Timeline of bioethics
This is a timeline of bioethics, attempting to describe significant events related to the development of the field. Its subfield medical ethics is described with more detail on the Timeline of medical ethics.
Contents
Sample questions
The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:
- What are some notable events describing the development of the concept of bioethics?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Concept development".
- What are some notable publications on the topic of bioethics?
- For academic journals, sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Literature (journal)".
- For books, sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Literature (book)".
- What are some events describing notable controversial cases of bioethics in research?
- For books, sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Notable case"
- What are some notable organizations devoted to the topic of bioethics?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Organization".
- What are some notable treaties concerning bioethics?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Treaty".
- Other events are described under the following types: "Activism", "Genetic discrimination", "Genetic privacy", "Intellectual property".
Big picture
Time period | Development summary |
---|---|
<1960s | Discussions of moral issues in medicine already happen in ancient times, with early contributions by Hippocrates and Plato.[1] In the 20th century, German theologian Fritz Jahr publishes three articles in 1927, 1928, and 1934 using the German term “Bio-Ethik”, forcefully arguing an ethical approach to issues concerning human beings and the environment.[2] |
1960s | Bioethics as a distinct field of academic study is born in the United States, merging from a cluster of scientific and cultural developments in the country during that decade.[3] A wide range of new ethical problems emerge into view, all of them driven by spectacular advances in medicine and biology.[4] |
1970s | Many bioethics programs and degrees are established at universities in the United States in order to provide students – most notably medical, law, and public policy students – with some expertise in medical ethics to deal with complex cases.[2] Feminist bioethics develops from the early 1970s on and is initially focused on medical ethics; proponents later extend the areas of interest to issues in the fields of animal and environmental ethics.[2] |
1980s | Universities begin establishing human subjects review committees.[5] In the late decade, the Russian school of bioethics originates.[6] |
1990s | The contributions of social scientists to bioethical research become particularly important. Work of this type involves surveys of public attitudes to advances in the life sciences, including xenotransplantation and genetic modification.[1] |
2000s | Ethics consultation begins to emerge as another, more enduring model of ethics and science interaction. The concept of research ethics consultation develops.[7] |
Visual data
Google Trends
The image below shows Google Trends data for "bioethics" search term from January 1, 2004 to July 13, 2020, when the screenshot was taken. A declining interest is appreciated.[8]
Wikipedia Views
The image below shows Wikipedia views for the article Bioethics for desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from June 2015 to June 2020.[9]
Full timeline
Year | Event type | Details | Location | |
---|---|---|---|---|
380 BC | Field development | The Republic of Plato advocates selective human breeding in anticipation of later programs of eugenics.[1] | ||
1259 – 1265 | Literature (book) | Italian philosopher Thomas Aquinas writes his Summa contra Gentiles, which briefly discusses the permissibility of abortion.[1] | Italy | |
1620 | Literature (book) | English philosopher Francis Bacon publishes his Novum Organon, in which he argues that scientific research should benefit humanity.[10] | United Kingdom | |
1830 | Literature (book) | English polymath Charles Babbage writes Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, which catalogs scientific misdeeds, and originates such terms as data trimming, data fudging, data falsification, and data cooking.[11] | United Kingdom | |
1859 | Literature (book) | English naturalist Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, which proposes a theory of evolution of living things by natural selection. The book would generate much controversy because it proposes that human beings were not created by God (as most religions claimed) but descended from apes.[12] | United Kingdom | |
1905 | Concept development | Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellén coins the term "biopolitics".[13] in his 1905 two-volume work The Great Powers.[14]" | Sweden | |
1926 | Literature (article) | German theologian Fritz Jahr, referring to European and Oriental traditions, publishes an article entitled Natural sciences and teaching ethics where he gives the subtitle “Old Knowledge in new clothes” describing the function of natural sciences for education and teaching biological research ethics.[6] | Germany | |
1927 | Concept development | Fritz Jahr publishes article using the German term “Bio-Ethik” (which translates as “Bio-Ethics”) and argues, both for the establishment of a new academic discipline, and for the practice of a new, more civilized, ethical approach to issues concerning human beings and the environment. Jahr would publish similar articles discussing bioethics in 1928, and 1934.[2] | Germany | |
1931 | Policy (reproductive rights) | Mexico becomes the first country in the world to legalize abortion in cases of rape.[15] | Mexico | |
1932 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal The Linacre Quarterly is established.[16] | United States | |
