Timeline of encyclopedias

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This is a timeline of encyclopedias. To a minor extent, the emergence of libraries and maps is covered, as both closely parallel the development of encyclopedias.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

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Time period Development summary More details
"Almost all the knowledge that humans acquired during their first 500,000 years of wanderings has been lost—more than 99 percent of human history. This tragedy happened because primitive people had no e›ective method of preserving such information."[1]
15th century In Germany, around 1440, goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press, which started the Printing Revolution. "The advent of print culture made possible a much wider public engagement with encyclopaedic writing, and a much richer process of experimentation with various possible models, while it vastly increased the volume of knowledge in circulation."[2]:19
17th – 18th century Modern encyclopaedias The golden age of libraries in Europe is considered to be around this time, when most of the great collections of books are begun.[1]:93 The modern encyclopedia is developed from the dictionary.
21st century Digital and open-source versions appear. Wikipedia

Full timeline

Year Subject/type Details Language
367 BC–246 BC General knowledge Macedonian Greek historian Ptolemy I Soter, and later his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus plan to collect all Greek writings. They would pour large quantities of gold into the project, and even resort to piracy in the interest of amassing knowledge. More than once each of the Ptolemys would confiscate the book cargoes of ships that anchor in Alexandria’s harbor. They would borrow the works of three great playwrights from Athens, copy them, and then would return the copies rather than the originals to the Greeks.[1] Ancient Greek
339–338 BC Greek philosopher Speusippus, a nephew of Plato, passes away. The earliest known encyclopaedia fragments that would be preserved are created by him, who recorded and disseminated Plato's ideas in various writings that covered topics such as natural history, mathematics, and philosophy.[3] Greek
3rd century BC Chinese dictionary Chinese dictionary Erya is produced.[4] Although it is traditionally attributed to the Duke of Zhou, Confucius, or his disciples, the book's author is unknown. The Erya and its glossary style found a whole type of glossary dictionaries compiled with similar principles.[5] Chinese
Erya Zhushu - Chinese Dictionary Museum.JPG
c.183 BC General knowledge One of the earliest known attempts to condense existing knowledge into a readable form is the Praecepta ad filium, a collection of letters written by Roman consul Marcus Porcius Cato to his son. The purpose of these letters is to provide a concise overview of useful information for living and helping others. Whereas the Greek approach at this time is to record the spoken word, the Romans, on the other hand, aim to epitomize existing knowledge in readable form.[3] Latin
116 BC-27 BC Liberal arts Roman polymath Marcus Terentius Varro lives. He would write his Subjects for Learning, consisting in 9 books covering liberal arts, that is, areas of learning in which a free man should be knowledgeable: grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music, medicine, and architecture. He would also compose his Antiquities, containing 25 books on "matters human" and 16 on "matters divine."[6] Latin
37 BC Background (library) The first public library in Rome is constructed on the Palatine Hill by the literary patron Asinius Pollio.[1]:33
20 BC Lexicon Roman grammarian Marcus Verrius Flaccus (c. 55 BC – AD 20) compiles what would be known as De verborum significatione (Twenty Books on the Meaning of Words), a large lexicon considered the first of its kind and, moreover, a storehouse of antiquarian learning, in which Latin authors would quote extensively.[7] It would be compiled, edited, and annotated by Roman grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus (later 2nd century AD) in 20 books, arranged alphabetically.[7][8] Encyclopedic dictionaries of this type would be made famous in 1806 by the American Noah Webster.[1] First printed in Milan in 1471 [9] Latin
AD 77 Natural history Roman author Pliny the Elder publishes the first 10 books of his Historia Naturalis (Natural History)[10], which is frequently addressed as the first ancient encyclopedia.[11] Of all the Greek and Roman encyclopedists, Pliny would be undoubtedly the most influential, an autodidact having gathered material for his encyclopedia from 473 authors, mostly Greeks. Historia Naturalis consists of 37 parchment scrolls and 2,493 articles. The work is still studied today.[1] Latin thumb|center|150px]]
<47 AD Medicine Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus writes De Medicina, a medical treatise largely ignored by contemporaries. It would be discovered by Pope Nicholas V and would be published in 1478, becoming one of the first printed medical works after the introduction of the printing press.[12][13] Latin thumb|center|100px
62 AD – 64 AD Natural philosophy Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger writes his Naturales quaestiones[14], a study on questions of physics and meteorology.[15] While not a systematic encyclopedia like the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, it represents one of the few Roman works dedicated to investigating the natural world.[16] Latin
c. 200 AD Dictionary The Shiming is believed to date from around this time. It is a Chinese dictionary that employs phonological glosses.[17] Chinese
220 AD Leishu Chinese encyclopedia Huanglan (“Emperor’s Mirror”) is completed by order of Cao Pi, the first emperor of the Wei. Like other Chinese encyclopedias, it is constructed for the needs of the civil service system and good government rather than recording absolute truths for the general reader.[1] Divided into fourty-odd parts, each of which divided into a dozen of subchapters, the book as a whole would be lost.[18] Chinese
2nd century AD Onomasticon Greek scholar and rhetorician Julius Pollux creates his Onomasticon.[19] Ancient Greek File:Julius Pollux - Onomasticon - 1608 - Titul.PNG
c.400 AD Liberal arts Roman polymath Martianus Capella writes his single encyclopedic work De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii (On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury)[20] It introduces the division in seven liberal arts.[21] Unlike other encyclopedic compendia, this work also has a literary-philosophical influence, because of its form, the prosimetrum, and its framework, an allegorized mythography and cosmology.[22] Latin
4th century AD Dictionary of Latin usage Roman grammarian Nonius Marcellus creates De compendiosa doctrina,[23] a dictionary of Latin usage compiled from early literary texts, some of which are lost works from the Roman Republic. It is divided into 20 books and ordered according to words used by Latin authors.[24] Latin
505–587 General knowledge Indian astrologer, astronomer, and polymath Varāhamihira lives. He would write his Bṛhatsaṃhitā. Sanscrit thumb|center|120px|Commentary manuscript
c.543-555 or 562 Christian encyclopedia Roman statesman Cassiodorus publishes his Institutiones Divinarum et Saecularium Litterarum (An Introduction to Divine and Human Readings), the first Christian encyclopedia.[25] Written for his monks, the first part of the text delves into the topic of studying scripture and includes information about Christian fathers and historians. The second part of the text, which would be widely used during the Middle Ages, provides a brief overview of the seven liberal arts, which at the time are considered essential for understanding the Bible.[26] Latin
600 Chinese encyclopedia Pian Zhu (Stringed Pearls of Literature) is completed.[1] Chinese
600–625 Etymology Spanish scholar and cleric Isidore of Seville publishes his Etymologiae.[27] It is a significant medieval encyclopedia.[1] Latin
624 Leishu Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer Ouyang Xun completes the leishu encyclopedia Yiwen Leiju (Anthology of Art and Literature).[28][29] Written in 100 chapters divided into 47 sections[1], it is a sourcebook for the composition of essays.[2]:509 Chinese
630 Leishu Yu Shi-nan compiles his encyclopedia Bei Tang Shu Zhao (From a North Tang Writing Desk). With 160 chapters in 19 sections emphasizing public administration, [1]:25 it is the first of a number of important leishu assembled following practical needs of individuals preparing for the civil service examinations and officials in China. It deals mainly with government topics, and in particular matters related to the personnel and rituals of the dynastic courts preceding the Tang dynasty.[2]:59 An annotated edition, edited by Gong Guang-tao, would be published in 1880.[1]:25 Chinese
636 Christian encyclopedia Visigothic scholar and cleric Isidore of Seville produces his Etymologiae, a Christian encyclopedia which would become the most influential encyclopedia of the early Middle Ages.[30] Latin
668 Buddhist encyclopaedia Fayuan Zhulin (Grove of pearls in the Dharma Garden) is compiled by Tao-shih.[31] It draws upon indigenous Chinese sources, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist, but confined to topics about Buddhism and its development in China.[2]:509 Chinese
713–742 The Chuxue ji (Writings for elementary instruction) is compiled by Xu Jian.[32] This leishu is organized to provide beginning students with a general foundation of knowledge.[2]:509
765–775 The Abrogans (also German Abrogans or Codex Abrogans) is written. It is an alphabetical Latin-German glossary in Bavarian dialect, whose name is taken from the first Latin word in its list.[33] German
718–786 (Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi lifetime) Arab philologist Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi compiles the Kitab al-'Ayn, which is considered the first Arabic language dictionary and one of the earliest known dictionaries of any language.[34][35][36][37] Arabic
