Difference between revisions of "Timeline of cognitive biases"

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| 1971 || || Lichtenstein and Slovic study and experiment on the {{w|preference reversal}} inconsistency.<ref name="Atladóttir"/>
 
| 1971 || || Lichtenstein and Slovic study and experiment on the {{w|preference reversal}} inconsistency.<ref name="Atladóttir"/>
 
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| 1971 || Social bias || The concept of {{w|actor–observer asymmetry}} (also actor–observer bias) is introduced by Jones and Nisbett. It explains the errors that one makes when forming attributions about the behavior of others.
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| 1971 || Social bias || The concept of {{w|actor–observer asymmetry}} (also actor–observer bias) is introduced by Jones and Nisbett. It explains the errors that one makes when forming attributions about the behavior of others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malle |first1=BF |title=The actor-observer asymmetry in attribution: a (surprising) meta-analysis. |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.895 |pmid=17073526 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17073526}}</ref>
 
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| 1972 || || The {{w|Levels of Processing model}} is created by {{w|Fergus I. M. Craik}} and Robert S. Lockhart.<ref>Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671.</ref>
 
| 1972 || || The {{w|Levels of Processing model}} is created by {{w|Fergus I. M. Craik}} and Robert S. Lockhart.<ref>Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671.</ref>

Revision as of 19:00, 9 April 2020

This is a timeline of cognitive biases.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