1938 | Literature (book) | English writer Morley Roberts publishes Bio-politics: an essay in the physiology, pathology & politics of the social & somatic organism, which argues that a correct model for world politics is "a loose association of cell and protozoa colonies".[17] | United Kingdom | |
1947 | Literature (essay) | American ecologist Aldo Leopold publishes The Land Ethic, a chapter in A Sand County Almanac. Leopold argues that there is a critical need for a "new ethic," an "ethic dealing with human's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it".[18] | United States | |
1947 | Policy | The Nuremberg Code is adopted as a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation created as a result of the Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War. These principles are used as a set of research principles to be used to prosecute the Nazi scientists as war criminals.[19][20] | ||
1948–1953 | Literature (book) | American biologist Alfred Kinsey publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Five years later, he publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. These books, known as the Kinsey Reports would become very controversial, because they examine topics which are regarded as taboo at the time, such as masturbation, orgasm, sexual intercourse, promiscuity, and {sexual fantasies.[21][22] | United States | |
1965 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Science, Technology, & Human Values is founded.[23] | ||
1966 | Notable case (cryonics) | The first human body –a middle-aged woman from Los Angeles, is frozen by being placed in liquid nitrogen and stored at just above freezing. However, the body would be later thawed out and buried by relatives.[24] | United States | |
1967 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed philosophical journal Journal of Value Inquiry is established. It focuses on value studies.[25] | ||
1969 | Organization | The Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences (later The Hastings Center) is founded by American philosopher Daniel Callahan and Professor Willard Gaylin as a bioethics research institute. Located in Garrison, New York[26][27], it would be regarded as instrumental in establishing the field of bioethics and one of the most prestigious bioethics and health policy institutes in the world.[28][29][30] The Hastings Center publishes two journals, the Hastings Center Report,[31][32] and Ethics & Human Research (formerly IRB: Ethics & Human Research).[33] A freestanding bioethics center, it is the first institution devoted to the study of bioethical questions.[3][34] | United States | |
1969 | "In 1969, the UK and the Warsaw Pact, separately, introduced proposals to the UN to ban biological weapons, and US President Richard Nixon terminated production of biological weapons, allowing only scientific research for defensive measures." | |||
1970 | Literature | Paul Ramsey publishes The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics.[35][2] | ||
1970 | Literature (article) | American biochemist Van Rensselaer Potter publishes his article Bioethics, the Science of Survival, which suggests viewing bioethics as a global movement in order to foster concern for the environment and ethics.[2][34] Van Rensselaer Potter defines the term "bioethics" to describe a new philosophy that seeks to integrate biology, ecology, medicine, and human values.[36] | ||
1970 | Concept development | English animal rights advocate Richard D. Ryder coins the term "speciesism" to describe the exclusion of nonhuman animals from the protections available to human beings. | United Kingdom | |
1971 | Literature (book) | Van Rensselaer Potter publishes book Bioethics: Bridge to the Future.[34] | United States | |
1971 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Hastings Center Report is first issued.[37] | ||
1971 | Concept development | Georgetown University researcher Andre Hellegers uses the term bioethics to refer to interdisciplinary research moral problems of biomedicine, primarily associated with the need to protect the dignity and rights of patients.[6] | United States | |
1971 | Organization | The Joseph and Rose Kennedy Center for the Study of Human Reproduction and Bioethics (now known as Kennedy Center) opens at Georgetown University. With similar goals to those of The Hastings Center, the Kennedy Institute is however placed inside the traditional academy.[3][34] Founded by Andre Hellegers, it is the first in the world to establish an institute of bioethics on the basis of interdisciplinary research and approaches.[6] | United States | |
1972 | Organization | The National Catholic Bioethics Center is established. Based in Philadelphia, it states its mission as "promoting and safeguarding the dignity of the human person, thereby sharing in the ministry of Jesus Christ and his Church."[38].[39][40][41] | United States | |
1973 | Literature (article) | Dan Callahan writes essay Bioethics as a Discipline, whose title is the first entry of the word "bioethics" in the catalogue of the National Library of Congress.[34] In the article, Callahan argues for the establishment of a new academic discipline.[2] | United States | |
1974 | Policy | The 93rd United States Congress enacts the National Research Act, which authorizes federal agencies to develop human research regulations.[42][43][44][45] | United States | |
1975 | Field development | Australian moral philosopher Peter Singer claims that human beings must consider the equal interests of human beings and animals alike.[2] | ||
1975 | Field development | At a gathering at the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA at Asilomar, California, scientists discuss the benefits and risks of recombinant DNA research. The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee is formed by the National Institutes of Health to provide guidance for researchers and institutions. The Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs) is also formed to review and oversee research involving hazardous biological materials.[46][47][48] | United States | |
