Timeline of biorisk

This is a timeline of biorisk, which refers to the risk associated with biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other microorganisms, that have the potential to cause harm to human health, animal health, or the environment. It encompasses the potential for the accidental or intentional release of these agents, which can lead to infectious disease outbreaks, epidemics, or other adverse consequences.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

• What living organisms or a toxins were used as biological agents throughout history?
  • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Early description".

Big picture

Time period	Development summary	More details
Up to the 19th century	Early history	During this period, biorisk is primarily associated with infectious diseases. People are aware that diseases can be spread through contact with infected people or animals, but the specific mechanisms of transmission are not well understood. This leads to a number of public health measures being implemented, such as quarantine and isolation of the sick.
19th and early 20th centuries	Rise of microbiology	During this period, scientists begin to develop a better understanding of the causes of infectious diseases. This leads to the development of new vaccines and treatments, as well as improved public health measures. However, the risk of new diseases emerging also increases, as evidenced by the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919.
1945-1991	Cold War	During this period, there is a growing concern about the potential use of biological weapons. This leads to the development of new international agreements to ban the development and use of biological weapons. However, there are also a number of accidents and incidents involving biological agents, such as the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak in 1979.
1991-present	The post-Cold War era	After the end of Cold War, there is a continued focus on preventing the use of biological weapons, as well as responding to natural and accidental outbreaks of infectious diseases. However, there are also new challenges, such as the emergence of new and dangerous pathogens, such as HIV/AIDS and SARS-CoV-2.

Full timeline

Inclusion criteria

We include:

• Bio-agents of military importance.
• Brief descriptions of diseases caused by biological agents.
• Biological material other than biological agents, such as dead corpses, which have been used in warfare for centuries.
• Major organizations and treaties.

We do not include:

• Individual cases involving one or few victims.
• Diseases that have been never researched as biological agents.
• Date details on state participation in the Biological Weapons Convention (see List of parties to the Biological Weapons Convention).
• Unethical human experimentation
• Chemical agents (see Timeline of chemical risk)

• Some described diseases are naturally occurring and not necessarily associated with malicious intent. However they can still be considered biological agents in a broader sense.

