Timeline of encyclopedias
This is a timeline of encyclopedias. To a minor extent, the emergence of libraries and maps is covered, as both closely parallel the development of encyclopedias.
Contents
Sample questions
The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:
Big picture
Time period | Development summary | More details |
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"Almost all the knowledge that humans acquired during their first 500,000 years of wanderings has been lost—more than 99 percent of human history. This tragedy happened because primitive people had no e›ective method of preserving such information."[1] | ||
15th century | In Germany, around 1440, goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press, which started the Printing Revolution. "The advent of print culture made possible a much wider public engagement with encyclopaedic writing, and a much richer process of experimentation with various possible models, while it vastly increased the volume of knowledge in circulation."[2]:19 | |
17th – 18th century | Modern encyclopaedias | The golden age of libraries in Europe is considered to be around this time, when most of the great collections of books are begun.[1]:93 The modern encyclopedia is developed from the dictionary. |
21st century | Digital and open-source versions appear. Wikipedia |
Full timeline
Year | Subject/type | Details | Language | |
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367 BC–246 BC | General knowledge | Macedonian Greek historian Ptolemy I Soter, and later his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus plan to collect all Greek writings. They would pour large quantities of gold into the project, and even resort to piracy in the interest of amassing knowledge. More than once each of the Ptolemys would confiscate the book cargoes of ships that anchor in Alexandria’s harbor. They would borrow the works of three great playwrights from Athens, copy them, and then would return the copies rather than the originals to the Greeks.[1] | Ancient Greek | |
339–338 BC | Greek philosopher Speusippus, a nephew of Plato, passes away. The earliest known encyclopaedia fragments that would be preserved are created by him, who recorded and disseminated Plato's ideas in various writings that covered topics such as natural history, mathematics, and philosophy.[3] | Greek | ||
3rd century BC | Chinese dictionary | Chinese dictionary Erya is produced.[4] Although it is traditionally attributed to the Duke of Zhou, Confucius, or his disciples, the book's author is unknown. The Erya and its glossary style found a whole type of glossary dictionaries compiled with similar principles.[5] | Chinese | |
c.183 BC | General knowledge | One of the earliest known attempts to condense existing knowledge into a readable form is the Praecepta ad filium, a collection of letters written by Roman consul Marcus Porcius Cato to his son. The purpose of these letters is to provide a concise overview of useful information for living and helping others. Whereas the Greek approach at this time is to record the spoken word, the Romans, on the other hand, aim to epitomize existing knowledge in readable form.[3] | Latin | |
116 BC-27 BC | Liberal arts | Roman polymath Marcus Terentius Varro lives. He would write his Subjects for Learning, consisting in 9 books covering liberal arts, that is, areas of learning in which a free man should be knowledgeable: grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music, medicine, and architecture. He would also compose his Antiquities, containing 25 books on "matters human" and 16 on "matters divine."[6] | Latin | |
37 BC | Background (library) | The first public library in Rome is constructed on the Palatine Hill by the literary patron Asinius Pollio.[1]:33 | ||
20 BC | Lexicon | Roman grammarian Marcus Verrius Flaccus (c. 55 BC – AD 20) compiles what would be known as De verborum significatione (Twenty Books on the Meaning of Words), a large lexicon considered the first of its kind and, moreover, a storehouse of antiquarian learning, in which Latin authors would quote extensively.[7] It would be compiled, edited, and annotated by Roman grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus (later 2nd century AD) in 20 books, arranged alphabetically.[7][8] Encyclopedic dictionaries of this type would be made famous in 1806 by the American Noah Webster.[1] First printed in Milan in 1471 [9] | Latin | |
AD 77 | Natural history | Roman author Pliny the Elder publishes the first 10 books of his Historia Naturalis (Natural History)[10], which is frequently addressed as the first ancient encyclopedia.[11] Of all the Greek and Roman encyclopedists, Pliny would be undoubtedly the most influential, an autodidact having gathered material for his encyclopedia from 473 authors, mostly Greeks. Historia Naturalis consists of 37 parchment scrolls and 2,493 articles. The work is still studied today.[1] | Latin | thumb|center|150px]] |
<47 AD | Medicine | Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus writes De Medicina, a medical treatise largely ignored by contemporaries. It would be discovered by Pope Nicholas V and would be published in 1478, becoming one of the first printed medical works after the introduction of the printing press.[12][13] | Latin | thumb|center|100px |
62 AD – 64 AD | Natural philosophy | Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger writes his Naturales quaestiones[14], a study on questions of physics and meteorology.[15] While not a systematic encyclopedia like the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, it represents one of the few Roman works dedicated to investigating the natural world.[16] | Latin | |
c. 200 AD | Dictionary | The Shiming is believed to date from around this time. It is a Chinese dictionary that employs phonological glosses.[17] | Chinese | |
220 AD | Leishu | Chinese encyclopedia Huanglan (“Emperor’s Mirror”) is completed by order of Cao Pi, the first emperor of the Wei. Like other Chinese encyclopedias, it is constructed for the needs of the civil service system and good government rather than recording absolute truths for the general reader.[1] Divided into fourty-odd parts, each of which divided into a dozen of subchapters, the book as a whole would be lost.[18] | Chinese | |
2nd century AD | Onomasticon | Greek scholar and rhetorician Julius Pollux creates his Onomasticon.[19] | Ancient Greek | File:Julius Pollux - Onomasticon - 1608 - Titul.PNG |
c.400 AD | Liberal arts | Roman polymath Martianus Capella writes his single encyclopedic work De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii (On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury)[20] It introduces the division in seven liberal arts.[21] Unlike other encyclopedic compendia, this work also has a literary-philosophical influence, because of its form, the prosimetrum, and its framework, an allegorized mythography and cosmology.[22] | Latin | |
4th century AD | Dictionary of Latin usage | Roman grammarian Nonius Marcellus creates De compendiosa doctrina,[23] a dictionary of Latin usage compiled from early literary texts, some of which are lost works from the Roman Republic. It is divided into 20 books and ordered according to words used by Latin authors.[24] | Latin | |
505–587 | General knowledge | Indian astrologer, astronomer, and polymath Varāhamihira lives. He would write his Bṛhatsaṃhitā. | Sanscrit | thumb|center|120px|Commentary manuscript |
c.543-555 or 562 | Christian encyclopedia | Roman statesman Cassiodorus publishes his Institutiones Divinarum et Saecularium Litterarum (An Introduction to Divine and Human Readings), the first Christian encyclopedia.[25] Written for his monks, the first part of the text delves into the topic of studying scripture and includes information about Christian fathers and historians. The second part of the text, which would be widely used during the Middle Ages, provides a brief overview of the seven liberal arts, which at the time are considered essential for understanding the Bible.[26] | Latin | |
600 | Chinese encyclopedia Pian Zhu (Stringed Pearls of Literature) is completed.[1] | Chinese | ||
600–625 | Etymology | Spanish scholar and cleric Isidore of Seville publishes his Etymologiae.[27] It is a significant medieval encyclopedia.[1] | Latin | |