1978 | Literature (encyclopedia) | The Encyclopedia of Bioethics launches its first edition, becoming the first reference book to focus exclusively on the field of bioethics.[49][6] | ||
1978 | Concept development | French philosopher Michel Foucault elaborates further his concept of biopower in his lecture courses delivered at the Collège de France.[50] | France | |
1979 | Biological agent use | An anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (Soviet Union) occurs when spores of anthrax are accidentally released from a Soviet military research facility. In what would be considered among the largest biological weapons accident, approximately 100 people die. Sheep become ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point.[51] | Russia | |
1980 | Intellectual property | In the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case the United States Supreme Court rules that a genetically modified bacterium can be patented because it is the product of human ingenuity. This sets a precedent for patents on other life forms and helps to establish solid intellectual property protection for the new biotechnology industry.[46] | United States | |
1980 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed medical journal Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics is first issued.[52] | ||
1982 | Literature (book) | William Broad and Nicholas Wade publish Betrayers of the Truth, which attempts to reveal much of the scientific misconduct that happens at this time.[53] | ||
1986 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Biology and Philosophy is launched.[54] | ||
1986 | Literature (book) | American philosopher Paul W. Taylor publishes Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics which discusses biocentrism. Taylor maintains that biocentrism is an "attitude of respect for nature", whereby one attempts to make an effort to live one's life in a way that respects the welfare and inherent worth of all living creatures.[55][56] | United States | |
1987 | Literature | Ren-zong Qiu's Bioethics is published as the first bioethics book in China.[57] | China | |
1987 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Bioethics is launched.[58] | ||
1988 | Literature (journal) | The Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics is established.[59] | ||
1988 | Notable case | Harvard University and Dow Chemical Company patent a genetically engineered mouse used to study cancer. This invention would become highly controversial as it involves the genetic manipulation of animals, particularly mammals.[60][61][62][46] | United States | |
1988 | Literature (book) | Van Rensselaer Potter publishes Global bioethics,[6] which defines bioethics as "Biology combined with diverse humanistic knowledge forging a science that sets a system of medical and environmental priorities for acceptable survival."[36] | ||
1989 | Literature (book) | The United States National Academy of Sciences publishes On Being A Scientist, a free, short book on research ethics for scientists in training.[46][63][64][65] | United States | |
1990 | Literature (column) | American medical ethicist Sigrid Fry-Revere starts the column Legal Trends in Bioethics for the Journal of Clinical Ethics.[66] The column "tracks bioethics related issues through all stages of litigation, legislation, and regulation at both the federal and state levels, as well as occasionally mentioning exceptional legal developments in other countries."[67] | ||
1990 | Notable case | The Human Genome Project is launched by the United States as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the human genome.[68][69] | United States | |
1991 | Organization | London-based Nuffield Council on Bioethics is established by the Nuffield Foundation to adress numerous bioethical issues in need of analysis.[70][71][72] | United Kingdom | |
1991 | Literature (journal) | The Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal is launched.[73][74] | United States | |
1992 | Literature (journal) | Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics is launched.[75] | ||
1992 | Literature (book) | The United States National Academy of Sciences publishes Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process. The book estimates the incidence of misconduct, discusses some of the causes of misconduct, proposes a definition of misconduct, and recommends some strategies for preventing misconduct.[46][76][77] | United States | |
1992 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Environmental Values is established.[78][79] | United Kingdom | |
1992 | Organization | The United States Office of Research Integrity is formed. It focuses on research integrity.[80] | United States | |
1993 | Notable case | Researchers successfully clone human embryos.[46] | ||
1993 | Organization | The International Bioethics Committee is established by UNESCO to provide guidance on ethical and legal issues raised by research in medicine, biological sciences and associated technologies, and to reinforce knowledge in ethics.[81][82] | ||
1994 | Literature (book) | American psychologist Richard Herrnstein and American political scientist Charles Murray publish The Bell Curve, a controversial book that reignites the centuries old debate about biology, race and intelligence"[83] | United States | |
1995 | Activism | About 200 religious leaders join in Washington, DC., with leading biotechnology critic Jeremy Rifkin in a press conference named the "Joint Appeal against Human and Animal Patenting", protesting the patenting of plants, animals, and human body parts.[46][84][85] | United States | |