Year	Risk type	Event type	Biological agent/hazard	Details	Country/location
Pre-10,000 years ago	Non-intentional	Early history	Parasitic diseases	Hunter-Gatherer Era. Human experience with biological peril is mostly parasitic diseases affecting individuals.
10,000 years ago	Non-intentional	Early history	Zoonotic diseases	Agricultural Revolution. Development of agriculture allows for population growth, concentration of people into villages, and the spread of zoonotic diseases.
1500BC–1200BC	Intentional	Early description	Tularemia	The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts from arund this time, in which victims of tularemia are driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic. Caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, tularemia is a febrile illness often likened to typhoid fever. Symptoms include a primary ulcer at the infection site, swollen lymph nodes, systemic symptoms, and sometimes atypical pneumonia. In modern times, tularemia would be researched as a biological agent.
6th century BC	Intentional	Biological warfare	Claviceps purpurea	The Assyrians employ a strategy of poisoning enemy wells using a substance called rye ergot, marking the first known use of a biological toxin. Ergot, a fungal disease caused by Claviceps species, affects host plant ovaries exclusively, with Claviceps purpurea being of utmost concern. It primarily targets rye, leading to yield losses, but the main issue lies in the toxic alkaloids within the ergots (sclerotia), posing health risks to humans and animals. Outbreaks of severe poisoning, known as ergotism, can occur.
425 BC	Non-intentional	Early description	Glanders	Greek physician Hippocrates describes glanders, an infectious disease that is caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei. While people can get the disease, glanders is primarily a disease affecting horses. It also affects donkeys and mules and can be naturally contracted by other mammals such as goats, dogs, and cats. In modern times, the U.S. would study this agent as a possible biological weapon in 1943–44, but would not weaponize it.
4th century BC	Intentional	Biological warfare	Harmful microorganisms, bacteria, pathogens	Scythian archers tip their arrows with a mixture of blood, manure, and tissues extracted from decomposing bodies. This unconventional practice likely aims to cause infections or illnesses upon contact with the arrow wounds.
1155	Intentional	Biological warfare	Harmful microorganisms, bacteria, pathogens	During his First Italian Campaign in Tortona, Italy, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa employs a gruesome tactic by throwing decomposing bodies into the wells of his enemies. The contamination of the water with harmful bacteria and germs results in severe illness and death for those who drink from the poisoned wells. This strategic move aims to weaken and incapacitate his adversaries during the conflict.	Italy
1340 AD	Intentional	Biological warfare	Harmful microorganisms, bacteria, pathogens	Attackers hurl dead horses and other animals by catapult at the castle of Thun-l'Évêque in Hainault (northern France). The castle defenders are forced to negotiate a truce because the stench from the rotting carcasses was so unbearable. The defenders report that "the stink and the air were so abominable ... they could not long endure."	France
1346 AD	Intentional	Biological warfare	Yersinia pestis	Siege of Caffa. Mongols catapult bodies of plague victims over the city walls of Caffa, Crimean Peninsula.
15th century	Intentional	Biological warfare	Smallpox	Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro reportedly gives smallpox virus–contaminated clothing to South American natives.	South America
1422	Intentional	Biological warfare	Yersinia pestis	Attacking forces besiege Karlstein Castle in Bohemia. They launch decaying cadavers of men killed in battle over the castle walls, and stockpile animal manure in the hope of spreading illness. However, the defenders hold fast, and the siege is abandoned after five months. There is some evidence that Russian troops would employ the same tactic using the corpses of plague victims against the Swedes in 1710. However, this is disputed, and there is no clear consensus on whether or not this actually happened.	Czechia
1495	Intentional	Biological warfare	Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium lepromatosis	During the Italian Wars, the Spanish army attempts to use biological warfare against the French army. They contaminate French wine with the blood of lepers, hoping to spread the disease.	Spain, France
1528	Non-intentional	Early description	Typhus	Typhus is first described. It is a bacterial illness transmitted through lice or fleas, manifests as an itchy skin rash and is typically characterized by excoriated skin lesions. Typhus would be researched as a biological agent.
c.1650	Intentional	Biological warfare	Rabies virus	A Polish military leader allegedly fills hollow artillery spheres with saliva from rabid dogs, intending to employ these spheres as weapons against his adversaries.
1675	Intentional	Biological warfare	Poison	Representatives of France and the Holy Roman Empire sign the Strasbourg Agreement. The treaty, which concludes hostilities, also prohibits the use of poisoned bullets in future conflicts. The treaty highlights two enduring principles: accountability for violators and the foundation of trust as a crucial element in the agreement.	France, Germany
1763	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Smallpox	British general Jeffrey Amherst approves a plan to deliberately spread smallpox among Delaware Indians hostile to the British. An outbreak at Fort Pitt (modern day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) provides an opportunity, and on June 24, a subordinate distributes smallpox-contaminated blankets and a handkerchief to the Native Americans during what would be known as the siege of Fort Pitt. This event, considered an early form of biological warfare, involves British soldiers using the smallpox virus as a weapon against American Indian combatants.	United States (Thirteen Colonies)
1797	Intentional	Biological warfare	Plasmodium	Napoleon Bonaparte floods the plains around Mantua, Italy, to enhance the spread of malaria.	Italy, France
1831	Non-intentional	Early description	Eastern equine encephalitis	Eastern equine encephalitis is first recognized in Massachusetts. It is one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending the biological-weapons program in 1969, a few years before signing (1972) and then ratifying (1975) the Biological Weapons Convention.	United States
1845–1852	Non-intentional	Crisis	Phytophthora infestans	Phytophthora infestans causes the devastating potato blight during the mid-19th century, leading to the Great Famine in Ireland. In the 1940s and 1950s, France, Canada, the United States, and the Soviet Union would research P. infestans as a biological weapon. Potato blight is also one of more than 17 agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending the its biological weapons program.
1862	Intentional	Inaction	Smallpox	1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic occurs. British colonizers opt against implementing a rigorous quarantine or robust vaccination program. Consequently, the epidemic spreas to the nearby First Nations people. Despite some efforts to aid them, the colonizers primarily focus on self-protection. When the disease escalates among the First Nations population, they are expelled from the town, and their homes are intentionally set ablaze. A journalist of the time notes a deliberate effort to contain the disease among the natives. Subsequently, thirty thousand First Nations people perish, facilitating further colonization of their lands. The colonizers' inaction and forced removal exacerbate the outbreak's impact, benefiting the colonizers at the cost of the indigenous population.	Canada
1863	Intentional	State-sponsored bioterrorism	Yellow fever virus, smallpox	Confederates sell clothing from yellow fever and smallpox patients to Union troops, USA.	United States
1874	Intentional	International law	Multiple	An international declaration in Brussels prohibits the use of poisoned weapons.	Belgium
1874	Intentional	International law	Multiple	An international declaration in The Hague prohibits the use of poisoned weapons. However, both this and the 1874 agreement in Brussels lack effective means of control.	Netherlands
1879	Non-intentional	Early description	Psittacosis	Psittacosis is first reported in Europe. It is a systemic illness capable of inducing atypical pneumonia upon lung infection. It stems from the zoonotic bacterium Chlamydia psittaci, primarily transmitted to humans from birds. It is one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending its biological weapons program.
1910	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Diphtheria toxin	Patrick O'Brien de Lacy and Vladimir Pantchenko, a physician, are found guilty of murdering Captain Vassilli Buturlin, who is de Lacy's brother-in-law, in St. Petersburg, Russia. The murder is carried out by injecting diphtheria toxin into Captain Buturlin.
1912	Non-intentional	Early description	Melioidosis	Pathologist Alfred Whitmore and his assistant Krishnaswami first report melioidosis among beggars and morphine addicts at autopsy in Rangoon, present-day Myanmar. From the Middle Ages to the 1900s, glanders would be a significant threat to armies.
1912	Non-intentional	Early description	Rift Valley fever	Kenya first reports Rift Valley fever (RVF)-like disease in livestock. It is a viral illness primarily affecting domesticated animals in sub-Saharan Africa, including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels. Human transmission occurs through contact with infected animal tissues, blood, or bodily fluids, as well as through bites from infected mosquitoes. (RVF) in humans can manifest in both mild and severe forms. The mild form typically presents with flu-like symptoms, including fever, muscle and joint pain, headache, and sometimes neck stiffness and sensitivity to light, resembling meningitis. Symptoms last for about 4 to 7 days, followed by an immune response. The severe form is less common but can lead to ocular disease with retinal lesions, meningoencephalitis causing neurological symptoms like confusion and coma, or hemorrhagic fever characterized by liver impairment and bleeding. Fatality rates are highest in the hemorrhagic form, reaching approximately 50%. RVFV would be successfully developed as a biological weapon by the US offensive biological weapons program prior to the program's elimination in 1969.
1913	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Vibrio cholerae	Karl Hopf, with his knowledge of handling drugs, deliberately infects his third wife with Vibrio cholerae and typhus bacteria. Additionally, he uses arsenic to murder his father, two children, and first wife. He is also accused of attempting to poison his second and third wives, as well as his mother. Hopf would face conviction in a German court for these crimes.
1915	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis, Burkholderia mallei	German-American medical doctor Anton Dilger produces the anthrax and glanders bacterium with the intention of infecting horses that were meant for the warfront. This incident is a notable and documented example of using bacteria as a biological weapon against animals.	United States
1915	Intentional	Biological weapons proram	Multiple	Germany starts its biological weapons program. The German army would weaponize glanders and anthrax in World War I. The program would also research on foot and mouth disease, plague, rinderpest, typhus, yellow fever, potato beetle, and potato blight. It would end in 1945.	Germany
1915–1918	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Burkholderia mallei, Bacillus anthracis, Vibrio cholerae	During the early stages of World War I, while the United States is still neutral, the German Secret Service undertakes a covert biological warfare campaign in the United States. They deliberately infect horses and mules, which the Allies previously purchased in the United States for use in Europe, with B. mallei (glanders) and B. anthracis (anthrax). Similarly, in Romania, they infect sheep destined for Russia with glanders and anthrax. In Argentina, they infect sheep, cattle, and horses bound for Britain and the Indian army with glanders and anthrax. Allegedly, they also use B. mallei and V. cholerae against allied forces during the German retreat.
