Difference between revisions of "Timeline of cholera"

'''[[Cholera]]''' is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]''. It infects the small intestine. Cholera is still active throughout the world. Estimates from 2010 say that between three- and five million people get cholera every year, and 58,000–130,000 people die from the disease every year.<ref name=Loz2012>{{cite journal | author = Lozano R, Naghavi M, ''et al.'' 2012 | title = Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9859 | pages = 2095–128 | pmid = 23245604 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0 | date=Dec 2012}}</ref>

| 5th century BC || Probable origin of cholera in the Indian subcontinent, where almost all of the cholera pandemics will later originate.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fabini|first1=D. Orata|last2=Keim|first2=Paul S.|last3=Boucher|first3=Yan|title=The 2010 Cholera Outbreak in Haiti: How Science Solved a Controversy|journal=US National Library of Medicine|doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1003967|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3974815/|accessdate=15 December 2016|volume=10|pages=e1003967}}</ref>

| 1816–1923 || The first six cholera pandemics happen in an almost continuous period of time. Mostly as a result of increased commerce, but also migration and pilgrimage.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tatem|first1=A.J.|last2=Rogers|first2=D.J.|last3=Hay|first3=S.I.|title=Global Transport Networks and Infectious Disease Spread|doi=10.1016/S0065-308X(05)62009-X|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|pmc=3145127|pmid=16647974|volume=62|journal=Adv Parasitol|pages=293-343}}</ref>

| 1879–1883 || Major scientific breakthroughs happen: the first immunization by [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], the first vaccine against cholera, and the identification of the bacterium [[vibrio cholerae]] by [[Filippo Pacini]] and [[Robert Koch]].

| 1945–1948 || Formation of the [[United Nations]] and [[World Health Organization]] (WHO).

| 1961 onwards || The seventh cholera pandemic breaks out, after a long hiatus. [[Oral rehydration therapy]] is introduced in the late 70s.<ref name="From endotoxin to exotoxin: De’s rich legacy to cholera" />

| Present times ||  The [[seventh cholera pandemic]] continues today at a much smaller scale with outbreaks across the developing world. Epidemics occur after war, civil unrest, or natural disasters when water and food supplies become contaminated with ''vibrio cholerae'' in areas with crowded living conditions and poor sanitation.<ref name="Background" />

File:Percentage of cholera cases, 2000.png|thumb|Distribution of cholera cases, year 2000. <span style="font-size:60%">*Does not include Bangla Desh, Pakistan, and other countries.</span><ref name="cholera statistics 2000">{{cite web|title=Cholera statistics, 2000|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/speeches/colwell/rc02_hippocratic/sld018.htm|publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref>

File:Cholera cases and deaths reported by India to the world health organization 1997-2006.png|thumb|Cholera cases and deaths reported by India to the world health organization 1997-2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|url=http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0042-96862010000300011|publisher=[[SciELO]]|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref>

| 460–377 BCE || Science development || [[Hippocrates]] is the first to mention the term ''cholera'' in his writings, although the exact disease he refers to is unknown.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Etymology of Cholera|doi=10.3201/eid1803.111636|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|pmc=3309598|pmid=22377194|volume=18|journal=Emerg Infect Dis|pages=540 | last1 = Kousoulis | first1 = AA}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Etymology of cholera|last = Kousoulis|first = Antony E.|journal = [[Emerging Infectious Diseases]]|date = March 1, 2012|pmc=3309598|pmid=22377194|doi=10.3201/eid1803.111636|volume=18|pages=540}}</ref> || [[Greece]]  

| 1563 || Science development ||  Cholera is first recorded in a medical report.<ref name=origins/> || [[India]]   

| 1817–1824 || Epidemic || The [[1817–24 cholera pandemic|first cholera pandemic]] begins near [[Calcutta]], reaching most of Asia. It is thought to have killed over 100,000 people.<ref name=seven-pandemics>{{cite web|title=Cholera's seven pandemics|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/cholera-s-seven-pandemics-1.758504|publisher = [[CBC News]]|date = May 9, 2008|accessdate = April 23, 2016}}</ref> ||  [[India]], [[Thailand]], [[Philippines]], [[Java]], [[Oman]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Persian Gulf]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], [[Transcaucasia]], [[Astrakhan]] ([[Russia]]), [[Zanzibar]], and [[Mauritius]].