1995 | Organization | The Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics is established. It is dedicated to the study of complex moral and policy issues in biomedical science, health care, and health policy, promoting research in bioethics.[86][87] | United States | |
1995 | Organization | The University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics is established.[88] | Canada | |
1995 | Concept development | American philosopher Daniel Callahan defines bioethics as a science “which is the product of biomedical achievements related to the environment and social sciences”.[6] | United States | |
1995 | Notable case | The Tokyo subway sarin attack is perpetrated. This would further increase concern among scientists and defense analysts about the use of chemical or biological weapons.[89] | Japan | |
1995 | Literature (journal) | Quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal Science and Engineering Ethics is first issued.[90] | ||
1996 | Notable case | Dolly is born as the first mammal ever to be cloned from another individual’s body cell. Her birth would be announced in 1997, followed by several European nations banning human cloning. The United States Congress would consider a bill to ban all human cloning but changes its mind after scientists argue that the bill would undermine biomedical research.[46][91][92] | United Kingdom | |
1996 | Organization | The National Bioethics Advisory Commission is established.[93][94] | ||
1996 | Literature (book) | American philosopher David Abram publishes The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World. Abram coins the phrase "the more-than-human world" as a way of referring to earthly nature.[95] | United States | |
1996 | Literature (book) | American philosopher H. Tristram Engelhardt Jr. publishes The Foundation of Bioethics, in which he states “Moral diversity is real. It is real in fact and in principle. Bioethics and healthcare policy have yet to take this diversity seriously. Those who teach bioethics, those who engage in bioethics committees, even those who produced textbooks tend to discount the diversity of understanding regarding the morality of particular health care choices (e.g., regarding abortion, commercial surrogacy, euthanasia/ germline genetic engineering, inequalities in access to health care, infanticide, organ sales) or the nature of morality (e.g., theological, deontological, virtue-based)".[6] | United States | |
1997 | Organization | The Committee On Publication Ethics is established in the United Kingdom, consisting in academic journal editors and others who are concerned about the integrity of what is peer-reviewed and published in journals.[96][97] | United Kingdom | |
1997 | Concept development | The term "wisdom of repugnance" is coined by American physician Leon Kass in an article in The New Republic. Kass states that disgust is not an argument per se, but says that "in crucial cases... repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power fully to articulate."[98] | United States | |
1998 | Notable case/policy | As scientists perfect methods for growing human embryonic stem cells, some countries ban the research, while others promote it.[99][100][101] | ||
1998 | Notable case | Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.[46] | ||
1998 | Notable case | American biotechnologist Craig Venter forms Celera Genomics and begins a private effort to sequence the human genome, using dozens of automated sequencing machines.[46] | ||
1998 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Ethical Theory and Moral Practice is first issued.[102] | ||
1999 | Literature (journal) | AMA Journal of Ethics is launched.[103] | United States | |
1999 | Literature (journal) | The American Journal of Bioethics is launched.[104] | United Sattes | |
1999 | Literature (book) | Chinese bioethicist Lee Shui-chuen publishes Confucian Bioethics (in Chinese).[105][106][107] | China | |
1999 | Literature (book) | American professor Robert M. Veatch publishes The Basics of Bioethics, which attempts to introduce readers of all backgrounds to the field of bioethics in an accessible way. This book is based on the author's training in both religious and philosophical ethics.[108] | United States | |
2001 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed journal The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly is launched.[109] | United States | |
2001 | Policy | Several journals start requiring authors to describe their responsibilities when publishing research.[46] | ||
2001 | Organization | The International Society for Stem Cell Research is established to promote the exchange and dissemination of information and ideas relating to stem cells.[110][111] | ||
2001 | Organization | The President's Council on Bioethics is created by United States President George W. Bush to advice the President on bioethical issues that may emerge as a consequence of advances in biomedical science and technology.[112] | United States | |
2001 | Organization | The Center for Genetics and Society is established.[113] | United States | |
2002 | Policy | The President's Council on Bioethics recommends that the United States ban reproductive cloning and enact a moratorium on research cloning.[46][114][115][116] | United States | |
2002 | Concept development | "The first detailed exploration of Earth jurisprudence in print and the introduction of the term ‘Great Jurisprudence’ occurred with the first publication of Wild Law by Cormac Cullinan, launched at the World Summit for Sustainable Development in Cape Town 2002." | South Africa | |