1916	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Pathogenic microorganisms	Murder of Hannah and John E. Peck. Arthur Warren Waite, a dentist, makes determined efforts to obtain harmful pathogens. He causes the death of his mother-in-law by adding pathogenic microorganisms to her food. His attempt to use pathogens to kill his father-in-law fails, so he resorts to poisoning him with arsenic instead.	United States
1917	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	President Woodrow Wilson establishes the site that would later become the United States Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center (DEVCOM CBC). Originally designated for the first chemical shell filling plant in the United States, it now serves as the Department of Defense's primary research and development resource for non-medical chemical and biological defense. DEVCOM CBC supports all stages of the acquisition life-cycle, addressing unique requirements from basic research to demilitarization.	United States
1918	Non-intentional	Epidemic	Influenza A virus subtype H1N1	The Spanish flu affects approximately one-third of the global population and results in the deaths of approximately one in fifty people.	Worldwide
1921	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services, also known as Laboratory 1, Laboratory 12, and "The Chamber," is established as a covert research and development facility. Known as the "Special Office," it would evolve under various leaders, including Grigory Mairanovsky and Pavel Sudoplatov. The laboratory would conduct human experiments, testing poisons on Gulag prisoners to find tasteless, odorless substances. Notable victims would include General Alexander Kutepov, General Evgenii Miller, Archbishop Theodore Romzha, Bulgarian writer Georgi Markov, and others. The laboratory's alleged involvement in political assassinations, like the planned poisoning of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, would illustrate its sinister history.	Soviet Union
Early 1921	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	France initiates its biological weapons program under Auguste Trillat, a chemist educated in Germany. Trillat conducts experiments to assess the lasting potency of airborne pathogens, marking the beginning of France's involvement in biological warfare research. The program would end in 1940.	France
1925 (June 17)	Intentional	International legislation and agreements	Multiple	The Geneva Protocol is created, with the purpose to prohibit the use of chemical and bacteriological methods of warfare. This protocol marks the first international endeavor to restrict the utilization of biological agents in warfare.
1926	Non-intentional	Early description	Newcastle disease	Newcastle disease is first identified in Java, Indonesia. It is a viral illness that is both highly contagious and deadly, impacting the respiratory, nervous, and digestive systems of birds. The causative agent of ND is an avian paramyxovirus Type 1 (APVM-1) virus. It would be researched as a biological agent.
1930 (June)	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Foot-and-mouth disease	The People's Commissariat of Agriculture (Narkomzem) initiates the construction of the Scientific-Research Institute for the Study of foot-and-mouth disease on Gorodomlya Island.	Russia
1930	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Kantubek City is built on Uygonish Island, one of the islands in the Aral Sea. In this secluded city a biochemical testing ground is established in the 1930s.	Uzbekistan
1930	Non-intentional	Early description	Western equine encephalitis virus	The western equine encephalitis virus is discovered in California. It belongs to the alphavirus family and is similar to Eastern Equine Encephalitis and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis viruses. While outbreaks are infrequent, a significant regional outbreak would occur in 1941, primarily affecting Minnesota with nearly 800 cases and 90 deaths. Symptoms typically resemble a mild flu but can progress to severe neurological complications. Severe cases may lead to encephalitis, with a fatality rate of 5-15% and significant risk of permanent brain damage in surviving infants. WEE would be researched as a biological agent.	United States
1932	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Japanese army hands over control of three biological research centers, including one located in Manchuria, to General Shirō Ishii. This event marks the beginning of General Ishii's involvement and leadership in the development of bioweapons. General Ishii would be widely regarded as one of the most infamous figures in the history of bioweapons due to his involvement in human experimentation and war crimes during World War II. In the same year, dutring a visit, the Lytton Commission, which was set by the General Assembly of the League of Nations set up to examine Japan's occupation of Manchuria, is provided by the Japanese with fruit that contains V. cholerae. However, no one falls ill from consuming it.	Japan (Empire of Japan)
1933	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Yersinia pestis	Dr. Taranath Bhatacharyna, a physician skilled in bacteriology, and Benoyendra Chandra Pandey jointly kill Amarendra Pandey, who is Benoyendra's half-brother. The motive behind the murder is a dispute over the division of their father's estate. They administer a deadly amount of Y. pestis to carry out the crime.	India
1934	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Great Britain initiates efforts to establish its own biological weapons research project. This marks the beginning of the country's involvement in developing biological weapons. Alongside its allies, Great Britain embarks on the development of a program focused on biological warfare research.	United Kingdom
1934	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	General Shirō Ishii establishes Japan's covert biological warfare program, active until 1945. Operating from the occupied Manchuria, near Harbin, Ishii recruites numerous researchers from medical schools. These scientists are enticed by the chance to conduct experiments involving infectious diseases on live human subjects, primarily Han Chinese, setting a dark precedent for wartime biological research.	Japan (Empire of Japan)
1936	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Unit 731 is established in Japanese-occupied Manchuria under Emperor Hirohito's authorization, aimed to develop biological weapons. Supported by Japanese universities and operating covertly as The Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army, Unit 731, led by General Shiro Ishii, commits horrendous crimes during World War II. Partnered with Unit 100, it would conduct experiments leading to the murder of over 3,000 prisoners, primarily Chinese, for bacteriological weapon development. Soviet investigations would reveal the units' true nature, their association with top bacteriologic experts, and their role in Japan's Kantokuen plan against the USSR. The units, with numerous branches, are strategically located near the Soviet-Manchurian border for potential warfare.	China (Empire of Japan)
1936	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal state sponsored)	Salmonella Typhi	Dr. Tei-Sabro Takahashi, a notable Japanese physician, gains infamy for deliberately infecting 17 individuals, three of whom tragically lost their lives, by employing food contaminated with S. typhi. These incidents revolve around conflicts among rival physicians, their families, and his own wife. Dr. Takahashi's actions would raise serious ethical and legal concerns, and the case remains a significant chapter in the history of medical malpractice and criminal intent.	Japan
1938	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Unit 8604 is formed in Guangzhou. Also known as Unit 8604 or Detachment Nami, it opens as a clandestine military medical unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. It operates under the Japanese Southern China Area Army's Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department. Conducting secretive research, including human experimentation, the unit focuses on biological warfare during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Headquartered at Sun Yat-sen University of Medical Sciences, it would be active until Japan's surrender in 1945.	China (Empire of Japan)
1939	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal state sponsored)	Salmonella Typhi	Dr. Kikuko Hirose, a prominent Japanese physician, gains notoriety for distributing pastries contaminated with S. typhi and S. paratyphi to her former husband, who subsequently share them with several individuals. Twelve people fall ill, and one of them succumb to the infection. This incident would raise significant concerns regarding medical ethics and professional conduct, leaving a lasting impact on the medical community and serving as a cautionary tale in the realm of public health and safety.	Japan
1939	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Unit Ei 1644, also known as Detachment Ei 1644 or Unit 1644, is established in Nanking under the cover name “Anti-epidemic Water Supply Unit” and headed by medical doctor Masuda Tomosada. Like Unit 731, it develops weapons against humans. It would become a notorious biological warfare unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II.	China (Empire of Japan)
1939	Intentional	Bioterrorism (state sponsored)	Yellow fever virus	The Japanese legally and then illegally attempt to obtain yellow fever virus from the Rockefeller Institute in New York.	Japan, United States
1939	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Noborito Research Institute starts operations as a covert military development laboratory under the Imperial Japanese Army. Focusing on developing tools for covert warfare, during World War II, Japanese troops, particularly from the Noborito Institute, secretly develop a germ agent to mass-kill US cattle.	Japan
1939	Intentional	Biological warfare	Salmonella Typhi	During World War II, the Nazis besiege Warsaw, Poland, damaging the city's sewage system and contaminating the water supply, leading to a small outbreak of typhus. The Nazis use this situation to justify creating the Warsaw ghetto, confining Jews to a small section surrounded by a three-meter wall topped with barbed wire. The overcrowded and unsanitary conditions in the ghetto result in a catastrophic typhus outbreak. Despite causing the epidemics, the Nazis would refuse to acknowledge their role and used them as a pretext for further harm. Throughout the war, they would claim the genocide of 3 million Jews in Poland was necessary for public health reasons. In the Warsaw ghetto, the typhus outbreak, instead of worsening in winter, starts receding because the inhabitants smuggle in food, run community kitchens, and implement healthcare initiatives to combat starvation and disease. As the war continues, countries like Japan, the United States, and Britain explore using pathogens as weapons, leading to the development of bioweapons shortly after the war ends.	Poland
1940	Non-intentional	Epidemic	Tularemia	A tularemia outbreak affects more than 100,000 people in the Soviet Union.	Soviet Union
1940	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Canadian medical scientist Frederick Banting, discoverer of insulin, establishes what would be considered the first private biological weapons research center in North America.	United States
1940 (October)	Intentional	Biological warfare	Cholera, bubonic plague	The Kaimingjie germ weapon attack occurrs during the Second Sino-Japanese War when Japan launches a biological warfare strike against Kaimingjie in Ningbo, Zhejiang province, China. Infected fleas, carrying cholera and bubonic plague, are dispersed using corn and cloth. Approximately 250,000 civilians perish, prompting quarantines, disinfection measures, and evacuations in response. The United States would be speculated to have assisted in the cover-up. Many leaders from Japan's secret biological warfare program would later find success in the USA. The incident would be often omitted from historical textbooks and Western culture, highlighting the sensitive nature of Japan's wartime activities.	China, Japan