624 | Leishu | Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer Ouyang Xun completes the leishu encyclopedia Yiwen Leiju (Anthology of Art and Literature).[28][29] Written in 100 chapters divided into 47 sections[1], it is a sourcebook for the composition of essays.[2]:509 | Chinese | |
630 | Leishu | Yu Shi-nan compiles his encyclopedia Bei Tang Shu Zhao (From a North Tang Writing Desk). With 160 chapters in 19 sections emphasizing public administration, [1]:25 it is the first of a number of important leishu assembled following practical needs of individuals preparing for the civil service examinations and officials in China. It deals mainly with government topics, and in particular matters related to the personnel and rituals of the dynastic courts preceding the Tang dynasty.[2]:59 An annotated edition, edited by Gong Guang-tao, would be published in 1880.[1]:25 | Chinese | |
636 | Christian encyclopedia | Visigothic scholar and cleric Isidore of Seville produces his Etymologiae, a Christian encyclopedia which would become the most influential encyclopedia of the early Middle Ages.[30] | Latin | |
668 | Buddhist encyclopaedia Fayuan Zhulin (Grove of pearls in the Dharma Garden) is compiled by Tao-shih.[31] It draws upon indigenous Chinese sources, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist, but confined to topics about Buddhism and its development in China.[2]:509 | Chinese | ||
713–742 | The Chuxue ji (Writings for elementary instruction) is compiled by Xu Jian.[32] This leishu is organized to provide beginning students with a general foundation of knowledge.[2]:509 | |||
765–775 | The Abrogans (also German Abrogans or Codex Abrogans) is written. It is an alphabetical Latin-German glossary in Bavarian dialect, whose name is taken from the first Latin word in its list.[33] | German | ||
718–786 (Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi lifetime) | Arab philologist Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi compiles the Kitab al-'Ayn, which is considered the first Arabic language dictionary and one of the earliest known dictionaries of any language.[34][35][36][37] | Arabic | ||
801 | Chinese historian Du You compiles the Tongdian (Encyclopaedic history of institutions) which concentrats on texts of political and administrative importance. An assembly of many disparate sources, it divides them into nine main subject headings: food and money, the examination system, official titles, rites, music, the army, punishments, provincial administration, and border defence.[2]:510 | Chinese | ||
828–889 | Islamic scholar Ibn Qutaybah composes his Adab al-katib (The book of knowledge).[38] | Arabic | ||
842–846 | General knowledge | Frankish Benedictine monk Rabanus Maurus compiles an encyclopedia called De Universo (“On the Universe”), consisting in an untidy mass of copied material, taken largely from Isadore’s Etymologies. As a work intended to convey all the most important knowledge then available, it becomes a failure. However, it begins with God and the angels, which would become a virtue and valuable for medieval scholars.[1] | Latin | |
c.877–883 | Photios I of Constantinople composes his Bibliotheca, a digest of Greek prose literature with more than 270 articles. A distinguished teacher and a prominent figure in the Byzantine Empire during the 9th century, he became known for his regular readings in classical and Christian literature, including medical and scientific works. He used the notes taken at these readings to compose the Bibliotheca.[39] | Greek | ||
938 | Dictionary | The Wamyō Ruijushō is composed. It is a Japanese dictionary of Chinese characters.[40] | Japanese | |
978 | Chinese statesman Li Fang compiles under imperial sponsorship leishu Taiping Guangji (Extensive gleanings of the Reign of the Great).[2]:510 | Chinese | ||
983 | The Taiping yulan (Imperial Reader or Readings of the Taiping Era) is compiled[41] by Li Fang and his collaborators.[1] A massive leishu encyclopedia, it is the first large encyclopaedia of ancient China.[41] It contains 1,000 books arranged in 55 sections, and has quotations and extracts from some 1,600 other works.[1] | Chinese | ||
987 | Li Fang compiles the Wenyuan Yinghua (Finest flowers of the preserve of letters). This leishu, along with Taiping Guangji and Taiping yulan, representd the cultural patronage that the second Song dynasty emperor, Taizong offered to his officials and subjects.[2]:510 | Chinese | ||
977 | Iranian poet and secretary Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi completes his Mafātīḥ al-ʿulūm (The Keys of the Sciences), an encyclopedia greatly influenced by Greek concepts and drawing on the works of such Greek authors as Philo, Nicomachus, and Euclid in an attempt to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islam. The encyclopedia is divided into two parts: Arab knowledge and Foreign knowledge. Some of its subject matter covers philosophy, grammar, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, music, mechanics, and alchemy. This work would be eventually translated into Latin, and would be widely read in the Roman world.[1] | |||
1013 | The Cefu Yuangui is completed, and is considered the last of the Four Great Books of Song. it is composed of 31 main sections, and 1,104 subsections. In essence a handbook for model government, it contains historical precedents by which the emperor and his officials would make decisions. It is composed of 31 main sections, and 1,104 subsections.[2]:511 It is the largest leishu (encyclopedia) compiled during the Chinese Song Dynasty. | Chinese | ||
1017–1078 | Humanities, science | Byzantine Greek monk Michael Psellos composes De omnifaria doctrina,[42] a short encyclopedia consisting in a set of brief outlines of various notions in philosophy, science, and theology.[43] | Ancient Greek | |
1025 | Medicine | Persian physician-philosopher Avicenna completes The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb; Persian: قانون در طب, Qanun-e dâr Tâb), a 14-volume medical encyclopedia covering such basic subjects as anatomy and hygiene. It also describes a vast range of diseases and injuries, and lists hundreds of different medicines.[44] The Canon of Medicine would remain a medical authority for centuries, setting the standards for medicine in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world and being used as a standard medical textbook through the 18th century in Europe.[45][46] It is an important text in Unani medicine, a form of traditional medicine practiced in India.[47] | Arabic | |
1027 | Muslim encyclopedias Al Shifa (The Book of Healing) is published by Avicenna.[48] A major work of medieval Muslim scholarship, it is a voluminous philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia treating logic, the natural sciences, psychology, the quadrivium (geometry, astronomy, mathematics, and music), and metaphysics.[49] | Arabic | ||
1086 | Leishu | Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman Shen Kuo writes his Meng Xi Bi Tan (Dream Pool Essays), an encyclopedia of natural science containing a history of China’s ancient science and technology. The first description of the magnetic compass is found in this book. It also covers extensively astronomy, mathematics, notices of fossils, the making of relief maps, descriptions of metallurgical processes, and biological observations. [1] | Chinese | |
1100 | The Suda is written by a Byzantine scholar around this time. It is one of the world’s first encyclopedias and lexicons.[50] | |||
1110 | Geography, astrology, astronomy | Christian theologian Honorius Augustodunensis composes his Imago mundi.[51][52] Considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the 12th century, it is an encyclopedic work that covers a wide range of topics, including cosmology, geography, astronomy, and natural history. The first section of the work, which covers geography, astrology, and astronomy, is well-organized, beginning with the creation of the world and working down to specific countries and cities.[3] | Latin | |
1120 | Lambert of St. Omer completes the Liber Floridus.[53] It is a collection of previously existing information that is not particularly original. However, it is notable for its focus on metaphysical topics and its inclusion of subjects such as magic and astrology, rather than practical matters.[3] | Latin | ||