Big picture

Time period Development summary More details

Full timeline

Year Event type Details
c.180 CE Social bias Just-world hypothesis. Many philosophers and social theorists have observed and considered the phenomenon of belief in a just world, going back to at least as early as the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus, writing circa 180 CE, who argued against this belief.[1]
1747 "Lind conducted the first systematic clinical trial in 1747."[2]
1753 Anthropomorphism is first attested, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian God.[3]}}[4]
1776–1799 The declinism belief is traced back to Edward Gibbon's work,[5] The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published between 1776 and 1788, where Gibbon argues that Rome collapsed due to the gradual loss of civic virtue among its citizens,[6]
1796 Gambler's fallacy. Pierre-Simon Laplace describes in A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities the ways in which men calculate their probability of having sons: "I have seen men, ardently desirous of having a son, who could learn only with anxiety of the births of boys in the month when they expected to become fathers. Imagining that the ratio of these births to those of girls ought to be the same at the end of each month, they judged that the boys already born would render more probable the births next of girls." The expectant fathers feared that if more sons were born in the surrounding community, then they themselves would be more likely to have a daughter. This essay by Laplace is regarded as one of the earliest descriptions of the fallacy.[7]
1798 The term stereotype is first used in the printing trade by Firmin Didot, to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original.[8]
1847 The term Semmelweis effect derives from the name of a Hungarian physician, Ignaz Semmelweis, who discovered in 1847 that childbed fever mortality rates fell ten-fold when doctors disinfected their hands with a chlorine solution before moving from one patient to another, or, most particularly, after an autopsy. The Semmelweis effect is a metaphor for the reflex-like tendency to reject new evidence or new knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms.[9]
1848 Bandwagon effect "The phrase "jump on the bandwagon" first appeared in American politics in 1848 when Dan Rice, a famous and popular circus clown of the time, used his bandwagon and its music to gain attention for his political campaign appearances. As his campaign became more successful, other politicians strove for a seat on the bandwagon, hoping to be associated with his success. Later, during the time of William Jennings Bryan's 1900 presidential campaign, bandwagons had become standard in campaigns,[10] and the phrase "jump on the bandwagon" was used as a derogatory term, implying that people were associating themselves with success without considering that with which they associated themselves."
1850 The first reference to “stereotype” appears as a noun that means “image perpetuated without change.”[8]
1860 Both Weber's law and Fechner's law are published by Gustav Theodor Fechner in the work Elemente der Psychophysik (Elements of Psychophysics). This publication is the first work ever in this field, and where Fechner coins the term psychophysics to describe the interdisciplinary study of how humans perceive physical magnitudes.[11]
1866 Pareidolia "The German word pareidolie was used in German articles by Dr. Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum — for example in his 1866 paper "On Delusion of the Senses". When Kahlbaum's paper was reviewed the following year (1867) in The Journal of Mental Science, Volume 13, pareidolie was translated as pareidolia: "…partial hallucination, perception of secondary images, or pareidolia.""[12]
1874 Memory bias The first documented instance of cryptomnesia occurs with the medium Stainton Moses.[13][14]
1876 Gustav Fechner conducts the earliest known research on the mere-exposure effect.[15]
1882 "The specious present is the time duration wherein a state of consciousness is experienced as being in the present.[16] The term was first introduced by the philosopher E. R. Clay in 1882 (E. Robert Kelly),[17][18]
1885 The phenomenon of spacing effect is first identified by Hermann Ebbinghaus, and his detailed study of it is published in his book Über das Gedächtnis. Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie (Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology).
1890 The term "tip of the tongue" is borrowed from colloquial usage,[19] and possibly a calque from the French phrase avoir le mot sur le bout de la langue ("having the word on the tip of the tongue"). The tip of the tongue phenomenon was first described as a psychological phenomenon in the text The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890), although he did not label it as such.[20]
1893 Memory bias Childhood amnesia is first formally reported by psychologist Caroline Miles in her article A study of individual psychology by the American Journal of Psychology.[21]
1906 "The first known use of bandwagon effect was in 1906"[22]
1906 Social bias In-group favoritism. Sociologist William Sumner posits that humans are a species that join together in groups by their very nature. However, he also maintains that humans have an innate tendency to favor their own group over others, proclaiming how "each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exists in its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders" (p. 13).[23]