1941	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The US biological warfare program starts on a small scale under its Chemical Warfare Service. However, significant efforts wouldn't begin until 1942, leading to the creation of the United States biological weapons program in 1943.	United States
1941	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	A major Canadian military research facility, DRDC Suffield, commences operations as the Experimental Station Suffield, a joint British/Canadian biological and chemical defense facility under the administration of the Canadian Army. Located 5 km north of Suffield, Alberta, DRDC Suffield is one of eight centers constituting Defence Research and Development Canada (DRDC).	Canada
1942	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Anthrax	During World War II, a biological warfare test is carried out on Gruinard Island by scientists from the Biology Department of Porton Down. British scientist Paul Fildes and his team chose Gruinard Island off Scotland for the UK's first outdoor biological weapons test site. They drop anthrax-filled bombs near sheep, causing anthrax symptoms, confirming the potential effectiveness. Seeking large-scale anthrax production, the British seek assistance from the United States, marking a pivotal moment in the collaboration between the two nations on biological warfare research during World War II.	United Kingdom
1942 (July 15)	Intentional	Bioloical warfare test	Bacillus anthracis	Anthrax is tested on Gruinard Island against sheep. Allies’ first field test of bioweapon.	United Kingdom
1942	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Dugway Proving Ground (DPG) is established approximately 85 miles southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, with the primary purpose is to test biological and chemical weapons.	United States
1942 (November)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The British government, concerned about the possibility that Germany is developing biological weapons, approaches the United States about leading a joint program to develop biological weapons. The US government is initially reluctant, but they eventually agreed to the British request. President Roosevelt approves the program in November 1942. The program is initially called the War Research Service, but it is later renamed the Chemical and Biological Warfare Service. Responsible for developing and testing biological weapons, the US bioweapons program would be terminated in 1969.
1942 (late year)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The United States Government dedicates significant resources, including scientific expertise, labs, military personnel, and production facilities, to launch the largest biological warfare project in history. Columbia University scientists, Theodor Rosebury and Elvin Kabat, outline potential pathogens, organizational structures, and civil defense strategies in a forward-thinking report. This initiative marks a substantial step in the development of biological warfare capabilities.	United States
1943	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Horn Island Chemical Warfare Service Quarantine Station, also referred to as the Horn Island Testing Station, is established as a U.S. biological weapons testing site during World War II. Positioned on Mississippi's Horn Island, the facility would cease operations at the end of the war and would be subsequently closed.	United States
1943 (Spring)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The United States biological weapons program begins its activities at Camp Detrick, Maryland. This marks the implementation of plans to begin the US bioweapons program. Camp Detrick is a military base that has been used for biological research since the early 1900s. In the 1940s, the base would be expanded and converted into a major center for the development and testing of biological weapons.	United States
1943	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories begins operations.	United States
1943	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Granite Peak Installation is established at Granite Peak, an isolated 250-square mile area in Tooele, Utah. This facility becomes the primary large-scale test field for living biological agents, offering a relatively safe environment for experiments. Administered as a subinstallation of Dugway, Granite Peak maintains autonomy in technical operations while collaborating closely. By July 1945, it reaches peak test operations, involving Army and Navy personnel in various capacities.	United States
1945	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The US biological warfare program expands to include more than 5,000 people.	United States
1947	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	Some epidemics caused by Japanese biological warfare persist, continuing to kill more than 30,000 people, even after Japan's surrender.
Late 1940s	Intentional	Espionage	None	Soviets use a trick to monitor US researchers' activities, revealing that the United States is focused on building a nuclear bomb rather than engaging in biological weapons research.
1949 (May)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Harmless bacteria	The United States Army Chemical Corps set up a Special Operations Division at Camp Detrick. The goal of this division is to perform field tests with bioweapons formulations. The first test conducted by the division is at the Pentagon in August 1949. Operatives from the division would infiltrate the Pentagon and spray bacteria into the air handling system. The bacteria is supposed to be harmless, but the test shows that it was possible to use biological weapons to spread disease in a large, enclosed space.
1949 (December)	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	The Soviet Union conducts the Khabarovsk war crimes trials, involving eight Japanese physicians, researchers, and four military servicemen. Despite the trial's strong ideological tone and certain shortcomings, it convincingly demonstrates that the Japanese army had prepared and deployed bacteriological weapons and that inhumane experiments were conducted on living human beings by Japanese researchers. However, the trial and its findings are dismissed in the West as communist propaganda and would go unnoticed until the 1980s.	Russia, Japan
1950	Intentional	Operation	Serratia marcescens, Bacillus globigii	Operation Sea-Spray is launched as a secret biological warfare experiment when the United States Navy conducts a series of tests to determine the feasibility of large-scale deployment of a bioweapon from the sea. These tests involve spraying cities in Norfolk, Hampton, Newport News, and San Francisco with harmless bacteria. The tests show that it is possible to spread biological weapons over a wide area from ships at sea.	United States
1951	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	One-Million-Liter Test Sphere, also known as the Test Sphere or "Eight Ball," is built on Fort Detrick, Maryland as a biological warfare chamber and testing facility. Constructed from 1951 to 1969, it serves as the largest aerobiology chamber, studying infectious agent aerosols and testing pathogen-filled munitions. The four-story, 131-ton sphere allows controlled exposure of animals and human volunteers to aerosols of various organisms. Utilized during Operation Whitecoat studies (1954–73), it wouldn't be used since the discontinuation of the US offensive biological warfare program in 1969. Despite the destruction of its housing building in 1974, the sphere would be placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.	United States
1951–1952	Intentional	Operation	Multiple	Operation Dew is conducted as two separate field trials by the United States. The tests are designed to study the behavior of aerosol-released biological agents.	United States
1950s	Intentional	Operation	Harmless bacteria	According to American expert on terrorism Robert Kupperman and Smith (1993), arpund this time the U.S. Army demonstrates vulnerability to biological warfare by releasing harmless bacteria into New York City subways.	United States
1952		Early description	Chikungunya	Chikungunya is first identified in Tanzania. It is a viral disease transmitted to humans by mosquitoes carrying the chikungunya virus, primarily Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Its hallmark symptom is a sudden fever onset, often accompanied by severe joint pain. It is one of more than a dozen agents that would be researched as potential biological weapons.	Tanzania
1952	Intentional	Non-state ecoterrorism	Synadenium grantii	The Mau Mau, a militant anti-colonial movement in what is now Kenya, employs the toxic substance derived from the African milk bush (Synadenium grantii) to eliminate livestock. This strategic use of the plant toxin serves as a method of resistance against colonial forces and aims to disrupt agricultural activities and the livelihood of the colonial settlers. The Mau Mau's utilization of the plant's deadly properties would become a significant aspect of their resistance tactics and remains a notable historical episode in the struggle for independence and sovereignty in the region.	Kenya
1952	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Under Project MKNAOMI, the U.S. Army enters into an agreement with the CIA to collaborate on the "development, testing, and maintenance of biological agents and delivery systems."	United States
1953	Intentional	State-sponsored bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis	The St. Jo Program conducts staged mock anthrax attacks in cities such as St. Louis, Minneapolis, and Winnipeg. This involves the use of aerosol generators positioned on top of cars to simulate the dispersal of anthrax. The results of these tests demonstrate the feasibility of deploying a bioweapon on a large scale from the land, raising concerns about the potential implications of such technology and highlighting the importance of biorisk management and preparedness measures.	United States
1953	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Building 470 is built by the United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories. This facility would become an integral to U.S. biological warfare defense during the Cold War, serving as a pilot plant for the production of biological agents, contributing to the United States' offensive Biological Warfare program.	United States
1953	Intentional (prevention)	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The United States Army Medical Unit is formed at Fort Detrick, Maryland to develop medical countermeasures, which includes prophylactics, therapeutics and rapid and effective diagnostic and identification procedures. Scientists document the properties of microbial aerosols and devise equipment and protocols to facilitate studies on the airborne spread of respiratory illnesses and methods to prevent such transmission. They also pioneere techniques for sterilizing laboratories and equipment using ethylene oxide.	United States
1954	Intentional	Operation	Oriental rat flea	Operation Big Itch is conducted at Dugway Proving Ground in Utah, as an entomological warfare field test. The objective is to assess the coverage and survivability of the tropical rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) as a potential disease vector for biological warfare. Uninfected fleas are utilized in the trials, loaded into two types of munitions—E14 and E23 bombs— which could be clustered into E86 and E77 bombs. These bombs are then dropped from the air to study the patterns and resilience of the fleas. The operation aims to gather data on the potential use of fleas in biological warfare scenarios.	United States
1954–1976	Intentional (prevention)	Operation	Multiple	The Operation Whitecoat is conducted at Fort Detrick as a U.S. Army biodefense medical research program. Enlisted personnel, known as "Whitecoats," all conscientious objectors, volunteer to be infected with potential biological weapons, aiming to defend against such threats. Over 2,300 soldiers participate, and are exposed to bacteria like tularemia and the Black Plague. The program's goal is to determine dose responses, with volunteers treated and given investigational vaccines. Although discontinued in 1973, post-Whitecoat studies would continue, contributing to FDA-approved vaccines and investigational drugs for various diseases. The program would also play a role in developing biological safety equipment.	United States