1125–1135 | Natural philosophy | French scholastic philosopher William of Conches composes De philosophia mundi, which covers a variety of topics including astronomy, geography, meteorology, and medicine. It includes diagrams in his discussion of astronomy to illustrate the orbits of celestial bodies such as the sun, Mercury, and Venus, as well as eclipses. In meteorology, he notes that the air becomes colder and less dense at higher altitudes and relates this to the circulation of the oceans. His discussion of medicine primarily focuses on procreation and childbirth. The manuscript also includes two world maps.[54][55] | France | |
1127–1138 | General knowledge | King Someshvara III composes the Manasollasa,[56] an encyclopedic Sanskrit text covering a wide range of topics such as politics, ethics, economics, astronomy, and more. It is an important source of information on the society and culture of 11th and 12th century India, with a focus on the arts, particularly music and dance, and also includes chapters on food recipes and festivals, many of which are still present in modern Indian culture.[57] | Sanskrit | |
c.1140 | Saxon canon regular Hugues de Saint-Victor composes his Didascalicon, which proposes a new classification of sciences and a new method of lecture of the Bible.[58] | |||
c. 1150 | Greek lexical encyclopedia Etymologicum Magnum is compiled in Constantinople by an unknown lexicographer. It is the largest Byzantine lexicon and draws on many earlier grammatical, lexical, and rhetorical works.[59] | Greek | ||
1190 | English intellectual Alexander Neckam writes De naturis rerum (On the nature of things), which presents miscellaneous Greek and Islamic scientific facts that at the time are unknown in Western Europe.[60] | Latin | ||
1195 | Hohenburg Abbey nun Herrad of Landsberg completes the Hortus deliciarum (Garden of Delights) an encyclopedia which would be considered one of the finest examples of illuminated manuscripts ever produced. It is intended for use by the novices at the convent, with the sections on the history of the world relying heavily on biblical stories.[1] It is likely the first encyclopaedia to be created by a woman. The manuscript is illustrated with 636 miniatures.[3] | Latin | ||
c. 1200 | General knowledge | French theologian Radulfus Ardens composes his Speculum universale.[61] | ||
1210–1214 | English canon lawyer, statesman and cleric Gervase of Tilbury writes the Otia Imperialia.[62] It is an example of speculum literature. Also known as the "Book of Marvels", it primarily concerns the three fields of history, geography, and physics, but its credibility has been questioned by numerous scholars including philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who was alerted to the fact that it contains many mythical stories. Its manner of writing is perhaps because the work was written to provide entertainment to Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV. | Latin | ||
1231–1236 | French theologian and philosopher Guillaume d'Auvergne composes De universo creaturarum.[63] | Latin | ||
1235-1260 | Dominican friar Vincent of Beauvais composes his Speculum Maius.[64] It originally consists in three parts: the Speculum Naturale, Speculum Doctrinale and Speculum Historiale. However, all the printed editions include a fourth part, the Speculum Morale, added in the 14th century and mainly compiled from Thomas Aquinas, Stephen de Bourbon, and a few other contemporary writers. | Latin | ||
1240 | English Franciscan monk Bartholomeus Anglicus finishes the De proprietatibus rerum (On the Property of Things).[65] Anglicus draws heavily from the works of St. Isidore and Pliny. The encyclopaedia is made for the general public and it would become widely popular throughout Europe for the next three centuries.[3] Probably the most popular encyclopedia of its time, it would be translated from Latin into English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Italian. William Shakespeare would say to have been well acquainted with the English edition.[1] | Latin | ||
1246 | General knowledge | French priest and poet Gautier de Metz composes L'Image du monde, in Lorrain dialect, based on Honorius Augustodunensis.[66] | Lorraine language | |
1256 | Natural philosophy | Flemish Catholic medieval writer Thomas of Cantimpré composes his Liber de natura rerum, which summarizes diverse fields of knowledge, such as theology, astronomy, mathematics, zoology, botany, and biology.[67] | Latin | |
1259–1266 | Biography, hagiography | The Legenda aurea or Legenda sanctorum (Golden Legend) is compiled around this time as a collection of hagiographies by Jacobus de Voragine. It would be widely read in late medieval Europe. | Latin | |
1263–1266 | General knowledge | Italian poet Brunetto Latini compiles an encyclopedia titled Li Livres dou Trésor (The Treasure Books). It is based in part on Vincent’s Speculum Maius, but represents a major breakaway from Latin as the only language fit for holding knowledge. Written in French, the encyclopedia would be widely used among intellectuals in both France and Italy. Available in almost all the dialects then used in France, it would be translated into Italian only two centuries later.[1] | French | |
1295–1296 | General knowledge | Catalonian philosopher Ramon Llull in Barcelona writes his Arbre de la ciència, Arbor Scientiae (Tree of Science).[68] It is a version of his philosophical system known as the Art, written in the form of an encyclopedia, and designed for a non-university audience. It differs from other medieval compendia by using general principles to describe the multiplicity of the real, rather than using systematic catalogues of data. The work is divided into sixteen trees, with the first fourteen providing a view of reality as a whole, starting with inert beings and ending with God. The final two trees, the Exemplary Tree and the Tree of Questions, have a didactic function and provide narratives, proverbs, and analogies related to the contents of the initial Trees. Each of the sixteen Trees has an internal structure with seven parts: roots, trunk, boughs, branches, leaves, flowers and fruit. The symbolic structure of this homology is based on a scholastic precept from the Aristotelian tradition.[69] | Catalan | thumb|center|150px]] |
1313 | Agronomy | Chinese agronomist Wang Zhen publishes his Nong Shu (Book of Agriculture),[70] a detailed encyclopedia of agriculture that also covers other subjects. A pioneer of wooden movable type printing, Zhen writes this text to aid destitute rural farmers in China looking for ways to improve their livelihoods. It is considered a descriptive masterpiece on contemporary medieval Chinese technology. The book is long, with over 110,000 written Chinese characters and is intended to be read by local officials rather than rural farmers. It is a significant work in medieval Chinese agriculture and technology.[71] | Chinese | |
1314–1333 | General knowledge | Egyptian Muslim historian Al-Nuwayri compiles The Ultimate Ambition in the Arts of Erudition.[72] This encyclopedia is divided in five sections (books): Geography and astronomy; man, and what relates to him; animals; plants; and history.[73] | ||
1317 | General knowledge (Tongdian) | The Wenxian Tongkao (General Study of the Literary Remains) is compiled by Ma Duanlin. It is a huge encyclopaedia of general knowledge.[74] | Chinese | |
c.1360–1375 | General knowledge | James le Palmer in London composes his Omne Bonum.[75][76] It is the first encyclopedia arranged in alphabetical order.[77] | United Kingdom (England) | |
1344 | World history | English chronicler Ranulf Higden compiles his Polychronicon,[78] a six-book series about world history written in Latin, which would remain well-known until the fifteenth century.[79] | Latin | |
c. 1349 | Science | German Catholic scholar Conrad of Megenberg composes his compendium of science Buch der Natur[80] A Latin work, De naturis rerum, of the Dominican Thomas of Cantimpré (d. 1263), serves as model.[81] | German | |
1353–1356 | Jewish philosopher Moses Nagari composes his Love in Delights (Ahavah ba-Ta'anugim). | |||