2002 | Literature (journal) | Researchers publish several papers in prominent journals with direct implications for bioterrorism, some described methods include one for genetically engineering a form of mousepox virus that is much deadlier than the naturally occurring strain. Another shows how to make the poliovirus by obtaining supplies from a mail-order company. Another study develops a mathematical model for showing how many people would be killed by infecting the United States milk supply with botulinum toxin.[117] | ||
2002 | Organization | The Toi Te Taiao: The Bioethics Council is established. Its goal is: "To enhance New Zealand's understanding of the cultural, ethical and spiritual aspects of biotechnology and ensure that the use of biotechnology has regard for the values held by New Zealanders." [118][119] | New Zealand | |
2003 | Policy | The American Society for Microbiology, the National Academy of Sciences, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies hold a meeting to discuss the censorship biological research that poses security risks. Self-censorship of some research is also agreed by journals.[120][121] | ||
2003 | Notable case | The United States invades Iraq with the stated purpose of eliminating its chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons programs. So far, evidence of weapons programs but no actual weapons would be found.[46] | Iraq | |
2003 | Treaty | The International Bioethics Committee issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights.[122][123] | ||
2004 | Literature (journal) | The Journal of Bioethical Inquiry is released by the University of Otago Bioethics Centre.[124] | New Zealand | |
2004 | Literature (book) | American bioethicist James Hughes publishes Citizen Cyborg, a non-fiction book which articulates democratic transhumanism as a socio-political ideology and program.[125] | United States | |
2004 | Literature (book) | "In his 2002 book Our Posthuman Future and in a 2004 Foreign Policy magazine article, political economist and philosopher Francis Fukuyama designates transhumanism as the world's most dangerous idea because he believes that it may undermine the egalitarian ideals of democracy (in general) and liberal democracy (in particular) through a fundamental alteration of "human nature"."[126] | ||
2005 | Treaty | The Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights is adopted by UNESCO.[127][128] | ||
2005 | Organization | The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity is established by the United States Department of Health and Human Services "to provide advice and guidance to federal agencies, scientists, and journals concerning oversight and public of research in biotechnology or biomedicine which can be readily applied to cause significant harm to public health, agriculture, the economy, or national security".[129] | United States | |
2005 | Literature (book) | American professor George Annas publishes American bioethics: crossing human rights and health law boundaries.[130] | United States | |
2006 | Literature (journal) | Quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal BioSocieties is released.[131] | ||
2008 | Literature (journal) | The International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics is launched to encourage more work in feminist bioethics.[132][133] | ||
2008 | Genetic discrimination | The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) is passed on May 21 in the United States, making genetic discrimination illegal in the country.[134] | United States | |
2008 | Bioethics Bowl | |||
2008 | Organization | Center for bioethics and medical humanities | United States | |
2009 | Organization | Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues is established by United States President Barack Obama to advise the president and the administration on bioethical issues arising from advances in biomedicine and related areas of science and technology.[135] | United States | |
2009 | Organization | The Bangladesh Bioethics Society is established.[136] | Bangladesh | |
2009 | Literature (book) | American scholar Lewis Vaughn publishes Bioethics: Principles, Issues, and Cases, which attempts to explore the philosophical, medical, social, and legal aspects of key bioethical issues.[137][138] | United States | |
2009 | Literature (book) | James B. Tubbs publishes Handbook of Bioethics Terms, a glossary-style book describing over 400 entries of importance to the field.[139] | United States | |
2010 | Literature (book) | George Annas publishes Worst case bioethics: death, disaster, and public health.[140] | United States | |
2011 | Literature (journal) | Triannual academic journal Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics is first issued.[141] | ||
2012 | Organization | The Center for the Study of Bioethics is founded by Serbian American philosopher Vojin Rakić with the purpose to stimulate scientific debate on a variety of issues bioethics deals with. It is based in Belgrade, Serbia.[142] | ||
2012 | Literature (journal) | The Canadian Journal of Bioethics is established.[143] | Canada | |
2013 | Notable case (genetic privacy) | Israeli-American scientist Yaniv Erlich conducts a study revealing vulnerabilities in the security of public databases that contain genetic data. The stury reports a method to discover the identity of anonymous research subjects whose genomes have been sequenced as part of a genomics project.[144] | ||
2013 | Policy | The Supreme Court of the United States rules that isolated and purified DNA cannot be patented and that only DNA that has been modified by human beings can be patented.[145] | United States | |
2013 | Literature (book) | Alastair V. Campbell publishes Bioethics: The Basics, which introduces to the foundational principles, theories and issues in the study of medical and biological ethics.[146] | ||