| 1819 || Epidemic || Cholera epidemic reaches the island of [[Java]] from [[Bengal]].<ref name="On the Early Seats of Cholera in India, and in the East: With Reference to ...">{{cite book|last1=Macpherson|first1=John|title=On the Early Seats of Cholera in India, and in the East: With Reference to ...|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=75VeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA25&dq=%22cholera%22+%22in+1800..1900%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjqrsvD4PTQAhVKjpAKHWjrAq4Q6AEISjAJ#v=onepage&q=%22cholera%22%20%22in%201800..1900%22&f=false|accessdate=14 December 2016}}</ref> || [[Indonesia]]

| 1848 || || The [[Public Health Act 1848]] establishes the first local boards of health in [[England and Wales]]. The boards would ensure proper drainage in homes and dependable water supplies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/science/health/health10.html |title=Health and Hygiene in the Nineteenth Century |accessdate=January 26, 2017 |first=Bruce |last=Haley |date=October 11, 2002 |quote=The Public Health Bill, passed in 1848 because of the efforts of reformers like Smith and Chadwick, empowered a central authority to set up local boards whose duty was to see that new homes had proper drainage and that local water supplies were dependable. The boards were also authorized to regulate the disposal of wastes and to supervise the construction of burial grounds.}}</ref> || [[England and Wales]]

| 1829–1851 || Epidemic || The [[1829–51 cholera pandemic|second cholera pandemic]], known as the Asiatic Cholera Pandemic, arguably starts along the [[Ganges river]]. It is the first to reach Europe and North America. Like in the first one, fatalities reach six figures.<ref name=seven-pandemics/>  || India, western and eastern Asia, [[Europe]], [[Americas]].

| 1830-1831 || Epidemic ||  Cholera epidemic across Europe gives rise to the [[Cholera Riots]] in Russia<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia, cholera riots  of 1830 –1831|url=http://www.unm.edu/~ybosin/documents/rus_chol.pdf|publisher=[[University of New Mexico]]|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref> and England.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Fear and frustration--the Liverpool cholera riots of 1832.|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05463-0|pmid=11476860 | volume=358|journal=Lancet|pages=233-7 | last1 = Gill | first1 = G | last2 = Burrell | first2 = S | last3 = Brown | first3 = J}}</ref> || Europe  

| 1831 || Science development || Scottish physician [[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy]] notices that the composition for the stool water in cholera ptients is very similar to that of their [[blood plasma]]. These values are found close to those of normal controls, except that the patients have markedly reduced water content. From this data, O'Shaughnessy suggests that replacing water and salt would be beneficial to them.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lifshitz|first1=Fima|title=Childhood Nutrition|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=rigUEE-VzxAC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=%221831%22+%22William+Brooke+O%27Shaughnessy+%22+%22cholera%22&source=bl&ots=f6HXudOiIl&sig=ZLTjOZ1ItBtFyOU71kllhoFN7rQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7nenosurQAhVIHpAKHaujAmQQ6AEIUzAI#v=onepage&q=%221831%22%20%22William%20Brooke%20O%27Shaughnessy%20%22%20%22cholera%22&f=false}}</ref> || Great Britain

| 1832 || Science development (treatment) || Medical pioneer [[Thomas Latta]] develops the first intravenous [[saline drip]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Dr Thomas Latta: the father of intravenous infusion therapy|url=http://bji.sagepub.com/content/10/1_suppl/s3.refs|publisher = ''[[Journal of Infection Prevention]]''|date = September 1, 2009|accessdate = April 23, 2016}}</ref>|| Scotland (Leith)

| 1832 || Epidemic || Cholera claims 6536 victims in London and 20,000 in Paris (out of a population of 650,000), and is responsible for about 100000 deaths in France as a whole. The epidemic reaches Russia, [[Quebec]], [[Ontario]] and New York in the same year. In [[Portugal]], cholera is brought to [[Oporto]] in on the boats that carry troops from Ostend to help the Liberal army during the [[Liberal Wars|civil war]]. From Oporto, cholera spreads throughout the country, and more than 40000 people perish. It is calculated that cholera killed more people than the war itself.<ref name="The Portuguese cholera morbus epidemic of 1853–56 as seen by the press" /> || [[Europe]], [[North America]]  

| 1851–1938 || Organization || The [[International Sanitary Conferences]], largely inspired by the cholera pandemics, are held with the objective to standardize international quarantine regulations against the spread of cholera and other diseases.<ref name="markel">{{cite web |url=http://s2.medicina.uady.mx/observatorio/docs/ee/ac/EE2014_Ac_Markel.pdf |title=Worldly approaches to global health: 1851 to the present |first=Howard |last=Markel |date=January 7, 2014 |publisher=[[ University of Michigan]]|accessdate=April 5, 2016}}</ref> || Paris, Constantinople, Vienna, Washington, Rome, Venice, Dresden

| 1852–1860 || Epidemic || The [[1852–60 cholera pandemic|third cholera pandemic]] starts along the Ganges delta. Millions are infected in Russia. Death toll reaches one million.<ref name=seven-pandemics/> || Asia, Europe, Africa and North America

| 1853 || Epidemic || [[Third cholera pandemic]]: the [[1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak|Copenhagen cholera outbreak]] kills almost 5000 people in less than three months.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rossel|first1=Sven Hakon|title=Hans Christian Andersen: Danish Writer and Citizen of the World|page=55|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=UUcOimiXE0sC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=Copenhagen+cholera+outbreak+%221853%22&source=bl&ots=zBlrgntRzM&sig=C1o2sj6oULfRsQzNdbksdTqxZmo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb3fyO9oDRAhXDPpAKHb6dBDQ4ChDoAQhJMA4#v=onepage&q=Copenhagen%20cholera%20outbreak%20%221853%22&f=false|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref> || [[Denmark]]