c. 1374–1418 | Domenico Bandini of Arezzo composes his Fons memorabilium universi.[82] Though classified, it uses separate alphabetical orders for more than a quarter of its sections.[83] | Latin | ||
1377 | Universal history | Muslim Arab sociologist, philosopher, and historian Ibn Khaldun publishes his Muqaddimah, which includes discussions on political establishments and a classification of the sciences.[84][1] | ||
1333 | Arabic literature, islamic thought | Egyptian Muslim historian Al-Nuwayri completes his work The Ultimate Ambition in the Arts of Erudition (نهاية الأرب في فنون الأدب, Nihāyat al-arab fī funūn al-adab)[85][86], a nine-thousand-page, thirty-three-volume encyclopedia. It is one of the most important medieval collections of Arabic literature and Islamic thought.[87] | Arabic | |
1379–1392 | Catalan encyclopaedia Lo Crestià (The Christian) is written by Franciscan writer Francesc Eiximenis.[88] | Catalan | ||
1396 | Female education | The Llibre de les dones (Book of Women) is written by Francesc Eiximenis.[89] | Catalan | |
1407 | General knowledge | The Yongle Encyclopedia is completed. Written by some 2,000 scholars working under five chief directors and 20 subdirectors, it is the most extensive encyclopedia ever.[1] It is a largely-lost Chinese leishu encyclopedia commissioned by the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1403, comprising 22,937 manuscript rolls or chapters, in 11,095 volumes.[90] Fewer than 400 volumes survive today,[91] comprising about 800 chapters (rolls), or 3.5 percent of the original work.[92] | ||
1412 | History, science | Egyptian polymath Al-Qalqashandi completes his Ṣubḥ al-aʿshā (The Dawn of the Blind or Daybreak for the Night-Blind regarding the Composition of Chancery Documents) is completed.[93] A fourteen-volume encyclopedia, it is an administrative manual on geography, political history, natural history, zoology, mineralogy, cosmography, and time measurement. Based on the Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣar of Shihab al-Umari,[94] it would be called "one of the final expressions of the genre of Arabic administrative literature".[95] | Arabic | |
1450 | Background (World map) | The Fra Mauro map is made around this time by Venetian cartographer Fra Mauro.[96] | Italian | |
1474 | Universal history | Carthusian monk and historian Werner Rolevinck publishes his Fasciculus temporum, the first printed universal chronicle.[97] It would become one of the greatest best-sellers in print of the 15th century, and most probably the best-selling printed book of the 15th century by a living author.[98] | Latin | |
c. 1484 | General knowledge | Alfonso de la Torre composes his Visio delectable, an encyclopedic summary of medieval knowledge and figure of the cultural history of the West until the 15th century.[99] | Spanish | thumb|center|150px|Visio delectable]] |
1491 | Natural history | Jacob Meydenbach in Mainz publishes his Hortus Sanitatis, the first natural history encyclopaedia.[100] It is a book about species in the natural world, including information about their medicinal uses and methods of preparation. It follows earlier works such as the Latin Herbarius Moguntinus (1484) and the German Gart der Gesundheit (1485) published in Mainz. However, it goes beyond just covering herbs and includes information about animals, birds, fish, and stones.[101] The author also includes information about mythical creatures like dragons, harpies, hydras, and phoenixes.[102] | Latin | |
1493 | World history | The Nuremberg Chronicle is produced. Written as an encyclopedic chronicle, it contains hundreds of illustrations, of historical figures, events and geographical places.[103] Written as an encyclopedic chronicle, it remains of the best documented early printed books, an incunabulum, and one of the first to successfuly integrate illustrations and text. Illustrations depict many never before illustrated major cities in Europe and the Near East.[104] | Latin | thumb|center|120px |
1501 | De expetendis et fugiendis rebus by Giorgio Valla is posthumously printed by Aldus Manutius in Venice.[105] It is an encyclopædia compiled in 49 books. Valla, a humanist, combines the trivium with poetry, ethics and history in his encyclopaedia.[106]:94 | Latin | ||
1503 | General knowledge | German scholar Gregor Reisch publishes his compilation Margarita Philosophica, one of the earliest printed encyclopedias of general knowledge.[107] Covering the seven liberal arts[104], it would be widely used as a general textbook both for private study and in universities throughout western Europe.[108] | Latin | |
1503 | General knowledge | Domenico Nani Mirabelli issues his Polyanthea: opus suavissimis floribus exornatum. With roughly 680 pages, it is one of the first general reference works produced for the printed book market. It is also one of the most popular reference works printed in the sixteenth century.[109] | Latin[110] It is arranged in one alphabetical sequence.[83] | thumb|center|120px]] |
1517 | Bavarian Renaissance humanist historian and philologist Johannes Aventinus publishes his Encyclopedia Orbisque Doctrinarum,[111] which is the first work to include the name encyclopedia in the title.[104] | Latin | ||
1531 | Sir Thomas Elyot in his Bok of the Governour coins the word “encyclopedia”, and defines it as: “that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall science and studies.”[1] | |||
1531 | Spanish (Valencian) scholar and Renaissance humanist Juan Louis Vives completes his De disciplinis libri XX (Twenty Books on Disciplines).[112] This encyclopedia is divided into three parts: De causis corruptarum artium, De tradendis disciplinis and De artibus. It also includes De prima philosophia seu de intimo opificio Naturae, De explanatione cuiusque essentiae, De censura veri, De instrumento probabilitatis, and De disputatione.[113] This work is composed primarily for the use of his pupil Guillaume de Croy, a man who would become a cardinal and archbishop of Toledo at the age of 19.[1] | Latin | ||
1538 | General knowledge | Flemish scholar Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh publishes in Basel his Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia, which becomes the first work to use a version of the word cyclopaedia in its title.[114] | Latin | |
1545 | Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist Conrad Gesner publishes the first printed bibliography, a botable scholarly achievement which took years of travel as well as study to compile. Gesner is interested in classifying books as well as classifying animals. This publication lists some 10,000 books by 3,000 authors.[106]:93 | |||
1545–1590 | Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún composes La Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España. The best-preserved manuscript is commonly referred to as the Florentine Codex.[115] | Spanish | ||
1548 | Conrad Gesner publishes the Pandects, which concerns with subject classification or, as Gesner put it, ‘general and particular arrangements (ordines universales et particulates). The volume is divided into twenty-one sections. It begins with the trivium, followed by poetry, the quadrivium, astrology; divination and magic; geography; history; mechanical arts; natural philosophy; metaphysics; moral philosophy; ‘economic’ philosophy; politics; and finally the three higher faculties, law, medicine and theology.[106]:93 | |||
1551 | Zoology | Swiss physician Conrad Gessner publishes the first volume of his encyclopedic Historia animalium[11], which seeks to distinguish observed facts from myths and popular errors. A compendium of recorded knowledge concerning animal life, its first volume is concerned with viviparous quadrupeds. Later volumes are devoted to oviparous quadrupeds, birds, and fishes and other aquatic animals. The partially completed fifth volume, on serpents, would be published posthumously in 1587.[116] | ||
1553 | Dictionary | French anatomist, natural historian, and scientific writer Charles Estienne composes his Dictionarium historicum, geographicum et poeticum.[117] | Latin | |
1559 | Croatian encyclopedist Pavao Skalić publishes in Basel his Encyclopaediæ, seu orbis disciplinarum, tam sacrarum quam prophanarum, epistemon,[114] which is often considered to be the first encyclopedia to use the term encyclopedia in its title.[118] | Latin | ||