801 Chinese historian Du You compiles the Tongdian (Encyclopaedic history of institutions) which concentrats on texts of political and administrative importance. An assembly of many disparate sources, it divides them into nine main subject headings: food and money, the examination system, official titles, rites, music, the army, punishments, provincial administration, and border defence.[2]:510 Chinese
828–889 Islamic scholar Ibn Qutaybah composes his Adab al-katib (The book of knowledge).[38] Arabic
842–846 General knowledge Frankish Benedictine monk Rabanus Maurus compiles an encyclopedia called De Universo (“On the Universe”), consisting in an untidy mass of copied material, taken largely from Isadore’s Etymologies. As a work intended to convey all the most important knowledge then available, it becomes a failure. However, it begins with God and the angels, which would become a virtue and valuable for medieval scholars.[1] Latin
c.877–883 Photios I of Constantinople composes his Bibliotheca, a digest of Greek prose literature with more than 270 articles. A distinguished teacher and a prominent figure in the Byzantine Empire during the 9th century, he became known for his regular readings in classical and Christian literature, including medical and scientific works. He used the notes taken at these readings to compose the Bibliotheca.[39] Greek
938 Dictionary The Wamyō Ruijushō is composed. It is a Japanese dictionary of Chinese characters.[40] Japanese
978 Chinese statesman Li Fang compiles under imperial sponsorship leishu Taiping Guangji (Extensive gleanings of the Reign of the Great).[2]:510 Chinese
983 The Taiping yulan (Imperial Reader or Readings of the Taiping Era) is compiled[41] by Li Fang and his collaborators.[1] A massive leishu encyclopedia, it is the first large encyclopaedia of ancient China.[41] It contains 1,000 books arranged in 55 sections, and has quotations and extracts from some 1,600 other works.[1] Chinese
987 Li Fang compiles the Wenyuan Yinghua (Finest flowers of the preserve of letters). This leishu, along with Taiping Guangji and Taiping yulan, representd the cultural patronage that the second Song dynasty emperor, Taizong offered to his officials and subjects.[2]:510 Chinese
977 Iranian poet and secretary Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi completes his Mafātīḥ al-ʿulūm (The Keys of the Sciences), an encyclopedia greatly influenced by Greek concepts and drawing on the works of such Greek authors as Philo, Nicomachus, and Euclid in an attempt to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islam. The encyclopedia is divided into two parts: Arab knowledge and Foreign knowledge. Some of its subject matter covers philosophy, grammar, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, music, mechanics, and alchemy. This work would be eventually translated into Latin, and would be widely read in the Roman world.[1]
1013 The Cefu Yuangui is completed, and is considered the last of the Four Great Books of Song. it is composed of 31 main sections, and 1,104 subsections. In essence a handbook for model government, it contains historical precedents by which the emperor and his officials would make decisions. It is composed of 31 main sections, and 1,104 subsections.[2]:511 It is the largest leishu (encyclopedia) compiled during the Chinese Song Dynasty. Chinese
1017–1078 Humanities, science Byzantine Greek monk Michael Psellos composes De omnifaria doctrina,[42] a short encyclopedia consisting in a set of brief outlines of various notions in philosophy, science, and theology.[43] Ancient Greek
1025 Medicine Persian physician-philosopher Avicenna completes The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb; Persian: قانون در طب, Qanun-e dâr Tâb), a 14-volume medical encyclopedia covering such basic subjects as anatomy and hygiene. It also describes a vast range of diseases and injuries, and lists hundreds of different medicines.[44] The Canon of Medicine would remain a medical authority for centuries, setting the standards for medicine in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world and being used as a standard medical textbook through the 18th century in Europe.[45][46] It is an important text in Unani medicine, a form of traditional medicine practiced in India.[47] Arabic
Persian version of The Canon of Medicine
1027 Muslim encyclopedias Al Shifa (The Book of Healing) is published by Avicenna.[48] A major work of medieval Muslim scholarship, it is a voluminous philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia treating logic, the natural sciences, psychology, the quadrivium (geometry, astronomy, mathematics, and music), and metaphysics.[49] Arabic
1086 Leishu Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman Shen Kuo writes his Meng Xi Bi Tan (Dream Pool Essays), an encyclopedia of natural science containing a history of China’s ancient science and technology. The first description of the magnetic compass is found in this book. It also covers extensively astronomy, mathematics, notices of fossils, the making of relief maps, descriptions of metallurgical processes, and biological observations. [1] Chinese
1100 The Suda is written by a Byzantine scholar around this time. It is one of the world’s first encyclopedias and lexicons.[50]
1110 Geography, astrology, astronomy Christian theologian Honorius Augustodunensis composes his Imago mundi.[51][52] Considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the 12th century, it is an encyclopedic work that covers a wide range of topics, including cosmology, geography, astronomy, and natural history. The first section of the work, which covers geography, astrology, and astronomy, is well-organized, beginning with the creation of the world and working down to specific countries and cities.[3] Latin
1120 Lambert of St. Omer completes the Liber Floridus.[53] It is a collection of previously existing information that is not particularly original. However, it is notable for its focus on metaphysical topics and its inclusion of subjects such as magic and astrology, rather than practical matters.[3] Latin
1125–1135 Natural philosophy French scholastic philosopher William of Conches composes De philosophia mundi, which covers a variety of topics including astronomy, geography, meteorology, and medicine. It includes diagrams in his discussion of astronomy to illustrate the orbits of celestial bodies such as the sun, Mercury, and Venus, as well as eclipses. In meteorology, he notes that the air becomes colder and less dense at higher altitudes and relates this to the circulation of the oceans. His discussion of medicine primarily focuses on procreation and childbirth. The manuscript also includes two world maps.[54][55] France
1127–1138 General knowledge King Someshvara III composes the Manasollasa,[56] an encyclopedic Sanskrit text covering a wide range of topics such as politics, ethics, economics, astronomy, and more. It is an important source of information on the society and culture of 11th and 12th century India, with a focus on the arts, particularly music and dance, and also includes chapters on food recipes and festivals, many of which are still present in modern Indian culture.[57] Sanskrit
c.1140 Saxon canon regular Hugues de Saint-Victor composes his Didascalicon, which proposes a new classification of sciences and a new method of lecture of the Bible.[58]
c. 1150 Greek lexical encyclopedia Etymologicum Magnum is compiled in Constantinople by an unknown lexicographer. It is the largest Byzantine lexicon and draws on many earlier grammatical, lexical, and rhetorical works.[59] Greek
1190 English intellectual Alexander Neckam writes De naturis rerum (On the nature of things), which presents miscellaneous Greek and Islamic scientific facts that at the time are unknown in Western Europe.[60] Latin
1195 Hohenburg Abbey nun Herrad of Landsberg completes the Hortus deliciarum (Garden of Delights) an encyclopedia which would be considered one of the finest examples of illuminated manuscripts ever produced. It is intended for use by the novices at the convent, with the sections on the history of the world relying heavily on biblical stories.[1] It is likely the first encyclopaedia to be created by a woman. The manuscript is illustrated with 636 miniatures.[3] Latin
c. 1200 General knowledge French theologian Radulfus Ardens composes his Speculum universale.[61]
1210–1214 English canon lawyer, statesman and cleric Gervase of Tilbury writes the Otia Imperialia.[62] It is an example of speculum literature. Also known as the "Book of Marvels", it primarily concerns the three fields of history, geography, and physics, but its credibility has been questioned by numerous scholars including philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who was alerted to the fact that it contains many mythical stories. Its manner of writing is perhaps because the work was written to provide entertainment to Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV. Latin
1231–1236 French theologian and philosopher Guillaume d'Auvergne composes De universo creaturarum.[63] Latin
1235-1260 Dominican friar Vincent of Beauvais composes his Speculum Maius.[64] It originally consists in three parts: the Speculum Naturale, Speculum Doctrinale and Speculum Historiale. However, all the printed editions include a fourth part, the Speculum Morale, added in the 14th century and mainly compiled from Thomas Aquinas, Stephen de Bourbon, and a few other contemporary writers. Latin
1240 English Franciscan monk Bartholomeus Anglicus finishes the De proprietatibus rerum (On the Property of Things).[65] Anglicus draws heavily from the works of St. Isidore and Pliny. The encyclopaedia is made for the general public and it would become widely popular throughout Europe for the next three centuries.[3] Probably the most popular encyclopedia of its time, it would be translated from Latin into English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Italian. William Shakespeare would say to have been well acquainted with the English edition.[1] Latin
