi Te Taiao: The Bioethics Council is established.[97][98] New Zealand
2003 " In 2003, the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), the National Academy of Sciences, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies held a meeting to discuss the censorship biological research that poses security risks. Journals agree to self-censor some research."[99][100]
2003 The United States invades Iraq with the stated purpose of eliminating its chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons programs. So far, evidence of weapons programs but no actual weapons would be found.[37] Iraq
2003 The International Bioethics Committee issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights.[101][102]
2004 Literature The Journal of Bioethical Inquiry is released by the University of Otago Bioethics Centre.[103] New Zealand
2005 The Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights is adopted by UNESCO.[104][105]
2005 "In response to recommendations from a National Research Council report titled “Biotechnology in the Age of Terrorism,” the Department of Health and Human Services establishes the National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) to provide advice and guidance to federal agencies, scientists, and journals concerning oversight and public of research in biotechnology or biomedicine which can be readily applied to cause significant harm to public health, agriculture, the economy, or national security (i.e. “dual use” research)."[106]
2005 Literature American professor George Annas publishes American bioethics: crossing human rights and health law boundaries.[107] United States
2006 Literature Quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal BioSocieties is released.[108]
2008 Literature The International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics is launched to encourage more work in feminist bioethics.[109][110]
2009 Organization Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues is established by United States President Barack Obama to advise the president and the administration on bioethical issues arising from advances in biomedicine and related areas of science and technology.[111] United States
2009 Organization The Bangladesh Bioethics Society is established.[112] Bangladesh
2010 Literature (book) George Annas publishes Worst case bioethics: death, disaster, and public health.[113] United States
2011 Literature Triannual academic journal Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics is first issued.[114]
2012 Organization The Center for the Study of Bioethics is founded by Serbian American philosopher Vojin Rakić with the purpose to stimulate scientific debate on a variety of issues bioethics deals with. It is based in Belgrade, Serbia.[115]
2012 Literature The Canadian Journal of Bioethics is established.[116] Canada
2013 The Supreme Court of the United States rules that isolated and purified DNA cannot be patented and that only DNA that has been modified by human beings can be patented.[117] United States
2014 Various funding agencies and journals, including the National Institutes of Health, Science, and Nature, take steps to promote reproducibility in science in response to reports that many published studies in the biomedical, behavioral, and physical sciences are not reproducible.[37]
2014 New Mexico Second District Judge Nan Nash rules that terminally ill patients have the right to aid in dying under the state constitution, i.e., making it legal for a doctor to prescribe a lethal dose of medication to a terminally ill patient.[118] United States
2015 Literature American bioethicist Alice Dreger publishes Galileo's Middle Finger, which discusses the ethics of medical research.[119] United States

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

  • FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Bioethics". britannica.com. Retrieved 18 September 2018. 
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 "Bioethics". iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 1 September 2018. 
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Bioethics - History Of Bioethics". science.jrank.org. Retrieved 1 September 2018. 
  4. "Ethical timeline". radford.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 "Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present". intechopen.com. Retrieved 20 December 2019. 
  6. Kerasidou, Angeliki; Parker, Michael. "Does science need bioethicists? Ethics and science collaboration in biomedical research". PMC 4587541Freely accessible. PMID 26430467. doi:10.1177/1747016114554252. 
  7. "bioethics". trends.google.com. Retrieved 14 July 2020. 
  8. "Bioethics Wikipedia Views". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 14 July 2020. 
  9. Victory, Regardless. RDV'S INTERNET ANTHLOGY PLUS. 
  10. "Francis Bacon (1561—1626)". iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  11. "Early smallpox vaccine is tested". history.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  12. Riedel, Stefan. "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". PMC 1200696Freely accessible. PMID 16200144. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028. 
  13. "Wallace and Darwin". jstor.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  14. "Louis Pasteur and the Development of the Attenuated Vaccine". vbivaccines.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  15. "July 6, 1885: Rabies Vaccine Saves Boy – and Pasteur". wired.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  16. "The Rabies Vaccine Backstory". the-scientist.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  17. "Mexico City to Legalize Abortion Despite Protests". banderasnews.com. Retrieved 1 July 2020. 
  18. "The Linacre Quarterly". epublications.marquette.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  19. Newton-Matza, Mitchell. Disasters and Tragic Events: An Encyclopedia of Catastrophes in American History [2 volumes]. 