1562–1585 | Leishu | The Tushu Bian (Register of illustrations and books) is compiled by Zhang Huang. A well-illustrated Ming leishu, it is full of charts and diagrams, including those visualising celestial phenomena and the calendar. It is divided into four main sections focusing on Confucian classics; cosmology, astronomy, and the calendar; a detailed geography of the Ming empire; and physical and moral qualities of men. The last two chapters concern ‘strange phenomena’ and directions for writing poetry.[2]:516 | Chinese | |
1565 | Swiss physician Theodor Zwinger publishes the Theatre of Human Life, an ambitious encyclopaedia of topics. It is based on the manuscripts – presumably commonplace books – bequeathed to him by another Swiss scholar, Conrad Lycosthenes but rearranged by Zwinger himself.[106]:95 | |||
1569 | Background (World map) | Flemish geographer, cosmographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator publishes his world map, which with its projection, is designed to help sailors navigate around the globe.[119] | Latin | |
1593 | Italian jesuit Antonio Possevino publishes his Bibliotheca selecta.[120] | Italian | ||
1596 | Medicine, natural history, Chinese herbology | The Bencao Gangmu (Guidelines and details of materia medica) is first printed. Written by the famous Ming period herbologist Li Shizhen, it would become China's most important traditional book on pharmaceuticals.[121] | Chinese | |
1605 | The catalogue of the Bodleian Library is published, dividing books into four main groups: arts, theology, law and medicine, with a general index of authors and special indexes of commentators on Aristotle and the Bible.[106]:93 | |||
1607 | Leishu | The Guang Bowu Zhi (Expansion of a treatise on curiosities) is compiled by Dong Sizhang.[2]:518 In contrast to more typical encyclopedias (leishu 類書), the Guang bowu zhi includes what we would call “natural history.” Topics include food and drink, botany, and fauna. It also includes art and literature, and cites Daoist works, Buddhist works, and the Standard Histories.[122] | Chinese | |
1609 | Leishu | The Sancai Tuhui is published by Wang Qi and Wang Siyi, featuring illustrations of subjects in the three worlds of heaven, earth, and humanity. The work contains a large number of posthumous and contemporary depictions of Chinese Emperors.[123] | Chinese | |
1614 | Reference guide | Spanish Jesuit Francisco Labata produces his Instrument of Preachers, which provides an alphabetical list of moral or theological commonplaces such as the virtues, the seven deadly sins and the four last things (death, judgement, hell and heaven).[106]:95 | Spanish | |
1614 | Roman Catholic prelate Antonio Zara, the Bishop of Pedena, completes his Anatomia Igeniorum et Scientiarum (“Anatomy of Talents and Sciences”), which becomes the first encycopedia to include an index.[1]:101 | Latin | ||
1620 | German-born Transylvanian Saxon Calvinist minister and academic Johann Heinrich Alsted publishes his Encyclopaedia Cursus Philosophici.[124] It is often argued that this is the first work to bear the title "encyclopedia", though Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh's Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia was published in 1538, and Paul Scalich published Encyclopediae seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam profanarum epistemon in 1559. | Latin | thumb|center|100px]] | |
1620 | General knowledge | English philosopher Francis Bacon publishes his Instauratio magna, with the purpose “to commence a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge, raised upon the proper foundations”.[125] | Latin | |
1621 | Military encyclopedia | The Wubei Zhi (Treatise on Armament Technology or Records of Armaments and Military Provisions) is compiled by Mao Yuanyi. It is a military encyclopedia consisting in five parts: Critique of military theory, investigations of military strategy, systems of battle arrays and training, methods of organization and supply, and records of prognostications and calculating.[126] | Chinese | thumb|center|100px|Block print from the Wubei Zhi |
1627 | Dictionary | French lexicographer Daniel de Juigné-Broissinière publishes his Dictionnaire théologique, historique, poétique, cosmographique et chronologique. | French | thumb|center|100px |
1630 | Miscellanea | Johann Heinrich Alsted publishes his Encyclopaedia septem tomi distincta.[127] It is divided in seven volumes: Praecognita disciplinarum (knowledge of disciplines), Philologia (Philology), Philosophia theoretica (Theoretical Philosophy), Philosophia practica (Practical Philosophy), Tres superiores facultates (The three higher faculties); Artes mechanicae (Mechanical arts), and Farragines disciplinarum (Miscellaneous disciplines). Alsted would be called 'one of the most important encyclopedists of all time'.[128][129] | Latin | thumb|center|100px |
1631 | General knowledge | Belgian theologian and ecclesiastical writer and encyclopedist Laurentius Beyerlinck publishes his Magnum Theatrum Vitae Humanae.[130] | Latin | |
1633 | German writer Peter Lauremberg in Rostock publishes his Pansophia. Czech philosopher John Amos Comenius would critizise that it "contains nothing appertaining to divine wisdom or the mysteries of salvation" and is consequently "unworthy of so sublime a title".[131] | Latin | ||
1635 | General knowledge | The Enciclopaediae praemessum is published by Léon de Saint-Jean.[132] An extract in French would be published in 1655 under title Le portrait de la sagesse universelle, avec l'idée générale des sçiances et leur plan représenté en cent tables.[133] | Latin | |
1637 | Scientific treatises | Chinese scientist and encyclopedist Song Yingxing composes the Tiangong Kaiwu (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature). It is a compendium on industry, agriculture and artisanry.[134] | Chinese | |
1643 | Background (library) | The Mazarine Library in Paris is founded by Cardinal Mazarin. | ||
1645 | Maritime encyclopaedia | Dell'Arcano del Mare by Sir Robert Dudley is first published in Italian at Florence[135] | Italian | |
1646 | English polymath Sir Thomas Browne uses the word "encyclopedia" in the preface to the reader to define his Pseudoxia Epidemica.[104] | |||
1653 | General knowledge | Transylvanian Hungarian polyglot, pedagogist, philosopher and theologian János Apáczai Csere publishes his Magyar encyclopaedia, the first Hungarian encyclopedia.[1] | Hungarian | |
1657 | Background (library) | The Royal Library of Denmark is founded.[1]:94 | ||
1658 | Juvenile encyclopedia | Orbis Pictus (Visible World in Pictures) is published. Written by Czech educator John Amos Comenius, some consider it to be the earliest known children’s book.[136] | Latin, German | |
1661 | Background (library) | Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg sets up a library that would become, in turn, the Royal Library, the Prussian State Library, and the German State Library.[1]:93 | ||
1663 | French playwright Jean Magnon publishes La science universelle.[137] | French | ||
1669 | German Jesuit scholar and polymath Athanasius Kircher publishes his Ars magna sciendi.[138] | Latin | ||
1670 | Michael Pexenfelder publishes his Apparatus eruditionis tam rerum quam verborum per omnes artes et scientias.[139] | Latin | ||
1674 | General knowledge | Catholic priest and theologian Louis Moréri first publishes in Lyon Le Grand Dictionnaire historique,[140] which emphasizes history, geography, and biographies, with the work arranged alphabetically under proper names. By this time printing is already proving itself the handiest way to arrange an encyclopedia, or at least the one by which it is easiest to make revisions to a printed page.[1] Arranged in alphabetical order, and known for its extensive coverage of geographical and biographical information, it would become very popular, with six editions being released by 1691, each containing updated information. English versions would also be released in 1694, 1701, and 1705 as a supplement.[125] | French | |