2014 | Policy | Various funding agencies and journals, including the National Institutes of Health, Science, and Nature, take steps to promote reproducibility in science in response to reports that many published studies in the biomedical, behavioral, and physical sciences are not reproducible.[46] | ||
2014 | Policy | New Mexico Second District Judge Nan Nash rules that terminally ill patients have the right to aid in dying under the state constitution, i.e., making it legal for a doctor to prescribe a lethal dose of medication to a terminally ill patient.[147] | United States | |
2015 | Literature | American bioethicist Alice Dreger publishes Galileo's Middle Finger, which discusses the ethics of medical research.[148] | United States | |
2016 | Notable case (cryonics) | The English High Court rules in favor of a mother's right to seek cryopreservation of her terminally ill 14-year-old daughter, as the girl wanted. This case is interpreted as a conventional dispute over the disposal of the girl's body, as the girl's father opposed cryopreservation.[149] | United Kingdom |
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References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Bioethics". britannica.com. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 "Bioethics". iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Bioethics - History Of Bioethics". science.jrank.org. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
- ↑ "Bioethics and Policy—A History". thehastingscenter.org. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ↑ "Ethical timeline". radford.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 "Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present". intechopen.com. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
- ↑ Kerasidou, Angeliki; Parker, Michael. "Does science need bioethicists? Ethics and science collaboration in biomedical research". PMC 4587541. PMID 26430467. doi:10.1177/1747016114554252.
- ↑ "bioethics". trends.google.com. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
- ↑ "Bioethics Wikipedia Views". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
- ↑ "Francis Bacon (1561—1626)". iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES.". gutenberg.org. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
- ↑ "Wallace and Darwin". jstor.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Roberto Esposito (2008). Bios: Biopolitics and Philosophy. U of Minnesota Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8166-4989-1.
- ↑ Gunneflo, Markus (2015). "Rudolf Kjellén: Nordic biopolitics before the welfare state". Retfærd. 35 (3). ISSN 0105-1121.
- ↑ "Mexico City to Legalize Abortion Despite Protests". banderasnews.com. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
- ↑ "The Linacre Quarterly". epublications.marquette.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Liesen, Laurette T. and Walsh, Mary Barbara, The Competing Meanings of 'Biopolitics' in Political Science: Biological and Post-Modern Approaches to Politics (2011). APSA 2011 Annual Meeting Paper Template:Ssrn
- ↑ Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. Oxford University Press, New York.
- ↑ Eaton, Margaret L.; Kennedy, Donald. Innovation in Medical Technology: Ethical Issues and Challenges.
- ↑ Nikolova, Blagovesta. The RRI Challenge: Responsibilization in a State of Tension with Market Regulation.
- ↑ Charles Kinsey, Alfred; Baxter Pomeroy, Wardell; Eugene Martin, Clyde. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male.
- ↑ "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male". britannica.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Editorial: "Science, Technology, & Human Values" at 40". jstor.org. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ↑ Perry, R. Michael (October 2014). "Suspension Failures – Lessons from the Early Days". ALCOR: Life Extension Foundation. Retrieved August 29, 2018.
- ↑ "The Journal of Value Inquiry". springer.com. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
- ↑ "The Hastings Center". thehastingscenter.org. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
- ↑ "About The Hastings Center". onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
- ↑ "Pew Forum". Pew Research Center.
- ↑ Levin BW, Fleischman AR (2002). "Public Health and Bioethics: The Benefits of Collaboration". Am J Public Health. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. 92 (2): 165–7. PMC 1447034. PMID 11818283. doi:10.2105/ajph.92.2.165.
- ↑ "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy".
- ↑ "Medical Xpress - medical research advances and health news". medicalxpress.com. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ "Report". The Hastings Center. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ "Ethics & Human Research". The Hastings Center. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Guinn, David E. Handbook of Bioethics and Religion.
- ↑ Ashley, Benedict M. Health Care Ethics: A Catholic Theological Analysis, Fifth Edition.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Global Bioethics: Building on the Leopold Legacy". amazon.com. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
- ↑ "The Hastings Center Report". jstor.org. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
- ↑ Mission of the NCBC
- ↑ "National Catholic Bioethics Center". ncbcenter.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "NCBC - National Catholic Bioethics Center". inters.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Curran, Charles E. Catholic Moral Theology in the United States: A History.
- ↑ "Research Implications". cdc.gov. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ↑ "Belmont Report". hhs.gov. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ↑ "The Tuskegee Timeline". cdc.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study". history.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
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