1909 Memory bias Testing effect. The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect are published by Edwina E. Abbott.[24][25]
1913 The term "Monte Carlo fallacy" originates from the best known example of the phenomenon, which occurs in the Monte Carlo Casino.[26]
1914 The first research on the cross-race effect is published.[27]
1920 Social bias The halo effect is named by psychologist Edward Thorndike[28] in reference to a person being perceived as having a halo. He gives the phenomenon its name in his article A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings.[29] In "Constant Error", Thorndike sets out to replicate the study in hopes of pinning down the bias that he thought was present in these ratings. Subsequent researchers would study it in relation to attractiveness and its bearing on the judicial and educational systems.[30] Thorndike originally coins the term referring only to people; however, its use would be greatly expanded especially in the area of brand marketing.[29]
1920 "First coined back in 1920, the halo effect describes how our impression of a person forms a halo around our conception of their character." "The term was coined by psychologist Edwin Thorndike in 1920."[31][32]
1922 The term “stereotype” is first used in the modern psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion.[8]
1927 Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik publishes in the journal Psychologische Forschung a report on a series of experiments uncovering the processes underlying the phenomenon later called Zeigarnik effect.[33]
1927 Memory bias Zeigarnik effect. Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik first studies the phenomenon after her professor and Gestalt psychologist Kurt Lewin noticed that a waiter had better recollections of still unpaid orders. However, after the completion of the task – after everyone had paid – he was unable to remember any more details of the orders. Zeigarnik then designed a series of experiments to uncover the processes underlying this phenomenon. Her research report was published in 1927, in the journal Psychologische Forschung.[34]
1928 Irving Fisher publishes The Money Illusion, which develops the concept of the same name.[35]
1930 The specious present is further developed by William James.[18] "James defined the specious present to be "the prototype of all conceived times... the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible". In "Scientific Thought" (1930), C. D. Broad further elaborated on the concept of the specious present and considered that the specious present may be considered as the temporal equivalent of a sensory datum.[18]
1932 Memory bias Some of the earliest evidence for the Fading Affect Bias dates back to a study by Cason, who does a study using a retrospective procedure where participants recall and rate past events and emotion when prompted finds that recalled emotional intensity for positive events is generally stronger than that of negative events.[36]
1933 Memory bias The Von Restorff effect theory is coined by German psychiatrist and pediatrician Hedwig von Restorff, who, in her study, finds that when participants are presented with a list of categorically similar items with one distinctive, isolated item on the list, memory for the item is improved.[37]
1945 Karl Duncker defines functional fixedness as being a "mental block against using an object in a new way that is required to solve a problem".[38]
1946 " In 1946, Berkson first illustrated the presence of a false correlation due to this last reason, which is known as Berkson's paradox and is one of the most famous paradox in probability and statistics."[39]
1954 The Social comparison theory is initially proposed by social psychologist Leon Festinger. It centers on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations.[40]
1956 The term "Barnum effect" is coined by psychologist Paul Meehl in his essay Wanted – A Good Cookbook, because he relates the vague personality descriptions used in certain "pseudo-successful" psychological tests to those given by showman P. T. Barnum.[41][42]
1957 "Parkinson's law of triviality is C. Northcote Parkinson's 1957 argument that members of an organization give disproportionate weight to trivial issues."[43]
1960 English psychhologist Peter Wason first describes the confirmation bias.[44][45][46]
1960 "The classic example of subjects' congruence bias was discovered by Peter Cathcart Wason"
1961 Authority bias. The Milgram experiment is the classic experiment that established its existence.[47]
1961 Ambiguity effect is first described by Daniel Ellsberg.[48]
1964 Telescoping effect. The original work on telescoping is usually attributed to a 1964 article by Neter and Waksberg in the Journal of the American Statistical Association.[49] The term telescoping comes from the idea that time seems to shrink toward the present in the way that the distance to objects seems to shrink when they are viewed through a telescope.[49]
1964 The first recorded statement of the concept of Law of the instrument is Abraham Kaplan's: "I call it the law of the instrument, and it may be formulated as follows: Give a small boy a hammer, and he will find that everything he encounters needs pounding."[50]
1966 An experiment shows that people remember a group of words better if they are within the same theme category. Such words that generate recall by association are known as semantic cues.[51]