1674 | Croatian linguist, lexicographer and poet Ivan Belostenec completes in manuscript his Gazophylacium, seu Latino-illyiricorum onomatum aerarium (Gazophylacium, or the Illyrian-Latin Treasury of Words). It would be published in 1740. It is an unfinished bilingual dictionary, considered important for its large collection of words (over 40,000 words on 2,000 pages) and its unique trilingual approach (kajkavian-chakavian-shtokavian) that is characteristic of the Ozalj literary-linguistic circle. The unfinished work would be later completed and published by two Paulists, Jerolim Orlović and Andrija Mužar, in Zagreb in 1740.[141] | Latin | thumb|center|150px]] | |
1690 | Abbé Furetière's Dictionnaire universel is posthumously published. A controversial work, its content excludes entries on science or the arts.[1] | French | ||
1694 | Thomas Corneille publishes Le Dictionnaire des Arts et des Sciences (Dictionary of Arts and Sciences), 53 years after the decision was first made to produce this work.[1]:52 | French | ||
1694 | Female education | English bookseller and author John Dunton publishes The ladies dictionary.[142] | ||
1695 | Biographical dictionary | French philosopher Pierre Bayle publishes his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (Historical and Critical Dictionary).[143] | French | |
1695 | Children encyclopedia | German historian Johann Christoph Wagenseil publishes his Pera librorum iuvenilium (Collection of Juvenile Books).[144] | Latin | |
1698 | The Lexicon Universale is written by Johann Jacob Hofmann of Basel.[145] Appearing in four volumes with 1,000 pages each[146], It is an early modern humanist encyclopedia. | Latin | ||
1701-1707 | The Biblioteca Universale Sacro-Profana is published[147] by Vincenzo Coronelli, an Italian Franciscan friar, cosmographer, cartographer, publisher, and encyclopedist known in particular for his atlases and globes.[148] It is one of the first universal encyclopedias in a European vernacular language with entries arranged alphabetically. While planned to contain 45 volumes, only 7 volumes would appear, reaching the letter C.[149] | Italian | ||
1701 | English theatre critic, non-juror bishop and theologian Jeremy Collier publishes The great historical, geographical, genealogical and poetical dictionary.[150] | |||
1703 | An Universal, Historical, Geographical, Chronological and Poetical Dictionary is published.[151] It is the first English language reference work to present general information in an alphabetical format.[152] | English | ||
1704 | General knowledge (science emphasis) | John Harris publishes his Lexicon Technicum, which is considered the first purely English encyclopedia. The work emphasizes the sciences, is alphabetically arranged, and includes entries by some of the leading scholars of the day.[1] | English | |
1704 | Dictionary | The Dictionnaire de Trévoux is first published.[153] It is a valuable witness of life in the 18th century and covers linguistic aspects as well as scientific, technical, philosophical and religious subjects. It is then distributed throughout Europe. The work is partly coordinated by the Jesuits, but secular authors also collaborate.[154] | French | |
1711 | The National Library of Spain is founded.[1]:94 | |||
1712 | Leishu | Wakan Sansai Zue (Illustrated Sino-Japanese Encyclopedia) is published. It is a Japanese encyclopedia from the Edo period. It has 81 books, 105 volumes in total, and this one volume is only a part of it. It is compiled by Terashima or Terajima Ryōan, a doctor from Osaka. It provides detailed illustrations and descriptions of various aspects of daily life in Japan, including carpentry, fishing, plants, animals, and constellations. The title of the book, "Wakan Sansai Zue," is a combination of the Japanese word "Wa" and the Chinese word "Kan" which means Japan and China respectively, indicating that the encyclopedia is heavily influenced by Chinese encyclopedias, specifically the Ming dynasty work "Sancai Tuhui" by Wang Qi, known in Japan as the "Sansai Zue."[155] | Japanese | |
1714 | The National Central Library in Italy, based on the book collection of Antonio Magliabecci, is begun.[1]:93 | |||
1725–1726 | Leishu | Gujin Tushu Jicheng (Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times) is published. It is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It is headed and compiled mainly by scholar Chen Menglei and later Jiang Tingxi. It is considered the largest leishu ever printed, containing 10,000 volumes, 800,000 pages, and over 100 million Chinese characters. It covers a wide range of topics including natural phenomena, geography, history, literature and government. The work is printed in 1726 using copper movable type printing. It spans around 10 thousand rolls.[156] | Chinese | |
1726 | Jacob Christoph Iselin in Switzerland publishes his Neu Vermehrtes Historish-und Geographisches Allgemeines Lexicon (New Universal Enlarged Historical and Geographical Dictionary).[1]:53 | |||
1728 | General knowledge | English encyclopaedist Ephraim Chambers publishes his Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,[157] a two-volume encyclopaedia containing alphabetically arranged information on the arts and sciences, but not including names of people or places.[158] Chambers woud be given the honor of membership in the Royal Society in 1729 on the basis of the encyclopedia, and later the right to be buried with other noted authors in the cloisters at Westminster Abbey.[1] Seven editions would be published in London by 1751-52. After the death of Chambers, the materials for seven additional volumes would be reworked by John Lewis Scott and John Hill, and would be published in two folio volumes in 1753 as a Supplement.[158] Widely acclaimed for its scholarship, Samuel Johnson would cite it as the reference that “formed his style”.[1] | English | |
1731 | The Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon (Great Complete Encyclopedia of All Sciences and Arts) is first published by Johann Heinrich Zedler. With 68 volumes and 64,309 pages, it is the largest and most comprehensive German-language encyclopedia developed in the 18th century. Zedler includes biographies of living people, an unusual feature for the time.[1]:53 | |||
1741 | General knowledge | An Universal History of Arts and Sciences is released in English by the French expatriate Dennis (or Denis) de Coetlogon.[159] It would be published in 209 weekly installments from 1741 to 1745. In his preface, Coetlogon criticizes Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia and other extant dictionaries of the arts and sciences for conveying superficial information and not supporting true education. To remedy the problem, Coetlogon choses to base his encyclopedia on "treatises" rather than articles. In the end, the Universal History would comprise 169 treatises averaging around fifteen pages in length but varying widely from a mere fourteen lines ("Cosmography") to 113 pages ("Geography"). It is likely that the example of the Universal History would play a role in the adoption of treatises in the first edition (1771) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica a few decades later.[160] | English | |
1745 | General knowledge | Polish priest Benedykt Chmielowski publishes his Nowe Ateny (New Athens)[161]. It is considered the first Polish-language encyclopedia.[162] Authored by the 18th-century Polish priest Benedykt Joachim Chmielowski, the first edition is published in 1745–1746 in Lwów (Lviv), and the second edition would be updated and expanded in 1754–1764. | Polish | |
1746–1851 | Gianfrancisco Pivati publishes his Nuovo dizionario scientifico e curioso, sacroprofano (New Scientific and Curious, Sacred-Profane Dictionary)[163]. A 12- volume encyclopedia[1], it avoids the subject of history.[163] | Italian | ||
1747 | Du Yu prints his Jiu Dong (“Investigation of the Known”) an encyclopedia comprising nine sections including economics, law, music, political geography, examinations and degrees, rites and ceremonies, government, the army, and national defense.[1] | |||