| 1854 || Scientific development || Italian anatomist [[Filippo Pacini]] publishes his paper "Microscopical observations and pathological deductions on cholera" in which he describes his discovery of micro-organisms which he names ''Vibrio'', and its relation to [[cholera]]. Pacini becomes the first to isolate the cholera bacterium [[vibrio cholerae]].<ref name="Who first discovered cholera?">{{cite web|title=Who first discovered cholera?|url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/firstdiscoveredcholera.html|publisher=[[UCLA]]|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="A Review of Recent Trends in Cholera Research and Control" /> || Italy

| 1854 || Epidemic || Cholera epidemic reaches China, Japan; and Mauritius, where four outbreaks occur until 1862.<ref name="Cholera By Dhiman Barua, William B. Greenough">{{cite book|last1=Barua|first1=Dhiman|last2=Greenough|first2=William B.|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HRwGkfyNv6AC&pg=PA12&dq=%22cholera%22+%22in+1800..1900%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjgjor85PTQAhVE32MKHe8DCtA4ChDoAQgcMAE#v=onepage&q=%22cholera%22%20%22in%201800..1900%22&f=false|title=Cholera|accessdate=14 December 2016}}</ref> In London, [[1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak|Broad Street cholera outbreak]] kills at least 500 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/broadstreetpump.html|title = Broad Street Pump Outbreak|publisher=[[UCLA]] Department of Epidemiology|accessdate = December 14, 2016}}</ref>||China, Japan, [[Mauritius]], England

| 1854 || Scientific development || First demonstration by [[John Snow]], during an epidemic in London, that the transmission of cholera is significantly reduced when uncontaminated water is provided to the population.<ref name="Background" /><ref name=origins>{{cite web|title=Origins of Cholera|url=http://www.choleraandthethames.co.uk/cholera-in-london/origins-of-cholera/|website=choleraandthethames.co.uk|accessdate = April 23, 2016}}</ref> || England

| 1854 || Organization || [[Cholera Hospital]] is established. It built to treat cholera patients who are denied admittance to City Hospital in [[Manhattan]] during a cholera epidemics in the same year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cholera Hospital|url=http://www.tophealthclinics.com/clinic/135308346503048/Cholera%20Hospital|website=tophealthclinics.com|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Adler|first1=Richard|title=Cholera in Detroit: A History|page=135|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5WIsAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135&dq=%221854%22+%22cholera+hospital%22+%22new+york%22&source=bl&ots=Q82A62mi4s&sig=tqvppC0ZMed5jpRu99yFK0Dm4x4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu_ubS3fTQAhVHx5AKHW0yB-AQ6AEIOjAI#v=onepage&q=%221854%22%20%22cholera%20hospital%22%20%22new%20york%22&f=false|accessdate=14 December 2016}}</ref> ||United States ([[New York City]])

| 1856–1857 || Epidemic || Cholera is recorded in several parts of [[Central America]] and [[Guyana]].<ref name="Cholera By Dhiman Barua, William B. Greenough" /> || Central America, South America

| 1863–1875 || Epidemic || The [[1863–75 cholera pandemic|fourth cholera pandemic]] starts again in the Ganges delta.<ref name=seven-pandemics/> || Asia, Middle East, Russia, Europe, Africa and North America

| 1865 || Epidemic || [[1863–75 cholera pandemic|Fourth cholera pandemic]]: The Mecca pilgrimage becomes the scene of a major epidemic. It is calculated that 30000 deaths occur out of 90000 pilgrims.<ref name="Cholera By Dhiman Barua, William B. Greenough" /> || Saudi Arabia ([[Mecca]])

| 1865–1866 || Epidemic || [[1863–75 cholera pandemic|Fourth cholera pandemic]]: Cholera arrives again to the United States. Deplorable sanitary conditions make favorable for the spread of the disease.<ref name="Cholera By Dhiman Barua, William B. Greenough" /> || [[United States]]

| 1869 || Epidemic || [[1863–75 cholera pandemic|Fourth cholera pandemic]]: About 70000 people are reported dead in [[Zanzibar]].<ref name="Cholera By Dhiman Barua, William B. Greenough" /> || [[Tanzania]]

| 1879 || Scientific development || [[Louis Pasteur]] succeeds in immunizing chicken from cholera.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Laboratory Vaccine|url=http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/timelines/all#EVT_100871|accessdate = April 23, 2016|website=historyofvaccines.org}}</ref> || France

| 1881–1896 || Epidemic || [[1881–96 cholera pandemic|Fifth cholera pandemic]] begins in India. It is the first to reach South America.<ref name=seven-pandemics/>|| Asia, Africa, Russia, Europe, South America