1967 Risk compensation. In Sweden, following the change from driving on the left to driving on the right there is a drop in crashes and fatalities, which is linked to the increased apparent risk. The number of motor insurance claims going down by 40%, returning to normal over the next six weeks.[52][53] Fatality levels would take two years to return to normal.[54][n 1]
1967 "Chapman (1967) described a bias in the judgment of the frequency with which two events co-occur. This demonstration showed that the co-occurrence of paired stimuli resulted in participants overestimating the frequency of the pairings." ""Illusory correlation" was originally coined by Chapman and Chapman (1967) to describe people's tendencies to overestimate relationships between two groups when distinctive and unusual information is presented.[55]"[56]
1967 Social bias Edward E. Jones and Victor Harris conduct a classic experiment[57] that would later give rise to the phrase Fundamental attribution error, coined by Lee Ross[58]
1968 The conservatism (belief revision) bias is discussed by Ward Edwards.[59]
1968 "The Pygmalion Effect (also called the Galatea effect) originates with researchers Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobsen in 1968."[60]
1969 Researchers confirm the Ben Franklin effect.[61]
1971 Lichtenstein and Slovic study and experiment on the preference reversal inconsistency.[62]
1971 Social bias The concept of actor–observer asymmetry (also actor–observer bias) is introduced by Jones and Nisbett. It explains the errors that one makes when forming attributions about the behavior of others.[63]
1972 The Levels of Processing model is created by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart.[64]
1973 Hindsight bias. Baruch Fischhoff attends a seminar where Paul E. Meehl states an observation that clinicians often overestimate their ability to have foreseen the outcome of a particular case, as they claim to have known it all along.[65]
1973 The illusion of validity bias is first described by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in their paper.[66]
1974 Memory bias Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer conduct a study to investigate the effects of language on the development of false memory.[67] .
1974 " One of the common heuristics used when making judgements is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic, first described in 1974 (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974). In this heuristic, when people estimate an unknown quantity (say, the length of the average American commute) they begin with an ‘anchor’ of information they do know (say, their own commute) and adjust until an acceptable value is reached. This anchor could be based on information given to a person (such as the advertised price of new car before bargaining) or it could be drawn from personal experience (the price a friend paid for a new car)."[68]
1975 "In 1975, psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens proposed that the strength of a stimulus (e.g., the brightness of a light, the severity of a crime) is encoded neurally in a way that is independent of modality. Kahneman and Frederick built on this idea, arguing that the target attribute and heuristic attribute could be unrelated."[69]
1975 Social bias Miller and Ross conduct a study that is one of the earliest to assess not only self-serving bias but also the attributions for successes and failures within this theory.[70]
1976 Escalation of commitment is first described by Barry M. Staw in his paper Knee deep in the big muddy: A study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action.[71]
1976 Social bias Prior to Pettigrew's formalization of the ultimate attribution error, Birt Duncan finds that White participants view Black individuals as more violent than White individuals in an "ambiguous shove" situation, where a Black or White person accidentally shoves a White person.[72]
1977 Memory bias Misattribution of memory. Early research done by Brown and Kulik finds that flashbulb memories are similar to photographs because they can be described in accurate, vivid detail. In this study, participants describe their circumstances about the moment they learned of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy as well as other similar traumatic events. Participants are able to describe what they were doing, things around them, and other details.[73]
1977 The illusory truth effect is first identified in a study at Villanova University and Temple University.[74][75]
1977 Social bias A study conducted by Lee Ross and colleagues provides early evidence for a cognitive bias called the false consensus effect, which is the tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share the same views.[76]
1978 Memory bias Loftus, Miller, and Burns conduct the original misinformation effect study.
1979 "In 1979, professor of psychology and author Charles G. Lord sought answers[1] as to whether we might overcome the Bacon principle, or whether humans are always held hostage to their initial beliefs even in the face of compelling and contradictory evidence."
1979 Social bias Thomas Nagel identifies four kinds of moral luck in his essay.
1979 Social bias The ultimate attribution error is first established by Thomas F. Pettigrew in his publication The Ultimate Attribution Error: Extending Allport's Cognitive Analysis of Prejudice.[77]
1979 The 'planning fallacy is first proposed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky,[78][79]
1980 Social bias The term "egocentric bias" is first coined by Anthony Greenwald, a psychologist at Ohio State University.[80]