1954	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Soviet Union constructs a biological weapons test site called Aralsk-7 in Vozrozhdeniya Island and on the neighbouring Komsomolskiy Island.	Soviet Union
1954	Intentional	Research	Tularemia	In the United States, practical research into using rabbit fever as a biological warfare agent takes place at Pine Bluff Arsenal, Arkansas, an extension of the Fort Detrick program.	United States
1955	Intentional (prevention)	Operation	Multiple	Operation Whitecoat is initiated, involving human research volunteers who willingly participate in experiments to investigate the effects of biological agents on human subjects. The operation would continue for the subsequent 18 years, encompassing around 2200 individuals as part of the study. This program raises ethical considerations and highlights the importance of informed consent and the responsible conduct of research involving human participants.	United States
1955	Intentional	Operation	Aedes aegypti	The U.S. military conducts the "Operation Big Buzz" as part of its entomological warfare program. This operation, involving the release of over one million Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, aims to simulate operational conditions for potential bioterrorism attacks. Approximately one-third of these mosquitoes, which are uninfected, are aerially dropped on rural Georgia. Human volunteers report that the mosquitoes successfully located human hosts about 0.5 miles downwind from the release site. Following this operation, similar experiments with Ae. aegypti would continue for several years, some of which would remain classified.	United States
1956	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Military biodefense in the United States begins with the United States Army Medical Unit (USAMU) at Fort Detrick, Maryland.	United States
1956	Intentional	Operation	Aedes aegypti	The Operation May Day is conducted as part of the U.S. military's entomological warfare (EW) program, involving the dispersal of yellow fever mosquitoes in an urban area of Savannah, Georgia. This operation, similar to others like Operation Big Itch and Operation Big Buzz, aims to gather information on the dispersal patterns of mosquitoes. The mosquitoes are released from ground level and later recovered using traps baited with dry ice. While the operation is conducted in 1956, it would be only partially declassified in 1981, revealing details about the tests conducted.	United States
1957		Organization	Multiple	The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) is founded in Pakistan. Based near CMH Rawalpindi in Punjab, it serves as the primary institution for defensive research into countermeasures against biological warfare. AFIP collaborates with civilian and military pathologists to combat virus outbreaks in Pakistan. Located alongside the Armed Forces Institute of Cardiology in Rawalpindi Cantonment, AFIP plays a crucial role in researching and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of biological threats.	Pakistan
1958	Non-intentional	Early description	Argentine hemorrhagic fever	Argentine hemorrhagic fever is first reported in Buenos Aires province. It is one of three hemorrhagic fevers and one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before the nation suspends its biological weapons program. The Soviet Union would also conduct research and developing programs on the potential of the hemorragic fever as a biological weapon.
1960	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	A US Army general estimates that two aircraft, each carrying 10,000 pounds of biological agents, could potentially kill or incapacitate around 60 million Americans.	United States
1962 (May)	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Joint Chiefs of Staff creates the Deseret Test Center at Fort Douglas, Utah, a decommissioned army base. DTC is tasked with overseeing chemical and biological weapons testing. This initiative, known as Project 112, would conduct various tests in land-based, Arctic, and tropical environments, ending in 1973. The testing locations include diverse settings such as land areas and barges in the Pacific Ocean.	United States
1963	Both	Early description	Bolivian hemorrhagic fever	Bolivian hemorrhagic fever is first identified. It is a highly lethal viral hemorrhagic fever of which little is known. It is one of three hemorrhagic fevers and one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending its biological weapons program in 1969. It would be also under research by the Soviet Union, under the Biopreparat bureau.
1964	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella typhi	Dr. Mitsuru Suzuki, a Japanese physician specialized in bacteriology, faces legal repercussions when he is apprehended for infecting four of his colleagues by using a sponge cake that has been deliberately contaminated with dysentery-causing pathogens. Following further investigation, he is found to be associated with a series of outbreaks involving typhoid fever and dysentery, which affected around 200 individuals and led to four fatalities. The prosecution alleges that Dr. Suzuki carried out these actions as part of his dissertation research, which involves the study of S. typhi obtained from numerous sources. Notably, one culture of S. typhi was illicitly acquired from Japan's NIH (National Institute of Health), while another culture was isolated from an infected patient. The case raises concerns about academic integrity and the potential misuse of dangerous pathogens for research purposes.	Japan
1965		Operation	Mosquito	Operation Magic Sword
1965	Intentional	State-sponsored bioterrorism	Non-harmful bacteria	Government agents discreetly spray non-harmful bacteria onto passengers at what is presently known as Reagan National Airport.	United States
1966	Intentional	Operation	Bacillus globigii	The New York metro system is contaminated with Bacillus globigii in an infamous test to simulate the release of anthrax.	United States
1969	Intentional (prevention)	Risk report	Multiple	The World Health Organization estimates that a single bioweapon attack in a medium-sized city has the potential to cause the deaths of tens of thousands of people. This estimation is contextualized within the backdrop of increasing tensions during the Cold War and the growing capability to carry out such devastating attacks.
1969	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases is established.	United States
1969	Non-intentional	Early description	Lassa fever	Lassa fever is first described from a case in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria.
1969 (November 25)	Intentional	State-sponsored bioterrorism prevention and control	Multiple	U.S. President Richard Nixon makes a significant announcement, declaring that the United States would renounce the use of all forms of deadly biological weapons that have the capability to kill or incapacitate. This announcement marks the end of an era in the United States' offensive biological weapons research, production, and storage. The decision reflects a significant shift in national policy towards biorisk management and demonstrated the country's commitment to international efforts to prevent the development and use of bioweapons.	United States
1970	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	Ascaris suum	Ascariasis poisoning incident occurs when Eric Kranz, a postgraduate student specializing in parasitology at MacDonald College, conducts a concerning act where he deliberately infects four of his roommates using food intentionally contaminated with a substantial number of embryonated ova of Ascaris suum. Ascaris suum is a parasitic roundworm typically found in pigs. Following this exposure, the infects individuals display symptoms and clinical indicators indicative of lower respiratory tract disease. The severity of illness is particularly pronounced in some cases, with affected individuals experiencing acute respiratory failure. This incident raises significant public health and ethical concerns surrounding the deliberate transmission of parasitic infections in a residential setting.	United States
1971	Both	Crisis	Smallpox	Smallpox breaks out in the Kazakh city of Aralsk. This incident would be speculated to be linked to a bioweapons research center in the Aral Sea.
1971	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The Central Committee of the Communist Party and the USSR Council of Ministers issue a decree marking the beginning of the USSR's second-generation biological weapons program.	Soviet Union
1971 (July 11)	Both	Crisis	Variola virus	An outbreak of smallpox occurs in Aralsk, Kazakhstan, despite the Soviet Union having eradicated endemic smallpox in 1936. The outbreak, involving ten infections and three deaths, is unusual, as the Soviet authorities had previously eliminated smallpox from their territory. The Soviet Union, however, keeps the incident secret, violating international reporting agreements. The reason for the secrecy suggests a possible connection to a field test of weaponized smallpox at the nearby Soviet biological warfare testing grounds on Vozrozhdeniye Island in the Aral Sea. This information would gain significance amid global concerns about the potential misuse of variola virus, leading to an urgent need to understand the Soviet offensive biological warfare program.
1972 (April 10)	Intentional	International agreements and treaties on bioterrorism prevention	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Convention is finalized and made available for countries to sign. This treaty unequivocally prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons. A total of seventy-nine nations, including the Soviet Union, sign the treaty, symbolizing a significant global commitment to biorisk management and the renunciation of bioweapons as tools of warfare. The Biological Weapons Convention stands as a landmark agreement in the pursuit of international security and the prevention of bioterrorism.
1972	Intentional		Salmonella typhi	Individuals associated with the right-wing organization known as the Order of the Rising Sun are discovered to have acquired 30–40 kg of typhoid bacteria cultures. It would be purported that they intended to utilize these cultures to contaminate the water supplies of various Midwestern cities.	United States
1972	Intentional	Biological weapons program shutdown	Multiple	President Richard Nixon signs the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), abandoning offensive biological weapons research.	United States
1972	Intentional	Research	Multiple	Berkowitz et al. describe the potency of biological agents, emphasizing their extreme toxicity on a weight basis. They elaborate on the factors affecting the viability of organisms in an aerosol cloud, emphasizing the significance of relative humidity, atmospheric composition, temperature, and radiation.
1974	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The Soviet Union establishes Biopreparat, a massive biowarfare project employing more than 50,000 people. Later known as the Chief Directorate for Biological Preparations, Biopreparat operates as a front for offensive biological weapons research and development, primarily controlled by the Ministry of Defense and other state organs. Operating 52 sites, its main purpose is concealing biological weapons activities. Its facilities would produce agents like plague, anthrax, and smallpox, and explore genetic engineering to enhance the Soviet Union's biological weapons capability, bypassing arms control treaties.	Soviet Union
1974 (February 8)	Intentional	Policy	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Act 1974 in the United Kingdom prohibits the production, development, acquisition, and possession of specific biological agents, toxins, and biological weapons. Enacted during Queen Elizabeth II's reign, the act aims to regulate and restrict activities related to biological weapons within the country.	United Kingdom
1974	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The State Research Center for Applied Microbiology is established.