1751 | General knowledge | The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts) is first published. It is a significant work of the Philosophes, a group of individuals dedicated to the advancement of science, secular thought and the new tolerance and open-mindedness of the Enlightenment. The Encyclopédie would have a significant impact on French society, culture and politics leading up to the French Revolution. Its contributors are called Encyclopédistes. The Encyclopédie is modeled after Ephraim Chambers’ Cyclopaedia. The project was taken over by André Le Breton, who brought in Jean d’Alembert and Denis Diderot to help with the project in 1745 and 1746 respectively. Diderot became the general editor of the Encyclopédie, except for the mathematical parts, which were edited by d’Alembert. The first edition of the Encyclopédie is published in 35 volumes, 17 volumes of text would be published between 1751 and 1765, 11 volumes of plates would be published between 1762 and 1772, and 7 additional volumes would be added between 1776 and 1780.[164] | French | |
1756 | Reference work | The Complete Farmer: Or, a General Dictionary of Husbandry is published.[165] It holds a summary of information on agriculture and in all its branches. It is written by members of the Royal Society of Arts under the pseudonym a Society of Gentlemen. It would be published in weekly numbers until 1768.[166] | English | |
1759 | The library of the British Museum, the country’s largest, is established.[1]:93 | |||
1761 | Handcraft, manufacturing | Descriptions des Arts et Métiers is first published by the Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences as a collection of books on crafts. The full series comprises 113 folio volumes along with three supplements, and provide detailed accounts of a wide range of handcraft and manufacturing processes carried out in France at that time. The last volume would appear in in 1788. | French | |
1765 | The Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences is released.[167] Edited by Temple Henry Croker, it is notable for being published in Coventry, making it the first English encyclopedia published outside London.[168] | English | ||
1768 | The Encyclopædia Britannica is first released.[169] | English | ||
1770–1780 | General knowledge | Yverdon Encyclopedia is published by Fortunato Bartolomeo de Felice. With 58 quarto volumes and over 77,000 articles, it is considered an original scientific project, providing insight in the knowledge available in the second half of the 18th century. Fields of interest include literature and humanities, history, book history, history of art, philosophy, theology, and history of sciences.[170] The work can also be used for research in the field of the history of ideas.[171] | French | |
1782 | The Siku Quanshu is published. | Chinese | ||
1789 | General knowledge | Dobson's Encyclopædia is first published [172] by Thomas Dobson as the first encyclopedia issued in the newly independent United States of America. It is a reprint of the contemporary third edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (published 1788–1797), although Dobson's Encyclopædia is a somewhat longer work in which a few articles were edited for a patriotic American audience.[173] | English | |
1793 | The first Russian encyclopedia is published. Compiled by Vasily Tatishchev, a prominent Russian Imperial statesman, historian, philosopher, and ethnographer, only half of the work is completed.[1] | Russian | ||
1795 | Chemistry | English chemist w:William Nicholson (chemist)William Nicholson publishes his Chemical Dictionary. | English | |
1796 | The Encyclopædia Perthensis is published.[174] First issued in weekly instalments from 1796 to 1806, it would be republished in a 23 volume set in 1806. | English | ||
1796 | The National Library of Portugal is founded.[1]:94 | |||
1796–1806 | General knowledge | The Encyclopædia Perthensis is published. | English | |
1796–1808 | The German-language Conversations-Lexikon is first published in Leipzig. | German | ||
1802 | The Domestic Encyclopedia is published in London.[175] | English | ||
1802 | The English Encyclopaedia is printed in London for George Kearsley.[176][177] | English | ||
1806–1807 | A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences is published in London.[178] | English | ||
1809 | British Encyclopedia, or Dictionary of Arts and Sciences[179] | English | ||
1817 | General knowledge | The Encyclopædia Metropolitana is released.[180] Published as part publication, it would present a number of distinguished authors, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It contains entries by astronomer Sir John Herschel; physicist Peter Barlow; mathematicians George Peacock, Augustus de Morgan, and Charles Babbage; and Archbishop Richard Whately. This publication would be considered a failure due to several factors, including lack of alphabetical arrangement, a feature established by Encyclopaedia Britannica and Rees's Cyclopædia.[1] | English | |
1818 | General knowledge | The Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste begins production. Edited by Johann Samuel Ersch and Johann Gottfried Gruber, it is planned to be so comprehensive that it could never be completed. By 1889 this encyclopedia would include 167 volumes. The first part, covering information under the letters A to G, fills 99 volumes. With many large entries, the one on Britain would take up 414 pages; the one on Greece, 3,688.[1] | German | |
1820 | General knowledge | The New Cyclopaedia designed by Abraham Rees is completed. An original and finely illustrated work, it would prove to be a strong competitor in England to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.[1] | United Kingdom | |
1828 | General knowledge | Noah Webster’s informative American Dictionary of the English Language is published. While encyclopaedic in character, he avoids the long entries for the more important subjects that are such a feature of Larousse. Webster’s approach appeals to the American taste and captures a huge market that would only increase with the years.[125] | English | |
1829 | General knowledge | Francis Lieber, a German in exile living in the United States, designs the Encyclopaedia Americana: a Popular Dictionary which would be published in 13 volumes by a Philadelphia printer between 1829 and 1833. Lieber bases the work on the seventh edition of the Brockhaus Enzyklopädie and names it the Americana in hopes of reaching the same market that is buying the British editions and pirated American editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica at the time.[1] | English | |
1829–1833 | Encyclopedia Americana[181] | English | ||
1835 | General knowledge | British science lecturer and writer Charles Frederick Partington publishes The British Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences, Literature, History, Geography, Law and Politics, Natural History and Biography[182] The tenth and last volume would appear in 1837.[183] | English | |
1842 | Science, literature, art | The Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art is first published[184] by Longman's in the United Kingdom and by Harper Brothers in the United States as a single-volume reference work. At the time it is considered a highly successful compendium of general but scholarly information.[185] It becomes part of a trend toward cheaper, smaller reference works targeted at the middle and working classes. The first edition has 1352 pages. It would be reprinted in 1845, 1847, 1848 and 1851. A second, revised edition would published in 1852 in 1423 pages. It would be expanded to three volumes in 1866. The final edition would be published in 1875 in three volumes.[186] | English | |
1853 | Reference work | The Herder Konversations-Lexikon is first published[1] by Verlag Herder | German | |
1853 | Juvenile encyclopedia | Larousse issues Petite Encyclopédie du jeune âge (Small Children’s Encyclopaedia).[144] | French | |
1854 | The English Cyclopaedia is published by Charles Knight.[187] | English | ||
1856 | Household, how-to | The British Enquire within upon Everything is founded[188] as the earliest quick-sell, one-volume encyclopedia. Its publication would be suspended 96 years later in 1952.[1] | English | |
1859 | General knowledge | Chambers's Encyclopaedia is founded by William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh.[189] | English | |