1980 Social bias Group attribution error type I. Ruth Hamill, Richard E. Nisbett, and Timothy DeCamp Wilson were the first to study this form of group attribution error in detail in their 1980 paper Insensitivity to Sample Bias: Generalizing From Atypical Cases. In their study, the researchers provided participants with a case study about an individual welfare recipient. Half of the participants were given statistics showing that the individual was typical for a welfare recipient and had been on the program for the typical amount of time, while the other half of participants were given statistics showing that the welfare recipient had been on the program much longer than normal. The results of the study revealed that participants did indeed draw extremely negative opinions of all welfare recipients as a result of the case study. It was also found that the differences in statistics provided to the two groups had trivial to no effect on the level of group attribution error.[81]
1980 The term subjective validation first appears in the book The Psychology of the Psychic by David F. Marks and Richard Kammann.[82]
1982 Social bias Trait ascription bias. In a study involving fifty-six undergraduate psychology students from the University of Bielefeld, Kammer et al. demonstrate that subjects rate their own variability on each of 20 trait terms to be considerably higher than their peers.[83]
1983 Sociologist W. Phillips Davison first articulates the third-person effect hypothesis.
1985 Social bias Group attribution error. Type II. "The second form of group attribution error was first reported by Scott T. Allison and David Messick in 1985"
1985 The disposition effect anomaly is identified and named by Hersh Shefrin and Meir Statman. In their study, Shefrin and Statman note that "people dislike incurring losses much more than they enjoy making gains, and people are willing to gamble in the domain of losses." Consequently, "investors will hold onto stocks that have lost value...and will be eager to sell stocks that have risen in value." The researchers coined the term "disposition effect" to describe this tendency of holding on to losing stocks too long and to sell off well-performing stocks too readily. Shefrin colloquially described this as a "predisposition toward get-evenitis." John R. Nofsinger has called this sort of investment behavior as a product of the desire to avoid regret and seek pride.[84]
1985 The hot-hand fallacy is first described in a paper by Amos Tversky, Thomas Gilovich, and Robert Vallone.
1986 Bizarreness effect. McDaniel and Einstein argue that bizarreness intrinsically does not enhance memory in their paper.[85]
1988 Experiment Information bias. In an experiment by Baron, Beattie and Hershey, subjects considered this diagnostic problem involving fictitious diseases.[86]
1988 The Reactive devaluation bias is proposed by Lee Ross and Constance Stillinger.[87]
1988 Samuelson and Zeckhauser demonstrate status quo bias using a questionnaire in which subjects faced a series of decision problems, which were alternately framed to be with and without a pre-existing status quo position. Subjects tended to remain with the status quo when such a position was offered to them.[88]
1989 The term "curse of knowledge" is coined in a Journal of Political Economy article by economists Colin Camerer, George Loewenstein, and Martin Weber.
1990 Kahneman, Knetsch and Thaler publish a paper containing the first experimental test of the Endowment Effect.[62]
1991 Social bias The term illusory superiority is first used by the researchers Van Yperen and Buunk.
1994 The Women are wonderful effect term is coined by researchers Alice Eagly and Antonio Mladinic in a paper, where they question the widely-held view that there was prejudice against women.
1995 "Implicit bias was first described in a 1995 publication by Tony Greenwald and Mahzarin Banaji"[89]
1996 Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky argue that cognitive biases have efficient practical implications for areas including clinical judgment, entrepreneurship, finance, and management.[90][91]
1998 Experiment Impact bias. "In Gilbert et al., 1998, there was a conducted study on individuals participating in a job interview. The participants were separated into two groups; the unfair decision condition (where the decision of being hired was left up to a single MBA student with sole authority listening to the interview) and the fair decision condition (where the decision was made by a team of MBA students who had to independently and unanimously decide the fate of the interviewee). Then, certain participants were chosen to forecast how they would feel if they were chosen or not chosen for the job immediately after learning if they had been hired or fired and then they had to predict how they would feel ten minutes after hearing the news. Then following the interview, all participants were given letters notifying them they had not been selected for the job. All participants were then required to fill out a questionnaire that reported their current happiness. Then after waiting ten minutes, the experimenter presented all the participants with another questionnaire that once again asked them to report their current level of happiness."
1998 The implicit-association test is introduced in the scientific literature by Anthony Greenwald, Debbie McGhee, and Jordan Schwartz.[92]