1246 General knowledge French priest and poet Gautier de Metz composes L'Image du monde, in Lorrain dialect, based on Honorius Augustodunensis.[66] Lorraine language
1256 Natural philosophy Flemish Catholic medieval writer Thomas of Cantimpré composes his Liber de natura rerum, which summarizes diverse fields of knowledge, such as theology, astronomy, mathematics, zoology, botany, and biology.[67] Latin
1259–1266 Biography, hagiography The Legenda aurea or Legenda sanctorum (Golden Legend) is compiled around this time as a collection of hagiographies by Jacobus de Voragine. It would be widely read in late medieval Europe. Latin
1263–1266 General knowledge Italian poet Brunetto Latini compiles an encyclopedia titled Li Livres dou Trésor (The Treasure Books). It is based in part on Vincent’s Speculum Maius, but represents a major breakaway from Latin as the only language fit for holding knowledge. Written in French, the encyclopedia would be widely used among intellectuals in both France and Italy. Available in almost all the dialects then used in France, it would be translated into Italian only two centuries later.[1] French
1295–1296 General knowledge Catalonian philosopher Ramon Llull in Barcelona writes his Arbre de la ciència, Arbor Scientiae (Tree of Science).[68] It is a version of his philosophical system known as the Art, written in the form of an encyclopedia, and designed for a non-university audience. It differs from other medieval compendia by using general principles to describe the multiplicity of the real, rather than using systematic catalogues of data. The work is divided into sixteen trees, with the first fourteen providing a view of reality as a whole, starting with inert beings and ending with God. The final two trees, the Exemplary Tree and the Tree of Questions, have a didactic function and provide narratives, proverbs, and analogies related to the contents of the initial Trees. Each of the sixteen Trees has an internal structure with seven parts: roots, trunk, boughs, branches, leaves, flowers and fruit. The symbolic structure of this homology is based on a scholastic precept from the Aristotelian tradition.[69] Catalan thumb|center|150px]]
1313 Agronomy Chinese agronomist Wang Zhen publishes his Nong Shu (Book of Agriculture),[70] a detailed encyclopedia of agriculture that also covers other subjects. A pioneer of wooden movable type printing, Zhen writes this text to aid destitute rural farmers in China looking for ways to improve their livelihoods. It is considered a descriptive masterpiece on contemporary medieval Chinese technology. The book is long, with over 110,000 written Chinese characters and is intended to be read by local officials rather than rural farmers. It is a significant work in medieval Chinese agriculture and technology.[71] Chinese
1314–1333 General knowledge Egyptian Muslim historian Al-Nuwayri compiles The Ultimate Ambition in the Arts of Erudition.[72] This encyclopedia is divided in five sections (books): Geography and astronomy; man, and what relates to him; animals; plants; and history.[73]
1317 General knowledge (Tongdian) The Wenxian Tongkao (General Study of the Literary Remains) is compiled by Ma Duanlin. It is a huge encyclopaedia of general knowledge.[74] Chinese
c.1360–1375 General knowledge James le Palmer in London composes his Omne Bonum.[75][76] It is the first encyclopedia arranged in alphabetical order.[77] United Kingdom (England)
1344 World history English chronicler Ranulf Higden compiles his Polychronicon,[78] a six-book series about world history written in Latin, which would remain well-known until the fifteenth century.[79] Latin
c. 1349 Science German Catholic scholar Conrad of Megenberg composes his compendium of science Buch der Natur[80] A Latin work, De naturis rerum, of the Dominican Thomas of Cantimpré (d. 1263), serves as model.[81] German
1353–1356 Jewish philosopher Moses Nagari composes his Love in Delights (Ahavah ba-Ta'anugim).
c. 1374–1418 Domenico Bandini of Arezzo composes his Fons memorabilium universi.[82] Though classified, it uses separate alphabetical orders for more than a quarter of its sections.[83] Latin
1377 Universal history Muslim Arab sociologist, philosopher, and historian Ibn Khaldun publishes his Muqaddimah, which includes discussions on political establishments and a classification of the sciences.[84][1]
1333 Arabic literature, islamic thought Egyptian Muslim historian Al-Nuwayri completes his work The Ultimate Ambition in the Arts of Erudition (نهاية الأرب في فنون الأدب, Nihāyat al-arab fī funūn al-adab)[85][86], a nine-thousand-page, thirty-three-volume encyclopedia. It is one of the most important medieval collections of Arabic literature and Islamic thought.[87] Arabic
1379–1392 Catalan encyclopaedia Lo Crestià (The Christian) is written by Franciscan writer Francesc Eiximenis.[88] Catalan
1396 Female education The Llibre de les dones (Book of Women) is written by Francesc Eiximenis.[89] Catalan
1407 General knowledge The Yongle Encyclopedia is completed. Written by some 2,000 scholars working under five chief directors and 20 subdirectors, it is the most extensive encyclopedia ever.[1] It is a largely-lost Chinese leishu encyclopedia commissioned by the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1403, comprising 22,937 manuscript rolls or chapters, in 11,095 volumes.[90] Fewer than 400 volumes survive today,[91] comprising about 800 chapters (rolls), or 3.5 percent of the original work.[92]
1412 History, science Egyptian polymath Al-Qalqashandi completes his Ṣubḥ al-aʿshā (The Dawn of the Blind or Daybreak for the Night-Blind regarding the Composition of Chancery Documents) is completed.[93] A fourteen-volume encyclopedia, it is an administrative manual on geography, political history, natural history, zoology, mineralogy, cosmography, and time measurement. Based on the Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣar of Shihab al-Umari,[94] it would be called "one of the final expressions of the genre of Arabic administrative literature".[95] Arabic
1450 Background (World map) The Fra Mauro map is made around this time by Venetian cartographer Fra Mauro.[96] Italian
1474 Universal history Carthusian monk and historian Werner Rolevinck publishes his Fasciculus temporum, the first printed universal chronicle.[97] It would become one of the greatest best-sellers in print of the 15th century, and most probably the best-selling printed book of the 15th century by a living author.[98] Latin
Fasciculus temporum
c. 1484 General knowledge Alfonso de la Torre composes his Visio delectable, an encyclopedic summary of medieval knowledge and figure of the cultural history of the West until the 15th century.[99] Spanish thumb|center|150px|Visio delectable]]
1491 Natural history Jacob Meydenbach in Mainz publishes his Hortus Sanitatis, the first natural history encyclopaedia.[100] It is a book about species in the natural world, including information about their medicinal uses and methods of preparation. It follows earlier works such as the Latin Herbarius Moguntinus (1484) and the German Gart der Gesundheit (1485) published in Mainz. However, it goes beyond just covering herbs and includes information about animals, birds, fish, and stones.[101] The author also includes information about mythical creatures like dragons, harpies, hydras, and phoenixes.[102] Latin
Hortus Sanitatis
1493 World history The Nuremberg Chronicle is produced. Written as an encyclopedic chronicle, it contains hundreds of illustrations, of historical figures, events and geographical places.[103] Written as an encyclopedic chronicle, it remains of the best documented early printed books, an incunabulum, and one of the first to successfuly integrate illustrations and text. Illustrations depict many never before illustrated major cities in Europe and the Near East.[104] Latin thumb|center|120px
1501 De expetendis et fugiendis rebus by Giorgio Valla is posthumously printed by Aldus Manutius in Venice.[105] It is an encyclopædia compiled in 49 books. Valla, a humanist, combines the trivium with poetry, ethics and history in his encyclopaedia.[106]:94 Latin
1503 General knowledge German scholar Gregor Reisch publishes his compilation Margarita Philosophica, one of the earliest printed encyclopedias of general knowledge.[107] Covering the seven liberal arts[104], it would be widely used as a general textbook both for private study and in universities throughout western Europe.[108] Latin
Margarita Philosophica
1503 General knowledge Domenico Nani Mirabelli issues his Polyanthea: opus suavissimis floribus exornatum. With roughly 680 pages, it is one of the first general reference works produced for the printed book market. It is also one of the most popular reference works printed in the sixteenth century.[109] Latin[110] It is arranged in one alphabetical sequence.[83] thumb|center|120px]]
1517 Bavarian Renaissance humanist historian and philologist Johannes Aventinus publishes his Encyclopedia Orbisque Doctrinarum,[111] which is the first work to include the name encyclopedia in the title.[104] Latin
1531 Sir Thomas Elyot in his Bok of the Governour coins the word “encyclopedia”, and defines it as: “that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall science and studies.”[1]
1531 Spanish (Valencian) scholar and Renaissance humanist Juan Louis Vives completes his De disciplinis libri XX (Twenty Books on Disciplines).[112] This encyclopedia is divided into three parts: De causis corruptarum artium, De tradendis disciplinis and De artibus. It also includes De prima philosophia seu de intimo opificio Naturae, De explanatione cuiusque essentiae, De censura veri, De instrumento probabilitatis, and De disputatione.[113] This work is composed primarily for the use of his pupil Guillaume de Croy, a man who would become a cardinal and archbishop of Toledo at the age of 19.[1] Latin