| 1883 || Scientific development || Identification of bacterium ''[[vibrio cholerae]]'' by [[Robert Koch]]. Although not the first description, the discovery of the cholera organism is credited to Koch, who independently identifies the bacterium during an outbreak in [[Egypt]].<ref name="Background">{{cite web|title=Cholera: Background|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/962643-overview|last = Handa|first = Sanjeev|publisher=[[MedScape]]|accessdate = April 23, 2016|date = February 16, 2016}}</ref> ||

| 1885 || Scientific development (drug) || Spanish physician [[Jaume Ferran i Clua]] develops a cholera vaccine, which is the first to immunize humans against a bacterial disease. Ferrán vaccinates about 50,000 people in [[Valencia]] during a cholera epidemic.<ref name="The Portuguese cholera morbus epidemic of 1853–56 as seen by the press">{{cite web|title=The Portuguese cholera morbus epidemic of 1853–56 as seen by the press|url=http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/66/1/41|publisher=[[The Royal Society]]|accessdate=10 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ferrán Vaccinating for Cholera|url=http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/ferr%C3%A1n-vaccinating-cholera|website=historyofvaccines.org|accessdate=10 December 2016}}</ref> || [[Spain]]

| 1892 || Scientific development (drug) || Russian bacteriologist [[Waldemar Haffkine]], working at [[Pasteur Institute]], announces a new cholera vaccine.<ref name="Milestones in Combating Cholera">{{cite web|last1=BAKALAR|first1=NICHOLAS|title=Milestones in Combating Cholera|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/02/science/milestones-in-combating-cholera.html|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Waldemar Haffkine|url=http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/waldemar-haffkine|website=historyofvaccines.org|accessdate=14 December 2016}}</ref> ||

| 1899–1923 || Epidemic || The [[1899–1923 cholera pandemic|sixth]] pandemic kills more than 800,000 people in India where it begins.<ref name=seven-pandemics/> || India, Middle East, North Africa, Eastern Europe and Russia.

| 1923 || Scientific development || The first studies on cholera phages are carried out. Later summarized in 1959.<ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera">{{cite journal|title=Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2015.01040|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282673064_Molecular_tools_in_understanding_the_evolution_of_Vibrio_cholera|publisher=[[ResearchGate]]|accessdate=14 December 2016|volume=6|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology}}</ref><ref name="A Review of Recent Trends in Cholera Research and Control">{{cite journal|title=A Review of Recent Trends in Cholera Research and Control|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2475942/pdf/bullwho00611-0004.pdf|accessdate=14 December 2016 | pmc=2475942|pmid=5328492|volume=34|journal=Bull World Health Organ|pages=161-95 | last1 = Felsenfeld | first1 = O}}</ref> ||  

| 1935 || Epidemic || New cholera biotype [[El Tor]] causes major epidemic outbreak in [[Sulawesi|Celebes Islands]]. El Tor biotype is also isolated in Indonesia (strain M66-2) during an outbreak later in 1937.<ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera" /> || [[Indonesia]]  

| 1935 || Science development || The serological classification of [[vibrio cholerae]] is first described.<ref name="Vibrio cholerae: Description Taxonomy and serological classification">{{cite web|title=Vibrio cholerae: Description Taxonomy and serological classification|url=http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/admicrob6.pdf|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref> ||

| 1948 || Organization || Formation of the World Health Organization (WHO).<ref name="markel"/>|| [[Geneva]]

| 1948 || Scientific development (drug) || [[Antibiotic]] [[tetracycline]] is introduced. It is used for treating several types of infections caused by susceptible [[bacteria]], including [[vibrio cholerae]].<ref>{{cite web|title=tetracycline|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/tetracycline/article.htm|publisher=[[MedicineNet]]|accessdate=10 December 2016}}</ref> ||

| 1951–1959 || Scientific development || Indian pathologist [[Sambhu Nath De]] discovers that cholera is caused by a potent [[exotoxin]] ([[cholera toxin]]) affecting intestinal permeability. Nath De also demonstrates that bacteria-free culture filtrates of [[vibrio cholerae]] are [[enterotoxin|enterotoxic]]. Sambu Nath De also develops a reproducible animal model for the disease. These works are considered milestones in the history of the fight against cholera.<ref name="From endotoxin to exotoxin: De’s rich legacy to cholera">{{cite journal|last1=Nair|first1=G Balakrish|last2=Narain|first2=Jai P|title=From endotoxin to exotoxin: De’s rich legacy to cholera|journal=Bulletin of the [[World Health Organization]]|doi=10.2471/BLT.09.072504|url=http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/88/3/09-072504/en/|accessdate=18 December 2016|volume=88|pages=237–240}}</ref> ||  