1974	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR is formed.	Russia
1975 (March 26)	Intentional	International agreements and treaties on bioterrorism prevention	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Convention officially comes into force, signifying a landmark moment in the global effort to ban biological weapons. Additionally, on the same day, the US Senate finally ratifies the 1925 Geneva Protocol, further bolstering the political will to prohibit the use of biological weapons internationally. These developments demonstrate a strong commitment from the international community to uphold biorisk management.
1975	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Griffith suggests that biological warfare within a city would likely target specific buildings or limited parts of the population, with methods such as introducing dangerous organisms through the water or ventilation system.
1975	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	The Symbionese Liberation Army, a radical left-wing group, is found with manuals on how to make biological weapons.	United States
1976	Non-intentional	Early description	Orthohantavirus	The first pathogenic hantavirus, the Hantaan orthohantavirus, is isolated from rodents near the Hantan River in South Korea. Belonging to the Hantaviridae family, it poses a significant global public health threat. It's a zoonotic infection transmitted from wild rodents to humans via their urine, saliva, and feces. The virus can become airborne in enclosed spaces when rodents are disturbed or during human activities like vacuuming. Humans can contract the virus by inhaling contaminated dust, direct contact with broken skin or mucous membranes, and consuming food or water tainted by infected rodents. Hantavirus would be researched as a biological agent.
1976	Intentional	Bioterrorism (preventive research)	Multiple	Mengel describes domed sports stadiums as "ideal" targets for a biological attack, suggesting the use of anthrax or cryptococcosis in aerosol form.
1977	Non-intentional	Crisis	H1N1 influenza	1977 Russian flu. An H1N1 influenza outbreak emerges in the Soviet Union, quickly spreading globally and lasting two years. The virus, affecting mainly individuals under 25, causes an estimated 700,000 deaths worldwide. Subsequently, virologists investigating the 'Russian flu' find its genetic sequence remarkably similar to a 1950s strain, challenging typical patterns of viral evolution. Joel Wertheim, a UC San Diego professor, suggests that the lack of mutation indicates artificial preservation, leading some, including virologist Peter Palese, to speculate about vaccine challenge trials involving military recruits. Despite uncertainties, the World Health Organization rejects the notion of H1N1 being a result of a laboratory accident.	Russia, worldwide
1977	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax	The US Law Enforcement Assistance Administration reports that a single ounce of anthrax introduced into a domed stadium's air-conditioning system could infect 70-80,000 spectators within an hour.	United States
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Ricin	An instance of using injection as a method to deliver biological agents is documented. Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian dissident, becomes the victim of this method when he receives a lethal dose of ricin, a potent toxin, administered through the tip of an umbrella. This event serves as a primary example of how a syringe or mechanical device can be utilized to covertly deliver harmful substances to individuals, highlighting the potential dangers of such methods in biothreat scenarios.	Bulgaria
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	B.M. Jenkins and A.P. Rubin state that smaller targets, especially those in sealed buildings with central air conditioning, are more likely to be successful for terrorists.
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis, brucella, coccidioides immitis', coccidioides posadasii, cryptococcus neoformans, cryptococcus gattii, yersinia pestis, chlamydia psittaci, rickettsia rickettsii, francisella tularensis	Berkowitz et al. list eight likely biological warfare (BW) agents: anthrax, brucellosis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, pneumonic plague, psittacosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and tularemia.
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Mullin discusses the problems with aerosolization and the survival of biological agents, emphasizing the need for careful consideration of various factors.
1979	Non-intentional	Accident	Bacillus anthracis	Approximately 70 fatalities occur due to an unintentional discharge of anthrax spores in the Soviet city of Sverdlovsk. The United States entertains suspicions that the release of anthrax bacterial spores was an accidental event originating from a Soviet military biological facility.	Russia (Soviet Union)
1979	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Reports in West Germany that Palestinians in Lebanon were training the leftist Red Army Faction in the use of biological weapons.
1980	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Clostridium botulinum	A safe house belonging to the Red Army Faction is reportedly found in Paris, and within it, a laboratory is discovered containing significant quantities of botulinum toxin. This discovery raises concerns about the potential use of biological agents as tools of terrorism and underscored the importance of biorisk management and counterterrorism measures to address such threats.	France
1980	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Lowell Ponte provides a detailed list of cases involving U.S. Army CBW teams carrying out open-air tests simulating germ warfare attacks on the populace between 1949 and 1969.
1981	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Anthrax	The organization known as "Dark Harvest" orchestrates an incident involving the delivery of a package of soil to the Chemical Defense Establishment in Porton Down, England. Their intention is to symbolically return what they refer to as "seeds of death" to their place of origin. The group claims that this soil, approximately 300 pounds in total, was taken from Gruinard Island, where anthrax bomb tests had been conducted in 1941. According to their statement, microbiologists from two universities and local individuals are involved in collecting the soil. Subsequent analysis reveal the presence of Bacillus anthracis in the soil at an estimated quantity of 10 organisms per gram. This event brings attention to the historical context and potential biothreats associated with biological agents like anthrax.
1981	Non-intentional	Crisis	Ceratitis capitata	California faces a medfly infestation, prompting widespread aerial spraying of malathion, causing public health concerns. Governor Jerry Brown's authorization of malathion use stirs controversy as residents fear its potential toxicity. Despite declarations of victory in 1982, subsequent Medfly outbreaks would challenge eradication efforts. Entomologist James R. Carey would argue that the pests have become permanent residents, a claim supported by a 2021 study finding multiple species across California. Presently, radioactively sterilizing male flies in labs is a preferred control method, reducing Medfly populations. Public anxiety over pesticide use, exemplified by historical incidents like DDT and Alar, continues to shape debates around pest control and organic alternatives.
1982	Intentional (prevention)	Risk report	Botulinum toxin	Livingstone notes the extreme lethality of Type-A botulinal toxin, stating that theoretically, a single ounce could be sufficient to kill 60 million people. The author also suggests an imaginative method of delivering live bacteria through light bulbs left on subway tracks or roadways.
1982	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Stepnogorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology is built.	Soviet Union (Kazakhstan)
1983	Intentional	Notable case	Ricin	FBI arrest of two brothers who manufactured an ounce of nearly pure ricin.
1983	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Roodeplaat Research Laboratories is established as a front company by the South African Defence Force to research, test and produce biological weapons within a covert operation known as Project Coast.	South Africa
1984	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Salmonella	Rajneeshee bioterror attack. In a significant act of bioterrorism, adherents of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh intentionally contaminate salad bars in a town in Oregon with Salmonella bacteria. This event stands as the most extensive case of bioterrorism recorded in the history of the United States. The contamination of the salad bars leads to over 750 cases of salmonellosis among the affected population. Subsequent investigations reveal that the Rajneeshees orchestrated this act in an attempt to influence the local county elections. To carry out their plan, members of the cult procured the Salmonella strain through mail from the American Type Culture Collection and cultivated the liquid cultures within the confines of their compound's medical clinic. This incident raised significant concerns about the potential misuse of biological agents for malicious purposes and highlighted the importance of biosecurity measures to safeguard public health and safety.	United States
1984	Non-intentional	Biosafety	Multiple	ABSA International (ABSA) is established in 1984 with the aim of advancing biosafety as a scientific field and meeting the increasing requirements of biosafety experts globally. Biosafety is a component of biorisk management, specifically dealing with accidental biological hazards within laboratory and research settings.
1984	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology is founded. It is a research facility for medical biosecurity focusing on developing procedures to safeguard soldiers from diseases caused by biological warfare agents and dangerous pathogens. Research encompasses highly infectious pathogens and biotoxins with potential for misuse as biological weapons, aiming to detect, diagnose, and understand the origins of diseases.	Germany
Early 1980s	Intentional	Biological warfare program	Multiple	Project Coast starts operating as South Africa's covert Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW) program. Operational until early 1990s, the program would be found to have developed lethal chemical and biological weapons, including sterilization toxins and concealed poisons, targeting African National Congress political leaders and black township populations. Project Coast would be accused of contaminating water supplies with cholera, aiding Rhodesian troops with anthrax and cholera, and employing toxic agents for political assassinations. Investigations would lead to dismissals and document destruction, with South Africa officially maintaining the program's defensive nature, despite international concerns.	South Africa
1987	Intentional	Bioterrorism (research)	Bacteriological agents	Douglass and Livingstone state that terrorists would likely choose bacteriological agents over viral or rickettsial agents. They highlight the stability and toxicity of toxins. They point out the difficulties of selectively using biological agents in an open area, citing an example related to Israeli settlements in occupied Arab territory.
1987	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Watkins argues that terrorists, rather than foreign national powers, pose the principal biological threat.
1988	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Robert Kupperman and Woolsey suggest that terrorists armed with biological weaponry could, in principle, kill tens to hundreds of thousands, rivaling the lethality of nuclear weapons.
1989 (May 16)	Intentional	Policy	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989 is introduced.
1989	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	Vladimir Pasechnik, a defector from Biopreparat, exposes the presence of an ongoing offensive biological weapons program within the Soviet Union. His revelations provide evidence suggesting the Soviet Union's non-compliance with the Biological Weapons Convention, a treaty aimed at prohibiting the development and use of biological weapons.	Russia (Soviet Union)