1538 General knowledge Flemish scholar Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh publishes in Basel his Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia, which becomes the first work to use a version of the word cyclopaedia in its title.[114] Latin
1545 Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist Conrad Gesner publishes the first printed bibliography, a botable scholarly achievement which took years of travel as well as study to compile. Gesner is interested in classifying books as well as classifying animals. This publication lists some 10,000 books by 3,000 authors.[106]:93
1545–1590 Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún composes La Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España. The best-preserved manuscript is commonly referred to as the Florentine Codex.[115] Spanish
Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex.
1548 Conrad Gesner publishes the Pandects, which concerns with subject classification or, as Gesner put it, ‘general and particular arrangements (ordines universales et particulates). The volume is divided into twenty-one sections. It begins with the trivium, followed by poetry, the quadrivium, astrology; divination and magic; geography; history; mechanical arts; natural philosophy; metaphysics; moral philosophy; ‘economic’ philosophy; politics; and finally the three higher faculties, law, medicine and theology.[106]:93
1551 Zoology Swiss physician Conrad Gessner publishes the first volume of his encyclopedic Historia animalium[11], which seeks to distinguish observed facts from myths and popular errors. A compendium of recorded knowledge concerning animal life, its first volume is concerned with viviparous quadrupeds. Later volumes are devoted to oviparous quadrupeds, birds, and fishes and other aquatic animals. The partially completed fifth volume, on serpents, would be published posthumously in 1587.[116]
1553 Dictionary French anatomist, natural historian, and scientific writer Charles Estienne composes his Dictionarium historicum, geographicum et poeticum.[117] Latin
1559 Croatian encyclopedist Pavao Skalić publishes in Basel his Encyclopaediæ, seu orbis disciplinarum, tam sacrarum quam prophanarum, epistemon,[114] which is often considered to be the first encyclopedia to use the term encyclopedia in its title.[118] Latin
1562–1585 Leishu The Tushu Bian (Register of illustrations and books) is compiled by Zhang Huang. A well-illustrated Ming leishu, it is full of charts and diagrams, including those visualising celestial phenomena and the calendar. It is divided into four main sections focusing on Confucian classics; cosmology, astronomy, and the calendar; a detailed geography of the Ming empire; and physical and moral qualities of men. The last two chapters concern ‘strange phenomena’ and directions for writing poetry.[2]:516 Chinese
1565 Swiss physician Theodor Zwinger publishes the Theatre of Human Life, an ambitious encyclopaedia of topics. It is based on the manuscripts – presumably commonplace books – bequeathed to him by another Swiss scholar, Conrad Lycosthenes but rearranged by Zwinger himself.[106]:95
1569 Background (World map) Flemish geographer, cosmographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator publishes his world map, which with its projection, is designed to help sailors navigate around the globe.[119] Latin
1593 Italian jesuit Antonio Possevino publishes his Bibliotheca selecta.[120] Italian
1596 Medicine, natural history, Chinese herbology The Bencao Gangmu (Guidelines and details of materia medica) is first printed. Written by the famous Ming period herbologist Li Shizhen, it would become China's most important traditional book on pharmaceuticals.[121] Chinese
1605 The catalogue of the Bodleian Library is published, dividing books into four main groups: arts, theology, law and medicine, with a general index of authors and special indexes of commentators on Aristotle and the Bible.[106]:93
1607 Leishu The Guang Bowu Zhi (Expansion of a treatise on curiosities) is compiled by Dong Sizhang.[2]:518 In contrast to more typical encyclopedias (leishu 類書), the Guang bowu zhi includes what we would call “natural history.” Topics include food and drink, botany, and fauna. It also includes art and literature, and cites Daoist works, Buddhist works, and the Standard Histories.[122] Chinese
1609 Leishu The Sancai Tuhui is published by Wang Qi and Wang Siyi, featuring illustrations of subjects in the three worlds of heaven, earth, and humanity. The work contains a large number of posthumous and contemporary depictions of Chinese Emperors.[123] Chinese
1614 Reference guide Spanish Jesuit Francisco Labata produces his Instrument of Preachers, which provides an alphabetical list of moral or theological commonplaces such as the virtues, the seven deadly sins and the four last things (death, judgement, hell and heaven).[106]:95 Spanish
1614 Roman Catholic prelate Antonio Zara, the Bishop of Pedena, completes his Anatomia Igeniorum et Scientiarum (“Anatomy of Talents and Sciences”), which becomes the first encycopedia to include an index.[1]:101 Latin
1620 German-born Transylvanian Saxon Calvinist minister and academic Johann Heinrich Alsted publishes his Encyclopaedia Cursus Philosophici.[124] It is often argued that this is the first work to bear the title "encyclopedia", though Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh's Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia was published in 1538, and Paul Scalich published Encyclopediae seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam profanarum epistemon in 1559. Latin thumb|center|100px]]
1620 General knowledge English philosopher Francis Bacon publishes his Instauratio magna, with the purpose “to commence a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge, raised upon the proper foundations”.[125] Latin
1621 Military encyclopedia The Wubei Zhi (Treatise on Armament Technology or Records of Armaments and Military Provisions) is compiled by Mao Yuanyi. It is a military encyclopedia consisting in five parts: Critique of military theory, investigations of military strategy, systems of battle arrays and training, methods of organization and supply, and records of prognostications and calculating.[126] Chinese thumb|center|100px|Block print from the Wubei Zhi
1627 Dictionary French lexicographer Daniel de Juigné-Broissinière publishes his Dictionnaire théologique, historique, poétique, cosmographique et chronologique. French thumb|center|100px
1630 Miscellanea Johann Heinrich Alsted publishes his Encyclopaedia septem tomi distincta.[127] It is divided in seven volumes: Praecognita disciplinarum (knowledge of disciplines), Philologia (Philology), Philosophia theoretica (Theoretical Philosophy), Philosophia practica (Practical Philosophy), Tres superiores facultates (The three higher faculties); Artes mechanicae (Mechanical arts), and Farragines disciplinarum (Miscellaneous disciplines). Alsted would be called 'one of the most important encyclopedists of all time'.[128][129] Latin thumb|center|100px
1631 General knowledge Belgian theologian and ecclesiastical writer and encyclopedist Laurentius Beyerlinck publishes his Magnum Theatrum Vitae Humanae.[130] Latin
1633 German writer Peter Lauremberg in Rostock publishes his Pansophia. Czech philosopher John Amos Comenius would critizise that it "contains nothing appertaining to divine wisdom or the mysteries of salvation" and is consequently "unworthy of so sublime a title".[131] Latin
1635 General knowledge The Enciclopaediae praemessum is published by Léon de Saint-Jean.[132] An extract in French would be published in 1655 under title Le portrait de la sagesse universelle, avec l'idée générale des sçiances et leur plan représenté en cent tables.[133] Latin
1637 Scientific treatises Chinese scientist and encyclopedist Song Yingxing composes the Tiangong Kaiwu (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature). It is a compendium on industry, agriculture and artisanry.[134] Chinese
1643 Background (library) The Mazarine Library in Paris is founded by Cardinal Mazarin.
1645 Maritime encyclopaedia Dell'Arcano del Mare by Sir Robert Dudley is first published in Italian at Florence[135] Italian
1646 English polymath Sir Thomas Browne uses the word "encyclopedia" in the preface to the reader to define his Pseudoxia Epidemica.[104]
1653 General knowledge Transylvanian Hungarian polyglot, pedagogist, philosopher and theologian János Apáczai Csere publishes his Magyar encyclopaedia, the first Hungarian encyclopedia.[1] Hungarian
1657 Background (library) The Royal Library of Denmark is founded.[1]:94
1658 Juvenile encyclopedia Orbis Pictus (Visible World in Pictures) is published. Written by Czech educator John Amos Comenius, some consider it to be the earliest known children’s book.[136] Latin, German
1661 Background (library) Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg sets up a library that would become, in turn, the Royal Library, the Prussian State Library, and the German State Library.[1]:93
1663 French playwright Jean Magnon publishes La science universelle.[137] French
1669 German Jesuit scholar and polymath Athanasius Kircher publishes his Ars magna sciendi.[138] Latin
1670 Michael Pexenfelder publishes his Apparatus eruditionis tam rerum quam verborum per omnes artes et scientias.[139] Latin
1674 General knowledge Catholic priest and theologian Louis Moréri first publishes in Lyon Le Grand Dictionnaire historique,[140] which emphasizes history, geography, and biographies, with the work arranged alphabetically under proper names. By this time printing is already proving itself the handiest way to arrange an encyclopedia, or at least the one by which it is easiest to make revisions to a printed page.[1] Arranged in alphabetical order, and known for its extensive coverage of geographical and biographical information, it would become very popular, with six editions being released by 1691, each containing updated information. English versions would also be released in 1694, 1701, and 1705 as a supplement.[125] French