| 1952 || Scientific development (drug) || [[Erythromycin]] is introduced. It is used for the treatment of cholera.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Origin of Erythromycin-Resistant Strains of Micrococcus Pyogenes in Infections|doi=10.1001/archinte.1955.00250090057008|url=http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/560103|accessdate=12 December 2016|volume=95|journal=A.M.A. Archives of Internal Medicine|pages=419}}</ref><ref name="Antibiotic Treatment">{{cite news|title=Antibiotic Treatment|url=http://www.cdc.gov/cholera/treatment/antibiotic-treatment.html|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> ||

| 1961–present || Epidemic || The [[1961–75 cholera pandemic|seventh cholera pandemic]], starting in Indonesia, continues today at a much smaller scale.<ref name=seven-pandemics/> ||  Asia, Africa, Americas, Europe, Oceania

| 1967 || Scientific development (drug) || [[Doxycycline]] is introduced as [[antibiotic]]. It is proved to be an effective treatment for cholera.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Research on Doxycycline|url=https://www.cdc.gov/rmsf/doxycycline/|accessdate=13 December 2016|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]}}</ref><ref name="Antibiotic Treatment"/> ||

| 1968 || Scientific development (drug) || [[Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole]] is introduced. It is used for treating cholera among multiple other diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ho|first1=Joanne M.-W.|title=Considerations when prescribing trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole|pmc=3216436|pmid=21989472|doi=10.1503/cmaj.111152|volume=183|journal=CMAJ|pages=1851-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Co-trimoxazole|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/co-trimoxazole.html|publisher=[[Drugs.com]]|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> ||

| 1971–2012 || Epidemic || [[Seventh cholera pandemic]]: cholera is first reported in Cameroon in 1971. In the period between 2000 and 2012, 43474 cholera cases are reported: 1748 are fatal (mean annual case fatality ratio of 7.9%), with an attack rate of 17.9 reported cases per 100000 inhabitants per year.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Franky|first1=Simon|last2=Baonga Ba Pouth|last3=Teboh|first3=Andrew|last4=Yang|first4=Yang|last5=Arabi|first5=Mouhaman|last6=D. Sugimoto|first6=Jonathan|last7=Glenn Morris Jr.|first7=John|last8=Mbam|first8=Leonard M.|last9=Blackburn|first9=Jason K.|last10=Morris|first10=Lillian|last11=T. Kracalik|first11=Ian|last12=Liang|first12=Song|last13=Ngwa|first13=Moise C|title=Cholera in Cameroon, 2000-2012: Spatial and Temporal Analysis at the Operational (Health District) and Sub Climate Levels|journal=[[PLOS]]|url=http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0005105|accessdate=18 December 2016|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0005105|volume=10|pages=e0005105}}</ref> || [[Cameroon]]

| 1974 || Scientific development || Researchers show that more than 10⁸ [[vibrio cholerae]] cells are required to induce infection and [[diarrhoea]].<ref name="Vibrio cholerae: Description Taxonomy and serological classification" /> ||

| 1976 || Scientific development || Researchers report that a combination of [[vibrio cholerae]] O1 antigens such as [[lipopolysaccharides]] (LPS) and [[cholera toxin]] (CT) or choleragenoid (now termed Cholera Toxin B or CTB) induces more than 100-fold greater protection of rabbits against a challenge with live vibrios than does vaccination with either of the two antigens alone.<ref name="Critical Analysis of Compositions and Protective Efficacies of Oral Killed Cholera Vaccines">{{cite journal|last1=Alexander|first1=T. S.|title=Critical Analysis of Compositions and Protective Efficacies of Oral Killed Cholera Vaccines|doi=10.1128/CVI.00378-14|publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine]]|pmc=4178583|pmid=25056361|volume=21|journal=Clin Vaccine Immunol|pages=1195-205}}</ref> ||  

| 1979 || Scientific development (treatment) || [[Oral rehydration therapy]] (ORT) is introduced as a technique of fluid replacement used to prevent or treat dehydration especially due to [[diarrhea]]. ORT rapidly becomes the cornerstone of programmes for the control of diarrhoeal diseases. Oral rehydration therapy dramatically would brought down the cholera case fatality rate from 30% in 1980 to around 3.6% in 2000.<ref name="From endotoxin to exotoxin: De’s rich legacy to cholera"/><ref name="Reducing deaths from diarrhoea through oral rehydration therapy.">{{cite journal|title=Reducing deaths from diarrhoea through oral rehydration therapy.| pmid=11100619 | volume=78 | pmc=2560623| year=2000| journal=Bull. World Health Organ.| pages=1246–55 | last1 = Victora | first1 = CG | last2 = Bryce | first2 = J | last3 = Fontaine | first3 = O | last4 = Monasch | first4 = R}}</ref> ||

| 1984 || Scientific development (drug) || United States [[FDA]] approves [[serotonin antagonist]] [[ondansetron]]. Ondansetron diminishes [[cholera toxin]]-evoked secretion.<ref name="5-HT3 receptor antagonists for the treatment of nausea/vomiting"/><ref name="Actions of serotonin antagonists on cholera-toxin-induced intestinal fluid secretion."/> || [[United States]]