  20. Suffering and Bioethics (Ronald Michael Green, Nathan J. Palpant ed.). 
  21. Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. Oxford University Press, New York.
  22. Fassin, Didier. A Companion to Moral Anthropology. 
  23. Advancing the Human Right to Health (José M. Zuniga, Stephen P. Marks, Lawrence O. Gostin ed.). 
  24. Charles Kinsey, Alfred; Baxter Pomeroy, Wardell; Eugene Martin, Clyde. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. 
  25. "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male". britannica.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  26. Shamoo, Adil E.; Resnik, David B. Responsible Conduct of Research. 
  27. "Research Ethics: Where are we, How did we get here, and Where are we going?" (PDF). research.columbia.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  28. "The Hastings Center". thehastingscenter.org. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  29. "About The Hastings Center". onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  30. Ashley, Benedict M. Health Care Ethics: A Catholic Theological Analysis, Fifth Edition. 
  31. 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Guinn, David E. Handbook of Bioethics and Religion. 
  32. "National Catholic Bioethics Center". ncbcenter.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  33. "NCBC - National Catholic Bioethics Center". inters.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  34. Curran, Charles E. Catholic Moral Theology in the United States: A History. 
  35. "The Tuskegee Timeline". cdc.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  36. "Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study". history.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  37. 37.00 37.01 37.02 37.03 37.04 37.05 37.06 37.07 37.08 37.09 37.10 37.11 37.12 37.13 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Research_Ethics_Timeline_.281932-Present.29
  38. "Historical Events in the rDNA Debate". ndsu.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  39. "Asilomar Conference on Laboratory Precautions When Conducting Recombinant DNA Research – Case Summary". scholarworks.umass.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  40. "The new edition (4th) of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics" (PDF). saocamilo-sp.br. Retrieved 20 December 2019. 
  41. "Biology and Philosophy". link.springer.com. Retrieved 3 September 2018. 
  42. Cherry, Mark J.; Peppin, John F. Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics. 
  43. "Bioethics". onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  44. Barnhill, Anne; Doggett, Tyler. The Oxford Handbook of Food Ethics. 
  45. "Bioethics and Patent Law: The Case of the Oncomouse". wipo.int. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  46. "Harvard Gets Mouse Patent, A World First". nytimes.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  47. "The Mouse That Changed Science". sciencehistory.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  48. "ON BEING A SCIENTIST" (PDF). scholar.harvard.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  49. "On Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research". PMID 25009901. doi:10.17226/12192. 
  50. "On Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research: Third Edition" (PDF). biblioteca.ucv.cl. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  51. "Legal trends in bioethics.". semanticscholar.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  52. "1990: Launch of the Human Genome Project". genome.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  53. "The Human Genome Project (1990-2003)". embryo.asu.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  54. National bioethics committees in action. UNESCO. 
  55. Weir, Robert F.; Olick, Robert S.; Murray, Jeffrey C. The Stored Tissue Issue: Biomedical Research, Ethics, and Law in the Era of Genomic Medicine. 
  56. Global Bioethics: The Impact of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee. Alireza Bagheri, Jonathan D. Moreno, Stefano Semplici. 
  57. "Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal". muse.jhu.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  58. Evans, John H. Playing God?: Human Genetic Engineering and the Rationalization of Public Bioethical Debate. 
  59. "Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process". PMID 25121265. doi:10.17226/1864. 
  60. "Responsible Science". nap.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  61. "Cambridge quarterly of healthcare ethics : CQ : the international journal of healthcare ethics committees". 
  62. "Environmental". environmentandsociety.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  63. Routledge Handbook of Global Environmental Politics (Paul G. Harris ed.). 
  64. "The Office of Research Integrity". ori.hhs.gov. Retrieved 5 August 2020. 
  65. Global Bioethics: The Impact of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee (Alireza Bagheri, Jonathan D. Moreno, Stefano Semplici ed.). 
  66. ten Have, Henk. Global Bioethics: An introduction. 
  67. "Intelligence, Genes, and Success". springerprofessional.de. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  68. "Doctor Says He Falsified Cancer Data to Help Patients". nytimes.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  69. "2019 Tri-I Responsible Conduct of Research Course RCR Case Studies" (PDF). mskcc.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  70. Hanson, MJ. "Religious voices in biotechnology: the case of gene patenting.". PMID 12962106. 