1674 Croatian linguist, lexicographer and poet Ivan Belostenec completes in manuscript his Gazophylacium, seu Latino-illyiricorum onomatum aerarium (Gazophylacium, or the Illyrian-Latin Treasury of Words). It would be published in 1740. It is an unfinished bilingual dictionary, considered important for its large collection of words (over 40,000 words on 2,000 pages) and its unique trilingual approach (kajkavian-chakavian-shtokavian) that is characteristic of the Ozalj literary-linguistic circle. The unfinished work would be later completed and published by two Paulists, Jerolim Orlović and Andrija Mužar, in Zagreb in 1740.[141] Latin thumb|center|150px]]
1690 Abbé Furetière's Dictionnaire universel is posthumously published. A controversial work, its content excludes entries on science or the arts.[1] French
1694 Thomas Corneille publishes Le Dictionnaire des Arts et des Sciences (Dictionary of Arts and Sciences), 53 years after the decision was first made to produce this work.[1]:52 French
1694 Female education English bookseller and author John Dunton publishes The ladies dictionary.[142]
1695 Biographical dictionary French philosopher Pierre Bayle publishes his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (Historical and Critical Dictionary).[143] French
1695 Children encyclopedia German historian Johann Christoph Wagenseil publishes his Pera librorum iuvenilium (Collection of Juvenile Books).[144] Latin
1698 The Lexicon Universale is written by Johann Jacob Hofmann of Basel.[145] Appearing in four volumes with 1,000 pages each[146], It is an early modern humanist encyclopedia. Latin
Lexicon Universale.jpg
1701-1707 The Biblioteca Universale Sacro-Profana is published[147] by Vincenzo Coronelli, an Italian Franciscan friar, cosmographer, cartographer, publisher, and encyclopedist known in particular for his atlases and globes.[148] It is one of the first universal encyclopedias in a European vernacular language with entries arranged alphabetically. While planned to contain 45 volumes, only 7 volumes would appear, reaching the letter C.[149] Italian
1701 English theatre critic, non-juror bishop and theologian Jeremy Collier publishes The great historical, geographical, genealogical and poetical dictionary.[150]
1703 An Universal, Historical, Geographical, Chronological and Poetical Dictionary is published.[151] It is the first English language reference work to present general information in an alphabetical format.[152] English
1704 General knowledge (science emphasis) John Harris publishes his Lexicon Technicum, which is considered the first purely English encyclopedia. The work emphasizes the sciences, is alphabetically arranged, and includes entries by some of the leading scholars of the day.[1] English
1704 Dictionary The Dictionnaire de Trévoux is first published.[153] It is a valuable witness of life in the 18th century and covers linguistic aspects as well as scientific, technical, philosophical and religious subjects. It is then distributed throughout Europe. The work is partly coordinated by the Jesuits, but secular authors also collaborate.[154] French
1711 The National Library of Spain is founded.[1]:94
1712 Leishu Wakan Sansai Zue (Illustrated Sino-Japanese Encyclopedia) is published. It is a Japanese encyclopedia from the Edo period. It has 81 books, 105 volumes in total, and this one volume is only a part of it. It is compiled by Terashima or Terajima Ryōan, a doctor from Osaka. It provides detailed illustrations and descriptions of various aspects of daily life in Japan, including carpentry, fishing, plants, animals, and constellations. The title of the book, "Wakan Sansai Zue," is a combination of the Japanese word "Wa" and the Chinese word "Kan" which means Japan and China respectively, indicating that the encyclopedia is heavily influenced by Chinese encyclopedias, specifically the Ming dynasty work "Sancai Tuhui" by Wang Qi, known in Japan as the "Sansai Zue."[155] Japanese
1714 The National Central Library in Italy, based on the book collection of Antonio Magliabecci, is begun.[1]:93
1725–1726 Leishu Gujin Tushu Jicheng (Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times) is published. It is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It is headed and compiled mainly by scholar Chen Menglei and later Jiang Tingxi. It is considered the largest leishu ever printed, containing 10,000 volumes, 800,000 pages, and over 100 million Chinese characters. It covers a wide range of topics including natural phenomena, geography, history, literature and government. The work is printed in 1726 using copper movable type printing. It spans around 10 thousand rolls.[156] Chinese
1726 Jacob Christoph Iselin in Switzerland publishes his Neu Vermehrtes Historish-und Geographisches Allgemeines Lexicon (New Universal Enlarged Historical and Geographical Dictionary).[1]:53
1728 General knowledge English encyclopaedist Ephraim Chambers publishes his Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,[157] a two-volume encyclopaedia containing alphabetically arranged information on the arts and sciences, but not including names of people or places.[158] Chambers woud be given the honor of membership in the Royal Society in 1729 on the basis of the encyclopedia, and later the right to be buried with other noted authors in the cloisters at Westminster Abbey.[1] Seven editions would be published in London by 1751-52. After the death of Chambers, the materials for seven additional volumes would be reworked by John Lewis Scott and John Hill, and would be published in two folio volumes in 1753 as a Supplement.[158] Widely acclaimed for its scholarship, Samuel Johnson would cite it as the reference that “formed his style”.[1] English
1731 The Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon (Great Complete Encyclopedia of All Sciences and Arts) is first published by Johann Heinrich Zedler. With 68 volumes and 64,309 pages, it is the largest and most comprehensive German-language encyclopedia developed in the 18th century. Zedler includes biographies of living people, an unusual feature for the time.[1]:53
1741 General knowledge An Universal History of Arts and Sciences is released in English by the French expatriate Dennis (or Denis) de Coetlogon.[159] It would be published in 209 weekly installments from 1741 to 1745. In his preface, Coetlogon criticizes Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia and other extant dictionaries of the arts and sciences for conveying superficial information and not supporting true education. To remedy the problem, Coetlogon choses to base his encyclopedia on "treatises" rather than articles. In the end, the Universal History would comprise 169 treatises averaging around fifteen pages in length but varying widely from a mere fourteen lines ("Cosmography") to 113 pages ("Geography"). It is likely that the example of the Universal History would play a role in the adoption of treatises in the first edition (1771) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica a few decades later.[160] English
1745 General knowledge Polish priest Benedykt Chmielowski publishes his Nowe Ateny (New Athens)[161]. It is considered the first Polish-language encyclopedia.[162] Authored by the 18th-century Polish priest Benedykt Joachim Chmielowski, the first edition is published in 1745–1746 in Lwów (Lviv), and the second edition would be updated and expanded in 1754–1764. Polish
Illustration of a dragon from Nowe Ateny
1746–1851 Gianfrancisco Pivati publishes his Nuovo dizionario scientifico e curioso, sacroprofano (New Scientific and Curious, Sacred-Profane Dictionary)[163]. A 12- volume encyclopedia[1], it avoids the subject of history.[163] Italian
1747 Du Yu prints his Jiu Dong (“Investigation of the Known”) an encyclopedia comprising nine sections including economics, law, music, political geography, examinations and degrees, rites and ceremonies, government, the army, and national defense.[1]
1751 General knowledge The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts) is first published. It is a significant work of the Philosophes, a group of individuals dedicated to the advancement of science, secular thought and the new tolerance and open-mindedness of the Enlightenment. The Encyclopédie would have a significant impact on French society, culture and politics leading up to the French Revolution. Its contributors are called Encyclopédistes. The Encyclopédie is modeled after Ephraim Chambers’ Cyclopaedia. The project was taken over by André Le Breton, who brought in Jean d’Alembert and Denis Diderot to help with the project in 1745 and 1746 respectively. Diderot became the general editor of the Encyclopédie, except for the mathematical parts, which were edited by d’Alembert. The first edition of the Encyclopédie is published in 35 volumes, 17 volumes of text would be published between 1751 and 1765, 11 volumes of plates would be published between 1762 and 1772, and 7 additional volumes would be added between 1776 and 1780.[164] French
Encyclopedie de D'Alembert et Diderot - Premiere Page - ENC 1-NA5.jpg
1756 Reference work The Complete Farmer: Or, a General Dictionary of Husbandry is published.[165] It holds a summary of information on agriculture and in all its branches. It is written by members of the Royal Society of Arts under the pseudonym a Society of Gentlemen. It would be published in weekly numbers until 1768.[166] English
The complete Farmer, plate I.jpg
1759 The library of the British Museum, the country’s largest, is established.[1]:93
1761 Handcraft, manufacturing Descriptions des Arts et Métiers is first published by the Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences as a collection of books on crafts. The full series comprises 113 folio volumes along with three supplements, and provide detailed accounts of a wide range of handcraft and manufacturing processes carried out in France at that time. The last volume would appear in in 1788. French
Houghton TypR-75 - Description des arts et métiers, 1.jpg