| 1984 || Epidemic || [[Seventh cholera pandemic]]: cholera epidemic reaches Mali. 1793 cases and 406 deaths are reported.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=TAUXE|first1=ROBERT V.|last2=HOLMBERG|first2=SCOTT D.|last3=DODIN|first3=ANDRE|last4=WELLS|first4=JOY V.|last5=BLAKE|first5=PAUL A.|title=idemic cholera in Mali: high mortality and multiple routes of transmission in a famine area|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2249226/pdf/epidinfect00008-0102.pdf|accessdate=18 December 2016|pmc=2249226|pmid=3356224|volume=100|journal=Epidemiol Infect|pages=279–89|doi=10.1017/s0950268800067418}}</ref> || [[Mali]]

| 1986 || Scientific development (drug) || United States [[FDA]] approves antibacterial [[norfloxacin]]. It is proved to be effective for the treatment of cholera.<ref>{{cite web|title=NORFLOXACIN|url=https://livertox.nlm.nih.gov/Norfloxacin.htm|publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine]]|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref> || [[United States]]

| 1986 || Scientific development || Molecular technique for bacterial identification [[ribotyping]] begins. It would be used for characterizing cholera strains.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dalsgaard|first1=A|last2=Echeverria|first2=P|last3=Larsen|first3=J L|last4=Siebeling|first4=R|last5=Serichantalergs|first5=O|last6=Huss|first6=H H|title=Application of ribotyping for differentiating Vibrio cholerae non-O1 isolated from shrimp farms in Thailand.|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|pmc=167279|pmid=7534053|volume=61|journal=Appl Environ Microbiol|pages=245-51}}</ref><ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera" /> ||

| 1990 (circa) || Scientific development || [[Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis]] technique is first described. It is used to subtype bacterial strains. PFGE would show to be useful for the identification of spread of specific clones in many cholera outbreak investigations.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Filippis|first1=Ivano|last2=McKee|first2=Marian L.|title=Molecular Typing in Bacterial Infections|page=62|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ZS68IkRmwcMC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22PFGE%22+%22cholera%22&source=bl&ots=WUEc1fQCF2&sig=p4T2kpGLVXnH-JWgWlUJAi3lZHQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikormI7P7QAhWDTJAKHUirCcIQ6AEIOzAF#v=onepage&q=%22PFGE%22%20%22cholera%22&f=false|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera" /> ||

| 1990 (circa) || Scientific development || [[Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA]] analysis is first described. RAPD would be used for characterizing representative strains of [[vibrio cholerae]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chhotray|first1=GP|last2=Pal|first2=BB|last3=Khuntia|first3=HK|last4=Chowdhury|first4=NR|last5=Chakraborty|first5=S|last6=Yamasaki|first6=S|last7=Ramamurthy|first7=T|last8=Takeda|first8=Y|last9=Bhattacharya|first9=SK|last10=Nair|first10=GB.|title=Incidence and molecular analysis of Vibrio cholerae associated with cholera outbreak subsequent to the super cyclone in Orissa, India.|pmid=12002529|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|pmc=2869804|volume=128|journal=Epidemiol Infect|pages=131-8}}</ref><ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera" /> ||

| 1991 || Scientific development (drug) || Oral cholera vaccine [[Dukoral]] is introduced. It is manufactured by [[Crucell]].<ref name="Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV): What You Need To Know" /> || [[Netherlands]]

| 1992–1993 || Epidemic || New strain of cholera, new strain of cholera, '''Vibrio cholerae serogroup O139 Bengal''' emerges and causes outbreaks in [[Bangladesh]] and [[India]]. Disease from this strain becomes endemic in at least 11 countries.<ref name="Background" /> ||

| 1994 || Epidemic || [[Seventh cholera pandemic]]: cholera cases are notified from 94   

| 1998 || Scientific Development || [[Multilocus sequence typing analysis]] (MLST) is first described. MLST has better discriminatory ability for typing vibrio cholerae than does pulsed-field [[gel electrophoresis]] and provides a measure of phylogenetic relatedness.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Faruque|first1=Shah M.|last2=Nair|first2=G. Balakrish|title=Vibrio Cholerae: Genomics and Molecular Biology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=fP67F_eOSgQC&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=%221998%22+%22+multilocus+sequence+typing%22+%22cholera%22&source=bl&ots=DcgVo-UCrY&sig=cgNklc8YI01dtZTavAWxwYh8oNQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLvpeu3f7QAhVGlZAKHZVSAywQ6AEIPDAE#v=onepage&q=%221998%22%20%22%20multilocus%20sequence%20typing%22%20%22cholera%22&f=false|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera" /> ||