1989	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Ricin	Members of the Patriots Council, an antigovernment extremist group in Minnesota, conspire to assassinate a US marshal using ricin. The group intends to enhance the potency of the homemade ricin by combining it with dimethylsulfoxide, a chemical that accelerates absorption, and subsequently applying it to the door handles of the marshal's car. Their plot is uncovered, leading to the apprehension of all four individuals involved. They become the first to face prosecution under the US Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989.	United States
1989	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Simon suggests that biological weapons may be considered and used by terrorists in the future. He cites factors like the possibility of terrorists turning to biological weapons due to tightened security against traditional means, an increase in high-casualty events, more spectacular terrorist attacks, increasing blackmail/extortion threats, and the growth of state-sponsored terrorism.
1989	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Anthrax	The Al Hakum facility in Iraq begins mass production of weapons-grade anthrax.	Iraq
1989–1990	Intentional (speculated)	Crisis	Ceratitis capitata	1989 California medfly attack	United States (California)
1990	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	HIV	Graham Farlow, an inmate in a correctional facility situated in New South Wales, Australia, holds the status of an asymptomatic carrier of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). In an incident, Farlow intentionally administers HIV-contaminated blood through injection to a prison guard named Geoffrey Pearce, who contracts the HIV virus as a result. Subsequently, Farlow succumbs to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).	Australia
1990	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	United States Ambassador H. Allen Holmes expresses concern about the potential for terrorists to acquire biological weapons.
1991	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax	Wiener quotes Dr. Graham Pearson, Head of Britain's Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment, stating that anthrax sprayed over Washington DC could cause more casualties than a hydrogen bomb.	United States
1991	Intentional	Risk report	Bacillus anthracis	Karisch mentions the possibility of dispersing anthrax spores through a city's subway system, requiring only one to two liters of spores and having the potential to infect millions of people.
1991 (January 25)	Intentional		Multiple	Iraq threats to use chemical and bacteriological bombs in European capitals, including contamination of water supplies.	Iraq, Europe
1991	Intentional	Inspection	Multiple	The United Nations carries out its first inspection of Iraq's biological warfare capabilities in the aftermath of the Gulf War.
1992	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	HIV	During a disagreement regarding child support, Brian T. Stewart, a phlebotomist at a hospital in St. Louis, Missouri, administers HIV-contaminated blood to his 11-month-old son. The incident causes harm to the child and results in legal ramifications for Mr. Stewart.	United States
1992	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	The OTA study states that the future use of biological agents cannot be excluded. Simon and others point to current trends, including the possibility that terrorists might turn to biological weapons due to increased security against traditional means, a recent increase in high-casualty events, more spectacular terrorist attacks, increasing blackmail/extortion threats, the growth of state-sponsored terrorism, and an increase in religiously inspired terrorism.
1992	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Mullins states that technical knowledge necessary for using bacteriological agents is practically nonexistent, and almost anyone could use biological agents.
1992	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax, tularemia, yersina pestis, shigella flexneri, shigella dysenteriae, salmonella species, botulinum toxin, staphylococcal enterotoxin B	The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) study mentions eight likely agents: anthrax, tularemia, yersina pestis, shigella flexneri, s. dysenteriae, salmonella species, botulinum toxin, and staphylococcus enterotoxin B.
1993 (April)	Non-intentional	Waterborne contamination	Cryptosporidium	The United States experiences the most significant infectious disease outbreak in its history, which is unintentionally caused by waterborne contamination. This outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred in the greater Milwaukee area and had a severe impact, with over 430,000 individuals suffering from gastroenteritis among a population of 1.6 million. The outbreak leads to approximately 4,400 hospitalizations and claims the lives of around 100 people. The incident highlights the potential consequences of unintentional contamination and its profound effects on public health and wellbeing.	United States
1993	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax, botulinal toxin, ricin	Robert Kupperman and Smith suggest a shortlist of three likely agents: anthrax, botulinal toxin, and ricin.
1993	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	HIV	Iwan E, a Dutch man, injects his former girlfriend, Gina O, with 2.5 ml of HIV-contaminated blood following their breakup.
1994	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	HIV	Dr. Richard J. Schmidt, a married gastroenterologist practicing in Louisiana, is implicated in an incident wherein he administers HIV-contaminated blood to a former romantic partner. Subsequent laboratory tests would reveal that the individual contracted the same strain of HIV as detected in one of Dr. Schmidt's patients. This event draws considerable attention and scrutiny, leading to legal and ethical considerations within the medical community.
1994	Intentional	State bioterrorism	HIV	Plot by South African police to spread the AIDS virus among blacks by sending HIV-positive individuals to patronize prostitutes.	South Africa
1994	Intentional	Risk report	Smallpox	Security concerns are raised about the storage of smallpox virus in Moscow, with potential vulnerabilities noted in the facility.	Russia
1995	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	Ricin	Dr. Debora Green, an oncologist, makes three unsuccessful attempts to cause harm to her estranged cardiologist husband, Dr. Michael Farrar, using ricin-laced food. Subsequently, she sets fire to her residence, leading to the tragic loss of two out of her three children. Dr. Green's case would garner attention due to her reported heavy drinking habits and apparent manifestations of a severe psychiatric disorder.
1995 (March 20)	Intentional	Non-state bioterrorism	Sarin	The Tokyo subway sarin attack is perpetrated by Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese doomsday cult led by Shoko Asahara, when their members release sarin gas in the Tokyo subway system, causing 13 deaths and over 5,800 injuries. The cult, evolving from a spiritual group in the 1980s, shocks Japan, exposing police oversights. Asahara and 13 members receive death sentences. Despite going underground and renaming as Aleph, the cult would persist. The Tokyo subway sarin attack would raise global concerns about the potential use of chemical agents as tools of terror, and it would lead to heightened awareness of the importance of biorisk management and counterterrorism measures.	Japan
1995	Intentional	Notable case	Ricin	Conviction of individuals (Douglas Baker and Leroy Wheeler) for attempting to poison U.S. agents using ricin.
1996	Intentional	Individual criminal bioterrorism	Shigella dysenteriae	Diane Thompson, an employee at St. Paul Medical Center hospital in Dallas, Texas, contaminates pastries with S. dysenteriae type 2 and places them in the laboratory break room. Twelve laboratory workers become sick after eating the contaminated food; another person becomes ill after consuming pastry brought home by one of the laboratory workers. Four of the people become sufficiently sick to require hospitalization. A year earlier, she infected her boy friend (John P. Richy) with same organism. Thompson falsified laboratory test results so that physicians would not learn of his infection. She infected him again after his release from the hospital, and a third time by injecting him with microorganisms while purporting to take a blood specime.
1996	Non-intentional	Organization	Multiple	The European BioSafety Association is established. It is a nonprofit organization offering a platform for its members to address concerns and advocate for professionals involved in biosafety and related endeavors. Its objective is to promote awareness and expertise in biological safety across Europe and globally.
1997	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	U.S. Secretary of Defense William Cohen refers to the concept of an ethnic bioweapon as a possible risk.
1997	Non-intentional	Illegal release by a group	Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus	Unidentified farmers deliberately and in violation of regulations, introduce rabbit hemorrhagic disease, a calicivirus, into the South Island of New Zealand with the objective of using it as an animal control method to manage feral rabbit populations. The intentional introduction of this disease raises concerns regarding its potential impact on the local ecosystem and the welfare of wildlife in the region.	New Zeland
1997	Intentional	Biological weapon program	Anthrax	Project Jefferson begins.	United States
1997	Intentional	State bioterrorism	Multiple	Cuba officially files a complaint under Article 5 of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, accusing the United States of releasing a plant pathogen. This would be unproven.	Cuba, United States
1997	Intentional	Risk report	Yersinia pestis	The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identifies Yersinia pestis as a Category A select biological agent, posing high national security risk, leading to enhanced regulations on its acquisition, use, and transfer. In 2003, the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act would enhance regulations governing the handling of select biological agents, including plague.	United States
1997–2000	Intentional (prevention)	Simulation	Multiple	The Project Clear Vision is conducted by the CIA, which develops and assesses a replica of a Soviet germ bomb amid concerns of its potential sale on the global market. This CIA prototype lacks essential components like a fuse, rendering it non-functional as a bomb. Concurrently, Pentagon specialists construct a germ production facility in Nevada using readily available materials, showcasing the simplicity with which a terrorist or rogue state could establish a plant capable of manufacturing lethal germs. Both the simulated bomb and factory are tested using harmless substances resembling weaponized germs, according to officials.	Soviet Union
1998	Intentional	State bioterrorism	Multiple	Iraq reportedly sends scientists involved in biological weapons research to Libya, raising concerns about proliferation.	Iraq, Libya
1999	Intentional	Covert investigation	Multiple	The United States Department of Defense initiates Project Bacchus, a covert operation aimed at testing bioterrorism capabilities. Scientists successfully build a secret lab in Nevada, producing simulated anthrax using materials available on the market. Operating out of inconspicuous locations, they acquire necessary equipment from hardware and European sources. Although restricted from producing actual anthrax strains, their tests show potential lethality. The project, funded with $1.5 million, highlights the ease with which terrorists could establish anthrax labs undetected. Despite concerns, authorities successfully neutralize the lab, emphasizing the threat of easily dispersible anthrax spores. The project, unknown to most government agencies, aim to assess bioweapon manufacturing and detection capabilities.	United States