1765 The Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences is released.[167] Edited by Temple Henry Croker, it is notable for being published in Coventry, making it the first English encyclopedia published outside London.[168] English
1768 The Encyclopædia Britannica is first released.[169] English
1770–1780 General knowledge Yverdon Encyclopedia is published by Fortunato Bartolomeo de Felice. With 58 quarto volumes and over 77,000 articles, it is considered an original scientific project, providing insight in the knowledge available in the second half of the 18th century. Fields of interest include literature and humanities, history, book history, history of art, philosophy, theology, and history of sciences.[170] The work can also be used for research in the field of the history of ideas.[171] French
Encylopédie d'Yverdon.jpg
1782 The Siku Quanshu is published. Chinese
1789 General knowledge Dobson's Encyclopædia is first published [172] by Thomas Dobson as the first encyclopedia issued in the newly independent United States of America. It is a reprint of the contemporary third edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (published 1788–1797), although Dobson's Encyclopædia is a somewhat longer work in which a few articles were edited for a patriotic American audience.[173] English
1793 The first Russian encyclopedia is published. Compiled by Vasily Tatishchev, a prominent Russian Imperial statesman, historian, philosopher, and ethnographer, only half of the work is completed.[1] Russian
1795 Chemistry English chemist w:William Nicholson (chemist)William Nicholson publishes his Chemical Dictionary. English
1796 The Encyclopædia Perthensis is published.[174] First issued in weekly instalments from 1796 to 1806, it would be republished in a 23 volume set in 1806. English
1796 The National Library of Portugal is founded.[1]:94
1796–1806 General knowledge The Encyclopædia Perthensis is published. English
1796–1808 The German-language Conversations-Lexikon is first published in Leipzig. German
1802 The Domestic Encyclopedia is published in London.[175] English
1802 The English Encyclopaedia is printed in London for George Kearsley.[176][177] English
1806–1807 A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences is published in London.[178] English
1809 British Encyclopedia, or Dictionary of Arts and Sciences[179] English
1817 General knowledge The Encyclopædia Metropolitana is released.[180] Published as part publication, it would present a number of distinguished authors, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It contains entries by astronomer Sir John Herschel; physicist Peter Barlow; mathematicians George Peacock, Augustus de Morgan, and Charles Babbage; and Archbishop Richard Whately. This publication would be considered a failure due to several factors, including lack of alphabetical arrangement, a feature established by Encyclopaedia Britannica and Rees's Cyclopædia.[1] English
1818 General knowledge The Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste begins production. Edited by Johann Samuel Ersch and Johann Gottfried Gruber, it is planned to be so comprehensive that it could never be completed. By 1889 this encyclopedia would include 167 volumes. The first part, covering information under the letters A to G, fills 99 volumes. With many large entries, the one on Britain would take up 414 pages; the one on Greece, 3,688.[1] German
1820 General knowledge The New Cyclopaedia designed by Abraham Rees is completed. An original and finely illustrated work, it would prove to be a strong competitor in England to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.[1] United Kingdom
1828 General knowledge Noah Webster’s informative American Dictionary of the English Language is published. While encyclopaedic in character, he avoids the long entries for the more important subjects that are such a feature of Larousse. Webster’s approach appeals to the American taste and captures a huge market that would only increase with the years.[125] English
1829 General knowledge Francis Lieber, a German in exile living in the United States, designs the Encyclopaedia Americana: a Popular Dictionary which would be published in 13 volumes by a Philadelphia printer between 1829 and 1833. Lieber bases the work on the seventh edition of the Brockhaus Enzyklopädie and names it the Americana in hopes of reaching the same market that is buying the British editions and pirated American editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica at the time.[1] English
1829–1833 Encyclopedia Americana[181] English
1835 General knowledge British science lecturer and writer Charles Frederick Partington publishes The British Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences, Literature, History, Geography, Law and Politics, Natural History and Biography[182] The tenth and last volume would appear in 1837.[183] English
1842 Science, literature, art The Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art is first published[184] by Longman's in the United Kingdom and by Harper Brothers in the United States as a single-volume reference work. At the time it is considered a highly successful compendium of general but scholarly information.[185] It becomes part of a trend toward cheaper, smaller reference works targeted at the middle and working classes. The first edition has 1352 pages. It would be reprinted in 1845, 1847, 1848 and 1851. A second, revised edition would published in 1852 in 1423 pages. It would be expanded to three volumes in 1866. The final edition would be published in 1875 in three volumes.[186] English
1853 Reference work The Herder Konversations-Lexikon is first published[1] by Verlag Herder German
1853 Juvenile encyclopedia Larousse issues Petite Encyclopédie du jeune âge (Small Children’s Encyclopaedia).[144] French
1854 The English Cyclopaedia is published by Charles Knight.[187] English
1856 Household, how-to The British Enquire within upon Everything is founded[188] as the earliest quick-sell, one-volume encyclopedia. Its publication would be suspended 96 years later in 1952.[1] English
1859 General knowledge Chambers's Encyclopaedia is founded by William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh.[189] English
1865 Dictionary, general knowledge French grammarian Pierre Larousse begins to publish Le Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe Siecle in Paris. An anticlerical book in tone, it combines the features of both a dictionary and an encyclopedia. This work would go into many editions, the latest being issued in the 1970s.[1] France
1875 General knowledge The Nuova Enciclopedia Italiana is published.[190] in Turin. It is a general knowledge, illustrated, Italian-language encyclopedia edited by economist Gerolamo Boccardo.[191][192] Italian
1878 General knowledge Johnson’s New Universal Cyclopaedia by Alvin J. Johnson is published in four volumes. It would be reissued almost 20 years later in eight volumes.[1] English
1879 Natural history Biologia Centrali-Americana is first issued by the editors Frederick DuCane Godman and Osbert Salvin, of the British Museum (Natural History) in London.[193][194] The series would reach 63 volumes on the flora, fauna, and anthropology of Central America. It is the first biological survey of the area from Mexico to Panama.[195] English
1880 Universal history American educator John Clark Ridpath publishes hisCyclopedia of Universal History[196] English
1883 General knowledge Cassell’s Concise Cyclopaedia is published in London.[197] English
1884 History, geography The Hardesty's Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia is released.[198] English
1886 General knowledge French politician Ferdinand-Camille Drefus first publishes La Grande Encyclopédie. Published until 1902, it comprises 31 volumes, containing articles by leading French scholars. In modern times it is still considered an important source for many subjects.[1] French
1889 Miscellany Barkham Burroughs' Encyclopaedia of Astounding Facts and Useful Information is first published as an encyclopedia and miscellany.[199] English
1894 Juvenile encyclopedia Frank E. Compton sells a U.S. school encyclopaedia, the Students Cyclopedia, from door to door to pay his way through college. This would later become the New Students Reference Work, which Compton would finally buy. While continuing to publish this, Compton would design a completely new and, for those times, revolutionary work, which would first appear in 1922 as Compton’s Pictured Encyclopedia.[144] English
1897 General knowledge The Pears’ Cyclopaedia is initiated by Thomas J. Barratt of the Pears’ Soap Company.[1]:197
1900 General knowledge The Nuttall Encyclopædia is first published as a comprehensive dictionary of general knowledge.[200] English
1900 General knowledge Universal Cyclopaedia is first published by D. Appleton & Company.[201] Edited by Charles Kendall Adams, it would be renamed to Universal Cyclopaedia and Atlas in 1902. English
1901 American Educator is first published as Hill's Practical Encyclopedia in four volumes.[202] English
1902 Collier's New Encyclopedia is first published.[203] Originally designed to include 20 volumes, it would be considered one of the top three major English language encyclopedias in the world.[204] English
1861 Yearbook Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events is released by the New York publisher D. Appleton & Company[205] as an American yearbook that would cover the years 1861–1902 . It is a comprehensive yearbook of events, obituaries and statistics, worldwide, with many articles written by experts, some of them signed.[1]:187 English
Annual-Cyclopedia-1884.jpg
1904 The New International Encyclopedia is issued in 17 volumes. It would be expanded to 20 volumes in 1916 and then to 24 volumes in 1922. It introduces a unique feature, letting maps be mounted on inserts so that subscribers could replace them whenever new maps were issued to take account of any geographical changes.[1]:132 English