1998 Less-is-better effect. "In a 1998 study, Hsee, a professor at the Graduate School of Business of The University of Chicago, discovered a less-is-better effect in three contexts: "(1) a person giving a $45 scarf (from scarves ranging from $5-$50) as a gift was perceived to be more generous than one giving a $55 coat (from coats ranging from $50-$500); (2) an overfilled ice cream serving with 7 oz of ice cream was valued more than an underfilled serving with 8 oz of ice cream; (3) a dinnerware set with 24 intact pieces was judged more favourably than one with 31 intact pieces (including the same 24) plus a few broken ones.""[93]
1999 Concept introduction The psychological phenomenon of illusory superiority known as Dunning–Kruger effect is identified as a form of cognitive bias in Kruger and Dunning's 1999 study, Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One's Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments.[94]
1999 The term "spotlight effect" is coined by Thomas Gilovich and Kenneth Savitsky.[95] The phenomenon first appears in the world of psychology in the journal Current Directions in Psychological Science.
1999 Social bias The formal proposal of naïve cynicism comes from Kruger and Gilovich's study called "'Naive cynicism' in everyday theories of responsibility assessment: On biased assumptions of bias".[96] economics,[97]
2002 Concept introduction "In a 2002 revision of the theory, Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed attribute substitution as a process underlying these and other effects."[69]
2002 Research Bystander effect. Research indicates that priming a social context may inhibit helping behavior. Imagining being around one other person or being around a group of people can affect a person's willingness to help.[98]
2003 The term "projection bias" is first introduced in the paper Projection Bias in Predicting Future Utility by Loewenstein, O'Donoghue and Rabin.[99]
2003 Shitij Kapur proposes that a hyperdopaminergic state, at a "brain" level of description, leads to an aberrant assignment of salience to the elements of one's experience, at a "mind" level.[100]
2004 "One of the most common anchors is personal experience, which is the basis of ego-centric decision-making. Estimating the behaviors, attitudes and thoughts of other people is complex and effortful; anchoring and adjustment makes this process simpler by substituting one’s own perspective and adjusting until a reasonable estimate has been achieved (Epley et al., 2004). "[68]
2004 The concept of the distinction bias is advanced by Christopher K. Hsee and Jiao Zhang of the University of Chicago as an explanation for differences in evaluations of options between joint evaluation mode and separate evaluation mode.
2006 "Overcoming Bias began in November ’06 as a group blog on the general theme of how to move our beliefs closer to reality, in the face of our natural biases such as overconfidence and wishful thinking, and our bias to believe we have corrected for such biases, when we have done no such thing."[101]
2006 The Ostrich effect is coined by Galai & Sade.
2008 Social bias Cheerleader effect. "The phrase was coined by the character Barney Stinson in "Not a Father's Day", an episode of the television series How I Met Your Mother, first aired in November 2008. Barney points out to his friends a group of women that initially seem attractive, but who all seem to be very ugly when examined individually. This point is made again by Ted and Robin later in the episode, who note that some of Barney's friends also only seem attractive in a group."[102]
2009 The concept of denomination effect is proposed by Priya Raghubir, professor at the New York University Stern School of Business, and Joydeep Srivastava, professor at University of Maryland, in their paper.[103]
2010 The Handbook of Social Psychology recognizes naïve realism as one of "four hard-won insights about human perception, thinking, motivation and behavior that... represent important, indeed foundational, contributions of social psychology."[29]
2011 The IKEA effect is identified and named by Michael I. Norton of Harvard Business School, Daniel Mochon of Yale, and Dan Ariely of Duke University, who publish the results of three studies in this year.
2011 "Cognitive Bias: The Google Effect. Also known as “digital amnesia”, the aptly named Google Effect describes our tendency to forget information that can be easily accessed online. First described in 2011 by Betsy Sparrow (Columbia University) and her colleagues, their paper described the results of several memory experiments involving technology."[104]
2011 The Look-elsewhere effect, more generally known in statistics as the problem of multiple comparisons, gains some media attention in the context of the search for the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider.[105]
2011 The phenomenon known as Google effect is first described and named by Betsy Sparrow (Columbia), Jenny Liu (Wisconsin) and Daniel M. Wegner (Harvard) in their paper.[106]
2012 In an article in Psychological Bulletin it is suggested the subadditivity effect can be explained by an information-theoretic generative mechanism that assumes a noisy conversion of objective evidence (observation) into subjective estimates (judgment).[107]
2013 The term “End of History Illusion” originates in a journal article by psychologists Jordi Quoidbach, Daniel Gilbert, and Timothy Wilson detailing their research on the phenomenon and leveraging the phrase coined by Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book of the same name.[108]