1999		Literature	Multiple	Former Soviet biological warfare researcher Ken Alibek publishes Biohazard, which delves into the clandestine activities of Russia's extensive bioweapons program during the Cold War. Alibek, a key figure in the program, discloses the program's two-decade history, revealing Moscow's efforts to enhance the virulence of hazardous microbes, develop invisible and untraceable biological agents suitable for political assassinations, and even attempt to weaponize HIV.
2000 (January 29)	Non-intentional		Multiple	The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopts the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety as a supplementary agreement. This international treaty regulates the movement of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology between countries. It aims to safeguard biological diversity from potential risks posed by these organisms. The Protocol establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure, ensuring countries receive necessary information before allowing the import of such organisms. It emphasizes a precautionary approach and sets up a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate information exchange and assist in Protocol implementation. The treaty would enter into force on September 11, 2003.	170 United Nations member states, the State of Palestine, Niue, and the European Union.
2001 (June)	Intentional	Simulation	Smallpox	The Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security conducts the Operation Dark Winter, which simulates a deliberate bioterrorist attack in Oklahoma City, where residents are infected with smallpox. This simulated attack mirrors a real event that would happen shortly after when anthrax-laced envelopes are sent to media outlets and politicians' offices, resulting in the deaths of five individuals.	United States
2001	Intentional	Domestic non-state-sponsored bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis	In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, a series of letters containing spores of Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) are mailed to media companies and governmental officials. As a consequence, 22 cases of anthrax infection emerge, comprising 11 inhalational and 11 cutaneous infections. Five individuals afflicted with inhalational anthrax succumb to the disease. This bioterrorism incident raises significant concerns over public health and national security, leading to extensive investigations and measures to prevent and respond to such threats in an impartial manner.	United States
2001	Intentional (prevention)	Simulation	Yersinia pestis	TOPOFF I is conducted in Denver, Colorado as a simulated plague attack, revealing U.S. critical deficiencies in emergency response, and leading to efforts to strengthen national and local preparedness. A second simulation, TOPOFF II, would be conducted in Chicago in 2003.	United States
2001 (October 2)	Intentional	Literature	Multiple	Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg, and William J. Broad publish Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War, which explores the unsettling reality of germ warfare in the aftermath of the anthrax attacks subsequent to the World Trade Center tragedy. The authors elucidate the daunting realization that germ warfare poses a highly elusive yet profoundly threatening danger, with the potential to inflict catastrophic damage on American territory.	United States
2002 (June 27)	Intentional	Organization	Multiple	The Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction is formed as a G7-led international security initiative established in 2002 after the September 11 attacks. Initially focused on addressing WMD threats in Russia and the Former Soviet Union, it would expand globally in 2008. With 31 active members and the European Union, the initiative would deliver over $25 billion in threat-reduction programming. It focuses on nuclear and radiological security, biological security, chemical security, and implementing UN Security Council Resolution 1540. The Global Partnership collaborates with international organizations and NGOs and conducts regular meetings and projects to prevent the proliferation of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons and related materials.
2002	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center is established. Located in Fort Detrick, Maryland, it is dedicated to defending the United States against biological threats. Established after the Amerithrax attacks in 2001, NBACC supports intelligence assessments, preparedness planning, response, and bioforensic analyses. It houses two centers: the National Bioforensic Analysis Center (NBFAC) and the National Biological Threat Characterization Center. NBACC's 160,000 square-foot facility is equipped with biosafety levels (BSL) 2, 3, and 4 labs, making it one of seven such facilities in the country.	United States
2002	Intentional (prevention)	Literature	Multiple	Richard Preston publishes The Demon in the Freezer, which explores the bioterror threat following the 2001 anthrax attacks, delving into the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases at Fort Detrick. Peter Jahrling, a virologist, focuses on developing a smallpox drug to counter potential bioweapon threats. The book details the aftermath of the anthrax attacks, the FBI investigation, and Jahrling's controversial experiments with live smallpox virus at the CDC. Preston provides insights into the national biodefense efforts, emphasizing the risk of illegal smallpox stocks in hostile states and the potential dangers of genetic engineering creating a superpox virus.	United States
2002	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Concerns arise about the potential existence of undisclosed stocks of biological weapons, with fears that various countries (South Africa, Israel, Iraq, among others) are developing or have developed such weapons.
2003 (January)	Intentional	Domestic non-state-sponsored attempted bioterrorism	Ricin	The Wood Green ricin plot unfolds when six suspects are arrested for allegedly planning a bioterrorist attack on the London Underground using ricin poison. However, within days, the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory confirms there is no ricin on the confiscated items, a fact misreported until 2005. Kamel Bourgass is convicted, receiving 17 years for conspiracy and life for murdering a detective. Media sensationalism, including false reports of ricin, fuels public fear. Despite the absence of evidence, the incident is politically exploited, contributing to the justification for anti-terrorism laws and the Iraq invasion. Critics highlight the case's dubious use in political narratives and its basis on faulty intelligence, often obtained under torture.	United Kingdom
2003 (October)	Intentional	Domestic non-state-sponsored attempted bioterrorism	Ricin	Ricin-laced letters, signed by "Fallen Angel", are sent to express anger over trucking regulations in the United States, particularly the new "hours of service" rules requiring more rest for truckers. One letter found in South Carolina demands the repeal of these regulations, while another, addressed to the White House, threatens to turn Washington, D.C. into a ghost town. The letters contain deadly ricin poison. The FBI offers a reward, but no arrests would be made so far.	United States
2004 (April 28)	Intentional (prevention)	International resolution	Multiple	The United Nations Security Council passes Resolution 1540 unanimously, recognizing the threat posed by the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, along with their delivery systems, to international peace and security. The resolution mandates member states to implement legal and regulatory frameworks aimed at preventing the spread of weapons of mass destruction, establishing obligations to enforce these measures effectively.
2004	Intentional	Ethnic bioterrorism	Multiple	The Guardian reports that the British Medical Association (BMA) considered bioweapons designed to target certain ethnic groups as a possibility, and highlighted problems that advances in science for such things as "treatment to Alzheimer's and other debilitating diseases could also be used for malign purposes".
2004 (July 21)	Intentional (prevention)		Multiple	Project Bioshield Act is signed into law by President George W. Bush, with aims to enhance America's defense against weapons of mass destruction. Project BioShield focuses on expediting the research, development, procurement, and accessibility of efficient medical countermeasures to address biological, chemical, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) threats. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is responsible for submitting an annual report to Congress, detailing the advancements and achievements in the implementation of Project BioShield.	United States
2005 (January 14)	Intentional (prevention)	Simulation	Multiple	Atlantic Storm is conducted as a table-top exercise, orchestrated by the Center for Biosecurity of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, the Center for Transatlantic Relations of Johns Hopkins University, and the Transatlantic Biosecurity Network. This exercise presents a fictitious scenario mirroring a global bioterrorist attack to simulate how transatlantic leaders would manage a swiftly spreading deadly disease epidemic. The exercise aims to enhance preparedness for large-scale biological attacks or natural pandemics.	United States
2005	Intentional (prevention)	Organization	Multiple	The Alliance for Biosecurity is established. Based in Washington, D.C., it aims to enhance the nation's biosecurity by focusing on the development of medical countermeasures (MCMs) to combat both bioterrorism and natural pandemic threats. The organization engages in various activities, such as educating Congress and government stakeholders on biosecurity and drug development issues, supporting the success of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), advancing the science of animal model development, expediting MCM development, and presenting consensus policy proposals.	United States
2006	Intentional (prevention)		Multiple	The term "JACKSNNZ" emerges as the colloquial name for an informal alliance comprising affluent non-EU countries, excluding the United States. The alliance includes Japan, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, and New Zealand. Originating from the Biological and Toxins Weapons Convention Review Conference in Geneva, the JACKSNNZ states, notably distinct from the U.S., advocate for a verification mechanism against biological weapons. The alliance, consisting of non-EU nations, seeks balance within the Western European and Others Group, safeguarding the interests of non-EU states without declaring an exclusive position in other international forums.	Japan, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, New Zealand
2017	Intentional	Concept development	Multiple	The John Hopkins Center for Health Security presents a working definition of global catastrophic biological risk that focuses on events caused by biological agents with the potential to alter humanity's long-term future or threaten human extinction.	United States
2019	Non-intentional	Pandemic	SARS-CoV-2	The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, spreads globally, resulting in millions of infections and deaths. This pandemic highlights vulnerabilities in global health systems and emphasizes the importance of rapid response and vaccination efforts.
2020	Non-intentional	Literature	Multiple	According to Abrahm Lustgarten's How Climate Change Is Contributing to Skyrocketing Rates of Infectious Disease, each year, five new diseases emerge.

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by Sebastian Sanchez.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

• FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

• http://www.nonproliferation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/2008-Chemical-and-Biological-Weapons_-Possession-and-Programs-Past-and-Present.pdf ()
• Category:Biological warfare facilities
• Strategy and Biosecurity: An Applied History Perspective
• Global Catastrophic Biological Risks
• Cassidy Nelson - Biosecurity: Global Catastrophic Biological Risk Mitigation @ EAGxAustralia 2018
• Column for cause: accidental/intentional
• https://www.phe.gov/s3/BioriskManagement/biosecurity/Pages/History.aspx
• https://www.phe.gov/s3/BioriskManagement/biosecurity/Pages/History.aspx

See also

• Timeline of chemical risk
• Timeline of nuclear risk
• Timeline of existential risk