1905 The Harmsworth Encyclopedia: Everybody’s Book of Reference is published in London. Edited by George Sandeman, it would meet a genuine popular need, rapidly selling a half-million copies.[1]:125 English
1905 General knowledge Enciclopedia Espasa is first printed in Barcelona. Considered a great national encyclopedia, it is remarkable for its detail, lengthy bibliographies, international scope, and clear maps of even remote and obscure places.[1]:126,127 Spanish
1906 General knowledge The New Standard Encyclopedia is published[206] in 12 volumes, by the University Society. Inc. English
1907 The Catholic Encyclopedia is launched by Robert Appleton Company in New York. Printed in fifteen volumes, it is an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic Church.[207][208] English
1908 Juvenile encyclopedia The Children's Encyclopædia is released.[209] Initially released in fortnightly parts between 1908 and 1910, with some readers choosing to bind their own collections, the first eight-volume sets would be published in 1910. Created by Arthur Mee and published by the Educational Book Company Ltd. in London, it would be published until 1964, and would be commonly found in homes throughout the British Empire.[210] English
1909 Castes and Tribes of Southern India is published[211] by British museologist Edgar Thurston and K. Rangachari as a seven-volume encyclopedia of social groups of Madras Presidency and the princely states of Travancore, Mysore, Coorg and Pudukkottai. English
1910 Aiton’s Encyclopedia is first published in Minneapolis, reaching 5 volumes.[1]:187 English
1911 General knowledge The Anglo-American Cyclopedia is first published in New York, reaching 50 volumes.[1]:187 English
1912 The Book of Knowledge is first published in New York, reaching 24 volumes.[1]:187[212] English
1917 The World Book Encyclopedia is published.[213] It is designed primarily for students in elementary school, junior high, and high school. Its approximately 17,500 entries are relatively short, written in a style directed at the grade level where they are most likely to be studied, and contain reliable and impartial information.[214] English
1917 Sinology The Encyclopaedia Sinica is published[215] by English missionary Samuel Couling. It is an English-language encyclopedia on China and China-related subjects, covering a range of topics and providing insight on early 20th century perspectives towards China. English
1917–1918 Children encyclopedia Children aimed The World Book Encyclopedia is published, with the title page describing it as “organized knowledge in story and picture.” A success from the start, it would issue enlarged editions in quick succession. In 1925 a volume would be devoted to reading courses and study units would added. Annual supplements would be provided from 1922 onward. In 1961 a Braille edition in 145 volumes would be issued, with most of the illustrations eliminated in this, while retaining many of the diagrams and graphs. In 1964 a separate 30-volume set in a special large type would be published for the use of the partially blind.[144] English
1920 John H. Finley publishes the Nelson’s Perpetual Loose-leaf Encyclopedia in 12 volumes. In theory, the new pages, issued twice a year, would keep this encyclopedia up-to-date and useful for many years to come, but the method eventually would be abandoned for not attracting enough sales.[1]:189 English
1921 Collins Concise Encyclopedia is published[216] as New Gresham Encyclopedia in 12 volumes, by the Gresham Publishing Company of London. English
1922 General knowledge Cassell's Book of Knowledge is first published as an alphabetical eight-volume encyclopedia under a range of titles including The Book of Knowledge and The New Book of Knowledge. The series would be printed in London by The Waverley Book Company, Ltd. in various years since launch. The essays would be written in a now dated style, but designed to appeal to both adults and children. The books would be edited by multiple editors including Harold FB Wheeler (circa 1935), John Alexander Hammerton (circa 1950), and Gordon Stowell (1955). The New Book of Knowledge, an updated set, would appear circa 1959.[217][218] English
1922 General knowledge F. E. Compton and Company of Chicago publishes Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, a home and school encyclopedia in 8 volumes. It is titled "Pictured" because no other encyclopedia at the time has as large or as diverse a collection of illustrations.[219] The encyclopedia woul be expanded to 10 volumes in 1924 and 15 in 1932. In 1940 the title would be expanded to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact Index to emphasize its "Fact-Index" feature which combines a general index with dictionary type entries and tables. The general editor from 1922 to 1961 would be Guy Stanton Ford. He would be succeeded by Charles Alfred Ford, and then Donald Lawson in 1964. In the early 1960s, F. E. Compton Co. would be purchased by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[220] In 1968 the title would be changed to simply Compton's Encyclopedia and expanded to 24 volumes. It would be expanded to 26 volumes in 1974.[221][222][1]:188 English thumb|center|150px|Map within 1922 edition]]
1925 Biographical dictionary The Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (Biographical Dictionary of the Italians) is released.[223] A biographical dictionary published by the Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, it would be completed in 2020. It includes about 40,000 biographies of distinguished Italians. Italian
1925 Australia The Australian Encyclopaedia is first published.[224] In addition to biographies of notable Australians the coverage includes the geology, flora, fauna as well as the history of the continent. English
1929 The Enciclopedia Italiana de Scienze, Lettere ed Arti (best known as Treccani) is first published.[225] Edited by the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, although intended to provide local content for an exclusively Italian audience, it reflects a broader international approach, and its bibliographies cite books and periodical articles in many languages. Parts of this encyclopedia also contain nationalistic bias produced in accord with the views of Benito Mussolini's fascist regime. In fact, the article on Fascism itself is written by Mussolini. Whereas this encyclopedia defends Fascist ideology, it remains impartial in much of the rest of the text.[1] Italian
1931 Miscellanea An Outline of Modern Knowledge is first published by Victor Gollancz.[226] Its twenty-four articles cover the subjects of science, philosophy, religion, sex, mathematics, astronomy, biology, anthropology, cosmogony, psychology, psycho-analysis, archaeology, economics, politics, finance, industry, internationalism, history, ethnology, geography, literary criticism, music, architecture, painting and sculpture.[227] English
1935 General knowledge The Encyclopédie Française begins publication as a set of 21 books arranged in systematic order. Its loose-leaf binding permits supplementary pages to be provided to owners of the encyclopedia whenever information on the earlier pages is updated. The new pages could be inserted in place of the old ones without affecting the design of each volume.[1] French
1935 The Columbia Encyclopedia is first issued by the Columbia University Press. A one-volume work, it is a scholarly attempt to bridge the gap between the large encyclopedias and the cheap one-volume annuals. By omitting definitions and using many crossreferences, its economy of space would pleased many purchasers. The work concentrates on providing “first aid and essential facts” rather than technical details. It would be reissued in 1950, 1963, and 1975.[1]
1948 General knowledge Hutchinson Encyclopedia is first published.[228] English
1948 Norwegian encyclopedia Norsk Allkunnebok is released.[229] It is published by house Fonna Forlag, with journalist Arnulv Sudmann as principal editor.[230] Norwegian
1948 The American Peoples Encyclopedia is published in New York in 20 volumes.[1] English
1949 General knowledge Collier's Encyclopedia is first published.[231]
1949 The Soviet Union’s Council of Ministers decrees that the Bolshaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia (Great Soviet Encyclopedia) “must show with exhaustive completeness the superiority of Socialist culture over the culture of the capitalist world.” This work includes or excludes famous Russians according to the state of their acceptance or condemnation by the government.[1] Russian
1954 The Enciclopedia dello Spettacolo (Encyclopedia of Performing Arts) is first published.[232] An Italian language specialty encyclopedia of performing arts, it is first edited by Silvio D'Amico. It would be last published between in 1965. Italian
1954 Basic Everyday Encyclopedia New York 1[1]
1955 The Enciclopedia Labor is published both in Spain and Argentina. Beginning to appear in nine volumes, it prioritizes Spanish and Latin American matters. It is, however, lavishly illustrated with both color and halftone photographs as well as drawings.[1] Spanish
1956 Australian Junior Encyclopaedia Sydney 3[1]
1957 The Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950 is released. Published by the Austrian Academy of Sciences, it is a dictionary of biographical entries for individuals who have contributed to the history of Austria.
1962 American Home Library Steubenville, OH 1[1]
1962 The American Oxford Encyclopedia is published in New York, with 14 volumes.[1]
1962 Příruční slovník naučný[233]
1963 General knowledge The Encyclopedia Bulgaria (Енциклопедия "България") is published by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, in seven volumes.[234] Bulgarian
1980 General knowledge The Academic American Encyclopedia is first published.[235] English
1982 Middle Ages The Dictionary of the Middle Ages is first published by the American Council of Learned Societies.[236][237] English
1983 Japan Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan is released.[238] It is a comprehensive English-language encyclopedia covering a broad range of topics on Japan. English