| 2001 || Scientific development (drug) || United States [[FDA]] approves [[serotonin]] [[5-HT3 antagonist|5-HT₃ receptor antagonist]] [[granisetron]]. Granisetron markedly diminishes [[cholera toxin]]-evoked secretion.<ref name="5-HT3 receptor antagonists for the treatment of nausea/vomiting">{{cite web|last1=Smith|first1=Howard S.|last2=Cox|first2=Lorraine R.|last3=Smith|first3=Eric J.|title=5-HT3 receptor antagonists for the treatment of nausea/vomiting|url=http://apm.amegroups.com/article/view/1037/1263|publisher=Annals of Palliative Medicine|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Actions of serotonin antagonists on cholera-toxin-induced intestinal fluid secretion.">{{cite journal|last1=Sjöqvist|first1=A|last2=Cassuto|first2=J|last3=Jodal|first3=M|last4=Lundgren|first4=O.|title=Actions of serotonin antagonists on cholera-toxin-induced intestinal fluid secretion.|journal=Acta Physiol Scand|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1716.1992.tb09360.x|pmid=1355626|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1355626|accessdate=18 December 2016|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|volume=145|pages=229-37}}</ref> || [[United States]]

| 2005 || Scientific development || Small molecule [[virstatin]] is found to inhibit virulence expression in ''[[vibrio cholerae]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Remaut|first1=Han|last2=Fronzes|first2=Rémi|title=Bacterial Membranes: Structural and Molecular Biology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=pdEAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA473&lpg=PA473&dq=%222005%22+%22virstatin%22+%22cholera%22&source=bl&ots=TlHOIB8B-f&sig=oWCfWRdG31XvlMmA-7JP3iUspOw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjUw8acsPHQAhXKj5AKHTWLBsoQ6AEIMDAD#v=onepage&q=%222005%22%20%22virstatin%22%20%22cholera%22&f=false|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rédei|first1=George P.|title=Encyclopedia of Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics, and Informatics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=c9e9pqQCqrEC&pg=PA2083&lpg=PA2083&dq=virstatin+2005&source=bl&ots=MiPQHQxzpN&sig=OQD10eZ9C8yq8BEamMnm5BBfvcY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQvrzJr_HQAhXIEJAKHWANA_0Q6AEISjAI#v=onepage&q=virstatin%202005&f=false|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grunwald|first1=Peter|title=Carbohydrate-Modifying Biocatalysts|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6anSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA96&dq=virstatin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi21LWp3PTQAhWKnJAKHbI0Ab0Q6AEIKzAD#v=onepage&q=virstatin&f=false|accessdate=14 December 2016}}</ref> || [[United States]]

| 2007 || Scientific development (drug) || Researchers from the University of Tokyo develop a type of rice that carries the cholera vaccine.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotar|first1=S.L.|last2=Gessler|first2=J.E.|title=Cholera: A Worldwide History|page=288|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=N3wgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA288&lpg=PA288&dq=Researchers+from+the+University+of+Tokyo+develop+a+type+of+rice+that+carries+the+cholera+vaccine&source=bl&ots=GTOA9THAC8&sig=8smlE1ZDhE-6f0KdR7vYku_9Qi8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj0rbis1_TQAhXLg5AKHVFuAMcQ6AEILzAE#v=onepage&q=Researchers%20from%20the%20University%20of%20Tokyo%20develop%20a%20type%20of%20rice%20that%20carries%20the%20cholera%20vaccine&f=false|accessdate=14 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sinha ||first1=Kounteya|title=Breakthrough in cholera cure|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/Breakthrough-in-cholera-cure/articleshow/2118293.cms|accessdate=14 December 2016|publisher=[[The Times of India]]|date=June 13, 2007}}</ref>|| Japan

| 2007 || Epidemic || [[2007 Iraq cholera outbreak|Iraq cholera outbreak]]. 4667 cases reported. The median age of the cases is 11 years.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Khwaif|first1=JM|last2=Hayyawi|first2=AH|last3=Yousif|first3=TI|title=Cholera outbreak in Baghdad in 2007: an epidemiological study.|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|pmid=20799583|volume=16|journal=East Mediterr Health J|pages=584-9}}</ref> || [[Iraq]]

| 2008 || Epidemic || [[Zimbabwean cholera outbreak]]. 98741 cases and 4293 deaths reported.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.who.int/hac/crises/zwe/sitreps/zimbabwe_w1_10jan2010.pdf|title = Epidemiological Bulletin Number 41|publisher = [[World Health Organization]]|date = January 10, 2010|accessdate = April 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8068232.stm |title=Zimbabwe cholera 'to top 100,000'|date=26 May 2009|publisher=[[BBC]]|accessdate=26 May 2009}}</ref> || Zimbabwe, Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.   