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References

  1. Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism", Book 1, Chapter 13, Section 32
  2. Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, John Wiley & Songs, Inc., New Jersey. p. 393. Template:Isbn.
  3. Chambers's Cyclopædia, Supplement, 1753 
  4. Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "anthropomorphism, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.
  5. Miller, Laura (2015-06-14). "Culture is dead — again". Salon. Retrieved 17 April 2018. 
  6. J.G.A. Pocock, "Between Machiavelli and Hume: Gibbon as Civic Humanist and Philosophical Historian," Daedalus 105:3 (1976), 153–169; and in Further reading: Pocock, EEG, 303–304; FDF, 304–306.
  7. Barron, Greg; Leider, Stephen (13 October 2009). "The role of experience in the Gambler's Fallacy" (PDF). Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Stereotypes Defined". stereotypeliberia.wordpress.com. Retrieved 10 April 2020. 
  9. Mortell, Manfred; Balkhy, Hanan H.; Tannous, Elias B.; Jong, Mei Thiee (July 2013). "Physician 'defiance' towards hand hygiene compliance: Is there a theory–practice–ethics gap?". Journal of the Saudi Heart Association. 25 (3): 203–208. PMC 3809478Freely accessible. PMID 24174860. doi:10.1016/j.jsha.2013.04.003. 
  10. "Bandwagon Effect". Retrieved 2007-03-09. 
  11. Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1966) [First published .1860]. Howes, D H; Boring, E G, eds. Elements of psychophysics [Elemente der Psychophysik]. volume 1. Translated by Adler, H E. United States of America: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 
  12. [1] Sibbald, M.D. "Report on the Progress of Psychological Medicine; German Psychological Literature", The Journal of Mental Science, Volume 13. 1867. p. 238
  13. Brian Righi. (2008). Chapter 4: Talking Boards and Ghostly Goo. In Ghosts, Apparitions and Poltergeists. Llewellyn Publications. Template:ISBN "An early example of this occurred in 1874 with he medium William Stanton Moses, who communicated with the spirits of two brothers who had recently died in India. Upon investigation, it was discovered that one week prior to the séance, their obituary had appeared in the newspaper. This was of some importance because Moses's communications with the two spirits contained nothing that wasn't already printed in the newspaper. When the spirits were pressed for further information, they were unable to provide any. Researchers concluded that Moses had seen the obituary, forgotten it, and then resurfaced the memory during the séance."
  14. Robert Todd Carroll. (2014). "Cryptomnesia". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 2014-07-12.
  15. "Mere Exposure Effect" (PDF). wiwi.europa-uni.de. Retrieved 10 April 2020. 
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  17. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named kelly
  18. 18.0 18.1 18.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
  19. Schwartz, BL. (Sep 1999). "Sparkling at the end of the tongue: the etiology of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenology." (PDF). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 6 (3): 379–93. PMID 12198776. doi:10.3758/bf03210827. 
  20. James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/
  21. Bauer, P (2004). "Oh where, oh where have those early memories gone? A developmental perspective on childhood amnesia". Psychological Science Agenda. 18 (12). 
  22. "bandwagon effect". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 7 April 2020. 
  23. Sumner, William Graham. (1906). Folkways: A Study of the Social Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals. Boston, MA: Ginn.
  24. Abbott, Edwina (1909). "On the analysis of the factors of recall in the learning process". Psychological Monographs: General and Applied. 11 (1): 159–177. doi:10.1037/h0093018 – via Ovid. 
  25. Larsen, Douglas P.; Butler, Andrew C. (2013). Walsh, K., ed. Test-enhanced learning. In Oxford Textbook of Medical Education. pp. 443–452. ISBN 9780199652679. 
  26. "Why we gamble like monkeys". BBC.com. 2015-01-02. 
  27. Feingold, CA (1914). "The influence of environment on identification of persons and things". Journal of Criminal Law and Police Science. 5 (1): 39–51. JSTOR 1133283. doi:10.2307/1133283. 
  28. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing, Scott G. Dacko, 2008: Marketing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008-06-18. p. 248. ISBN 9780199286003. 
  29. 29.0 29.1 29.2 Thorndike 1920 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  30. Sigall, Harold; Ostrove, Nancy (1975-03-01). "Beautiful but Dangerous: Effects of Offender Attractiveness and Nature of the Crime on Juridic Judgment". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 31 (3): 410–414. doi:10.1037/h0076472. 
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