1985 Canadian history, Canadiana The Canadian Encyclopedia (L'Encyclopédie canadienne) is released.[239] It is the national encyclopedia of Canada, published online by the Toronto-based historical organization Historica Canada, with the support of Canadian Heritage. English, French
1987 Indian literature The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature is released.[240] It is a multi-volume English language encyclopedia of Indian literature published by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters.[241] English
1988 Islamic studies, Iranian studies The Encyclopaedia Islamica is released.[242] English
1989 Morocco Ma'lamat al-Maghrib (Encyclopedia of Morocco) is released.[243] It is an encyclopedia of Morocco produced by the Moroccan Association for Composition, Translation, and Publication (الجمعية المغربية للتأليف والترجمة والنشر) and published by Salé Press.[244][112][245][246][247] Arabic
1992 Ethics The Encyclopedia of Ethics is released.[248] English
1993 General knowledge Encarta is released by Microsoft.[249] English
1993 The concept of a free encyclopedia begins with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet, which outlines an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content and that would be freely accessible.
1994 Scotland Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland is first published.[250] English
1995 (January) General knowledge The Project Gutenberg starts to publish the ASCII text of the Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition (1911), but disagreement about the method would halt the work after the first volume.[251]:{{{1}}}
1996 Japan Le Japon: Dictionnaire et Civilisation is released, covering a broad range of topics on Japan.[252] It would be later translated in English as Japan Encyclopedia.[253] French
1996 General knowledge The Global Arabic Encyclopedia is released.[254] It is in part a translation of the American World Book Encyclopedia, edited and expanded to reflect an Arab–Muslim perspective. Arabic
1997 Human sexuality The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality is released.[255] English
1998 The Arab Encyclopedia is first published in Syria. It is an encyclopedia in 24 volumes in the Arabic language. Arabic
1998 Art, aesthetics The Encyclopedia of Aesthetics is released by Oxford University Press.[256] It is an encyclopedia covering philosophical, historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics worldwide. The second edition (2014) is now available online as part of Oxford Art Online.[257][258] English
1998 Philosophy Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy is released by Rutledge.[259] English
1999 The The Encyclopaedia of Korea is released.[260] It is the first comprehensive English language encyclopedia of Korea that covers multifarious fields of information on Korea. English
2001 History, American studies The Encyclopedia of American Studies is released.[261] English
2002 Music The Oesterreichisches Musiklexikon is released. It is a five-volume music encyclopedia founded by the Austrian Academy of Sciences' Commission for Music Research.
2003 The Encyclopaedia Aethiopica is released.[262] English
2003 The Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[263] English
2004 English Wikipedia becomes the world's largest encyclopedia at the 300,000 article stage.[264] English
2005 Forensic medicine, legal medicine Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine[265] English
2005 (June 19) Baike.com is launched. It is a for-profit social network in Chinese, including the world's largest Chinese encyclopedia. It is one of the two largest wikis in China, along with Baidu Baike, claiming to have more than 18 million articles as of 2020.
2005 (November) Indian history and culture Encyclopedia of India is released.[266] It is a four-volume encyclopedia on Indian history and culture under editor-in-chief Stanley Wolpert. English
2006 Earth Encyclopedia of Earth is released[267] as an electronic reference about the Earth, its natural environments, and their interaction with society. The Encyclopedia is described as a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other approved experts, who collaborate and review each other's work. The articles are written in non-technical language and are intended to be useful to students, educators, scholars, and professionals, as well as to the general public. The authors, editors, and even copy editors are attributed on the articles with links to biographical pages on those individuals.[268] English
2006 Baidu Baike is launched.[269] Also known as Baidu Wiki[270]), it is a semi-regulated Chinese-language collaborative online encyclopedia owned by the Chinese technology company Baidu.[271] Chinese
2007 (February 16) Marefa is launched.[272] It is a not-for-profit online encyclopedia project that uses the wiki system to provide a free Arabic encyclopedia similar to Wikipedia. Arabic
2008 (February 26) Life The Encyclopedia of Life is first published.[273] It is a free, online encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1.9 million living species known to science. It is compiled from existing trusted databases curated by experts and with the assistance of non-experts throughout the world.[274][275] It aims to build one "infinitely expandable" page for each species, including video, sound, images, graphics, as well as text.[276] English
2009 (January 2) Agropedia is released.[277] English, Hindi
2009 Holocaust studies The Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945 is released.[278] It is a seven-part encyclopedia series that explores the history of the concentration camps, ghettos, forced-labor camps, and other sites of detention, persecution, or state-sponsored murder run by Nazi Germany and other Axis powers in Europe and Africa. English
2010 Clothing, fashion The Berg Encyclopedia of World Dress and Fashion is released.[279] English
2010 Public health The King Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz Arabic Health Encyclopedia is released.[280] It is an Arabic public health encyclopedia. It is created by the King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS) in collaboration with the Saudi Association for Health Informatics (SAHI). Medical content is added by the World Health Organization (WHO), the Health On the Net Foundation (HON) and the National Guard Health Affairs (NGHA).[281] Arabic
2010 Motherhood Encyclopedia of Motherhood[282] It is a comprehensive, specialized encyclopedia of all issues relevant to motherhood, published by SAGE Publications in three volumes (700 entries). Its General Editor is Andrea O'Reilly.[283] English
2012 Conifers The Encyclopedia of Conifers is published.[284] This 1,500-page reference book, in two volumes, includes information on 8,000 cultivars of conifers, over 5,000 photographs, and all 615 known species of conifers, as well as their subspecies and varieties.[285] English
2012 Islamic Jurisprudence The Encyclopedia of Islamic Jurisprudence is released.[286] It is the biggest encyclopedia authored and published in Arabic language by the Kuwait Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs.[287] Also known as the Mausua Fiqhiya Kuwaitiya, it is a project that began in 1965 and was completed in 2005. Many Islamic scholars contributed to the project, which was organized in alphabetical order and published in 45 volumes with a total of 17,650 pages. It covers the Islamic Jurisprudence of all four major Islamic schools of thought. The Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs in Kuwait also made the work available as a CD and mobile app.[288][289] Arabic
Encyclopedia of Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh) Mausua Fiqhiya Kuwaitiya ফিকহ বিশ্বকোষ মাওসূ‘আতুল ফিক الموسوعة الفقهية الكوتيتية موسوعہ فقہیہ، کویت.jpg
2012 Hinduism The Encyclopedia of Hinduism is released.[290] It is a comprehensive, multi-volume, English language encyclopedia of Hinduism, comprising Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase, meaning "the eternal law", or the "eternal way", that is used to refer to Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[291] English
2013 Ethics The International Encyclopedia of Ethics is released.[292] It is an 11-volume encyclopedia of ethics edited by Hugh LaFollette. The encyclopedia is given Honorable Mention in competition for the Best Reference Work of 2013 by the Research User Services Association.[293] English
2017 Christianity The Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States is released.[294] It is a five-volume encyclopedia published by Rowman & Littlefield and edited by George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport.[295] The work is a comprehensive reference work about the history of Christianity in the United States.[296] English

Numerical and visual data

Google trends

The chart below shows Google trends data for Encyclopedia (topic) from January 2004 to September 2022, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[297]

Encyclopedia GT.png


The chart below shows Google trends data for Wikipedia (search term) from January 2004 to September 2022, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map. As of 2022, Wikipedia is the largest encyclopedia ever assembled.[298]

Wikipedia GT.png

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for both "encyclopedia" and "cyclopedia" terms, from 1700 to 2019.[299]

Encyclopedia NG.PNG


Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

Base literature:

  • A History of Information Storage and Retrieval by Foster Stockwell.[1]
  • Genealogy of Popular Science: From Ancient Ecphrasis to Virtual Reality by Jesús Muñoz Morcillo and Caroline Y. Robertson-von Trotha
  • Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance, by Jason König and Greg Woolf

The initial version of the timeline was written by Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

  • FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

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