| 2009 || Epidemic || The [[World Health Organization]] reports more than 220,000 cases of cholera and almost 5,000 deaths worldwide.<ref name="Costs of Illness Due to Cholera, Costs of Immunization and Cost-Effectiveness of an Oral Cholera Mass Vaccination Campaign in Zanzibar">{{cite journal|title=Costs of Illness Due to Cholera, Costs of Immunization and Cost-Effectiveness of an Oral Cholera Mass Vaccination Campaign in Zanzibar|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001844|pmc=3464297 | pmid=23056660|volume=6|journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis|pages=e1844 | last1 = Schaetti | first1 = C | last2 = Weiss | first2 = MG | last3 = Ali | first3 = SM | last4 = Chaignat | first4 = CL | last5 = Khatib | first5 = AM | last6 = Reyburn | first6 = R | last7 = Duintjer Tebbens | first7 = RJ | last8 = Hutubessy | first8 = R}}</ref> ||

| 2009 || Scientific development (drug) || Oral cholera vaccine Shanchol is introduced. It contains killed whole cells of [[vibrio cholerae]] serogroups O1 and O139. Shanchol is manufactured by [[Shantha Biotechnics]].<ref name="Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV): What You Need To Know">{{cite web|title=Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV): What You Need To Know|url=https://www.stopcholera.org/sites/cholera/files/oral_cholera_vaccine_what_you_need_to_know_0.pdf|accessdate=10 December 2016|website=stopcholera.org}}</ref><ref name="Vaccines">{{cite web|title=Vaccines|url=http://www.cdc.gov/cholera/vaccines.html|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|accessdate=10 December 2016}}</ref> || [[India]]

| 2009 || Epidemic || [[2009 Papua New Guinea cholera outbreak|Papua New Guinea cholera outbreak]] results in over 15000 cases and more than 500 deaths.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Horwood|first1=PF|last2=Karl|first2=S|last3=Mueller|first3=I|last4=Jonduo|first4=MH|last5=Pavlin|first5=BI|last6=Dagina|first6=R|last7=Ropa|first7=B|last8=Bieb|first8=S|last9=Rosewell|first9=A|last10=Umezaki|first10=M|last11=Siba|first11=PM|last12=Greenhill|first12=AR|title=Spatio-temporal epidemiology of the cholera outbreak in Papua New Guinea, 2009-2011.|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25141942|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref> || [[Papua New Guinea]]

| 2010–present || Epidemic || [[Haiti cholera outbreak]] kills over 9,500 people across four countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Haiti cholera outbreak|url=http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=28070+&Itemid=999999&lang=fr|publisher=[[Pan American Health Organization]]|accessdate = April 23, 2016}}</ref>|| Haiti, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Mexico, Venezuela and Florida (U.S.)  

| 2011 || Science development || [[Multi-virulence locus sequencing typing]] technique is first described. MVLST would be used for determining the genetic variation and relatedness of [[vibrio cholerae]] strains of different zerogroups.<ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Vibrio Research and Application: 2012 Edition|page=80|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=bre_pmwAzIUC&pg=PA80&lpg=PA80&dq=%22MVLST%22+%22cholera%22&source=bl&ots=CSx04NcqLw&sig=gFS7IojmrAWc12V03Gb2CL3VdAw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9zLOS8P7QAhVGHJAKHS9mB1kQ6AEIKjAD#v=onepage&q=%22MVLST%22%20%22cholera%22&f=false|accessdate=18 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Molecular tools in understanding the evolution of Vibrio cholera" /> ||

| 2012 || Epidemic || [[2012 Sierra Leonean cholera outbreak|Sierra Leonean cholera outbreak]]. At least 392 people are reportedly killed and more than 25,000 others are infected.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cholera outbreak easing|url=http://www.irinnews.org/news/2012/09/24/cholera-outbreak-easing|accessdate=13 December 2016|publisher=[[IRIN]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Cholera - rising with the downpours|url=http://www.irinnews.org/news/2012/08/31/cholera-rising-downpours|publisher=[[IRIN]]|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref> || [[Sierra Leone]], [[Guinea]]

| 2014–2015 || Epidemic || [[2014–15 African cholera outbreak|Cholera outbreak]] in Africa. 1,475 reported deaths,<ref name=ghana>{{cite web|title=Cholera in Ghana|url=http://www.unicef.org/cholera/files/Cholera_regional_update_W52_2014_West_and_Central_Africa.pdf|publisher=[[UNICEF]]|date=15 November 2014}}</ref> 84,675 reported cases.<ref name=ghana/>|| Ghana, Nigeria, Niger, Togo, Benin, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Chad, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea

| 2015 || Scientific development (drug) || Oral cholera vaccine Euvichol is introduced. Euvichol is manufactured by [[EuBiologics]].<ref name="Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV): What You Need To Know" /> || [[South Korea]]

| 2016 || Scientific development (drug) || United States [[FDA]] approves Vaxchora for the prevention of cholera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vaxchora|url=http://www.fda.gov/downloads/BiologicsBloodVaccines/Vaccines/ApprovedProducts/UCM506235.pdf|accessdate=12 December 2016|publisher=[[FDA]]}}</ref> || [[United States]]

* [[Timeline of malaria]]

* [[Timeline of global health]]

[[Category:Cholera| ]]

[[Category:Medicine timelines]]