  71. Hanson, M J. "Religious Voices in Biotechnology: The Case of Gene Patenting". 
  72. "Berman Institute". bioethics.jhu.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  73. "Bioethics". hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  74. "About Us: The Joint Centre for Bioethics". jcb.utoronto.ca/. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  75. "Dolly the sheep dies young". newscientist.com. Retrieved 27 September 2018. 
  76. "Dolly the sheep: 15 years after her death, cloning still has the power to shock". independent.co.uk. Retrieved 27 September 2018. 
  77. "History of Bioethics Commissions". bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  78. "National Bioethics Advisory Commission". clintonwhitehouse3.archives.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  79. "The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-Than-Human World". goodreads.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  80. "Stem Cell Research as Innovation: Expanding the Ethical and Policy Conversation". PMC 2941662Freely accessible. PMID 20579255. doi:10.1111/j.1748-720X.2010.00492.x. 
  81. "Chapter 13Embryos, Cloning, Stem Cells, and the Promise of Reprogramming". ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  82. "European Citizens' Initiative: European Commission replies to 'One of Us' – Q&A". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  83. "AMA Journal of Ethics". journalofethics.ama-assn.org. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  84. "American Journal of Bioethics". bioethics.net. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  85. "China". link.springer.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  86. "Limits of Human Existence According to China's Bioethics". link.springer.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  87. "A Confucian Asian Ethos? Essentials of the Culture of East Asian Bioethics". jstor.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  88. Curran, Charles E. Catholic Moral Theology in the United States: A History. 
  89. "About the ISSCR". closerlookatstemcells.org. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  90. Marzotto, Toni; Alt, Patricia M. Stem Cell Research: Hope or Hype?. 
  91. "President's Council on Bioethics". bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  92. "HISTORY OF THE CENTER FOR GENETICS AND SOCIETY". geneticsandsociety.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  93. "Human Cloning". everycrsreport.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  94. Bennett, Belinda. Health Law's Kaleidoscope: Health Law Rights in a Global Age. 
  95. Shamoo, Adil E.; Resnik, David B. Responsible Conduct of Research. 
  96. Teaching Research Methods in Public Administration (Schwester, Richard W. ed.). 
  97. Religion and Biopolitics (Mirjam Weiberg-Salzmann, Ulrich Willems ed.). 
  98. Manning, Joanna. The Cartwright Papers: Essays on the Cervical Cancer Inquiry, 1987-88. 
  99. 99.0 99.1 Teaching Research Methods in Public Administration (Schwester, Richard W. ed.). 
  100. "Censoring science". PMC 156663Freely accessible. PMID 12796312. 
  101. "International Declaration on Human Genetic Data". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  102. "INTERNATIONAL DECLARATION ON HUMAN GENETIC DATA". who.int. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  103. "Journal of bioethical inquiry". 
  104. Langlois, Adèle. "The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Perspectives from Kenya and South Africa". PMC 2226192Freely accessible. PMID 18240025. doi:10.1007/s10728-007-0055-7. 
  105. "Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  106. "National Science Advisory Board on Biosecurity" (PDF). osp.od.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  107. "Worst case bioethics: Death, disaster, and public health". jci.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  108. "BioSocieties". andymiah.net. Retrieved 3 September 2018. 
  109. "Feminist Bioethics". stanford.library.sydney.edu.au. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  110. "International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics". researchgate.net. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  111. "About the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues". onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  112. "Bangladesh Bioethics Society". bioethics.org.bd/. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  113. "Worst case bioethics: Death, disaster, and public health". jci.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020. 
  114. ""Reasonable Accommodation" for Families of 'Brain Dead' Patients". bioethics.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 17 September 2018. 
  115. "Center for the Study of Bioethics". csb.eu.com/. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  116. "Launch of the Canadian Journal of Bioethics". erudit.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020. 
  117. Cartwright-Smith, Lara. "Patenting Genes: What Does Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics Mean for Genetic Testing and Research?". PMC 3982540Freely accessible. PMID 24790252. doi:10.1177/003335491412900311. 
  118. Hamedy S (19 January 2014). "New Mexico judge affirms right to 'aid in dying'". Los Angeles Times. 
  119. "'Galileo's Middle Finger,' by Alice Dreger". nytimes.com. Retrieved 17 September 2018.