1865 | Dictionary, general knowledge | French grammarian Pierre Larousse begins to publish Le Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe Siecle in Paris. An anticlerical book in tone, it combines the features of both a dictionary and an encyclopedia. This work would go into many editions, the latest being issued in the 1970s.[1] | France | |
1875 | General knowledge | The Nuova Enciclopedia Italiana is published.[190] in Turin. It is a general knowledge, illustrated, Italian-language encyclopedia edited by economist Gerolamo Boccardo.[191][192] | Italian | |
1878 | General knowledge | Johnson’s New Universal Cyclopaedia by Alvin J. Johnson is published in four volumes. It would be reissued almost 20 years later in eight volumes.[1] | English | |
1879 | Natural history | Biologia Centrali-Americana is first issued by the editors Frederick DuCane Godman and Osbert Salvin, of the British Museum (Natural History) in London.[193][194] The series would reach 63 volumes on the flora, fauna, and anthropology of Central America. It is the first biological survey of the area from Mexico to Panama.[195] | English | |
1880 | Universal history | American educator John Clark Ridpath publishes hisCyclopedia of Universal History[196] | English | |
1883 | General knowledge | Cassell’s Concise Cyclopaedia is published in London.[197] | English | |
1884 | History, geography | The Hardesty's Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia is released.[198] | English | |
1886 | General knowledge | French politician Ferdinand-Camille Drefus first publishes La Grande Encyclopédie. Published until 1902, it comprises 31 volumes, containing articles by leading French scholars. In modern times it is still considered an important source for many subjects.[1] | French | |
1889 | Miscellany | Barkham Burroughs' Encyclopaedia of Astounding Facts and Useful Information is first published as an encyclopedia and miscellany.[199] | English | |
1894 | Juvenile encyclopedia | Frank E. Compton sells a U.S. school encyclopaedia, the Students Cyclopedia, from door to door to pay his way through college. This would later become the New Students Reference Work, which Compton would finally buy. While continuing to publish this, Compton would design a completely new and, for those times, revolutionary work, which would first appear in 1922 as Compton’s Pictured Encyclopedia.[144] | English | |
1897 | General knowledge | The Pears’ Cyclopaedia is initiated by Thomas J. Barratt of the Pears’ Soap Company.[1]:197 | ||
1900 | General knowledge | The Nuttall Encyclopædia is first published as a comprehensive dictionary of general knowledge.[200] | English | |
1900 | General knowledge | Universal Cyclopaedia is first published by D. Appleton & Company.[201] Edited by Charles Kendall Adams, it would be renamed to Universal Cyclopaedia and Atlas in 1902. | English | |
1901 | American Educator is first published as Hill's Practical Encyclopedia in four volumes.[202] | English | ||
1902 | Collier's New Encyclopedia is first published.[203] Originally designed to include 20 volumes, it would be considered one of the top three major English language encyclopedias in the world.[204] | English | ||
1861 | Yearbook | Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events is released by the New York publisher D. Appleton & Company[205] as an American yearbook that would cover the years 1861–1902 . It is a comprehensive yearbook of events, obituaries and statistics, worldwide, with many articles written by experts, some of them signed.[1]:187 | English | |
1904 | The New International Encyclopedia is issued in 17 volumes. It would be expanded to 20 volumes in 1916 and then to 24 volumes in 1922. It introduces a unique feature, letting maps be mounted on inserts so that subscribers could replace them whenever new maps were issued to take account of any geographical changes.[1]:132 | English | ||
1905 | The Harmsworth Encyclopedia: Everybody’s Book of Reference is published in London. Edited by George Sandeman, it would meet a genuine popular need, rapidly selling a half-million copies.[1]:125 | English | ||
1905 | General knowledge | Enciclopedia Espasa is first printed in Barcelona. Considered a great national encyclopedia, it is remarkable for its detail, lengthy bibliographies, international scope, and clear maps of even remote and obscure places.[1]:126,127 | Spanish | |
1906 | General knowledge | The New Standard Encyclopedia is published[206] in 12 volumes, by the University Society. Inc. | English | |
1907 | The Catholic Encyclopedia is launched by Robert Appleton Company in New York. Printed in fifteen volumes, it is an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic Church.[207][208] | English | ||
1908 | Juvenile encyclopedia | The Children's Encyclopædia is released.[209] Initially released in fortnightly parts between 1908 and 1910, with some readers choosing to bind their own collections, the first eight-volume sets would be published in 1910. Created by Arthur Mee and published by the Educational Book Company Ltd. in London, it would be published until 1964, and would be commonly found in homes throughout the British Empire.[210] | English | |
1909 | Castes and Tribes of Southern India is published[211] by British museologist Edgar Thurston and K. Rangachari as a seven-volume encyclopedia of social groups of Madras Presidency and the princely states of Travancore, Mysore, Coorg and Pudukkottai. | English | ||
1910 | Aiton’s Encyclopedia is first published in Minneapolis, reaching 5 volumes.[1]:187 | English | ||
1911 | General knowledge | The Anglo-American Cyclopedia is first published in New York, reaching 50 volumes.[1]:187 | English | |
1912 | The Book of Knowledge is first published in New York, reaching 24 volumes.[1]:187[212] | English | ||
1917 | The World Book Encyclopedia is published.[213] It is designed primarily for students in elementary school, junior high, and high school. Its approximately 17,500 entries are relatively short, written in a style directed at the grade level where they are most likely to be studied, and contain reliable and impartial information.[214] | English | ||
1917 | Sinology | The Encyclopaedia Sinica is published[215] by English missionary Samuel Couling. It is an English-language encyclopedia on China and China-related subjects, covering a range of topics and providing insight on early 20th century perspectives towards China. | English | |
1917–1918 | Children encyclopedia | Children aimed The World Book Encyclopedia is published, with the title page describing it as “organized knowledge in story and picture.” A success from the start, it would issue enlarged editions in quick succession. In 1925 a volume would be devoted to reading courses and study units would added. Annual supplements would be provided from 1922 onward. In 1961 a Braille edition in 145 volumes would be issued, with most of the illustrations eliminated in this, while retaining many of the diagrams and graphs. In 1964 a separate 30-volume set in a special large type would be published for the use of the partially blind.[144] | English | |
1920 | John H. Finley publishes the Nelson’s Perpetual Loose-leaf Encyclopedia in 12 volumes. In theory, the new pages, issued twice a year, would keep this encyclopedia up-to-date and useful for many years to come, but the method eventually would be abandoned for not attracting enough sales.[1]:189 | English | ||
1921 | Collins Concise Encyclopedia is published[216] as New Gresham Encyclopedia in 12 volumes, by the Gresham Publishing Company of London. | English | ||
1922 | General knowledge | Cassell's Book of Knowledge is first published as an alphabetical eight-volume encyclopedia under a range of titles including The Book of Knowledge and The New Book of Knowledge. The series would be printed in London by The Waverley Book Company, Ltd. in various years since launch. The essays would be written in a now dated style, but designed to appeal to both adults and children. The books would be edited by multiple editors including Harold FB Wheeler (circa 1935), John Alexander Hammerton (circa 1950), and Gordon Stowell (1955). The New Book of Knowledge, an updated set, would appear circa 1959.[217][218] | English | |
1922 | General knowledge | F. E. Compton and Company of Chicago publishes Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, a home and school encyclopedia in 8 volumes. It is titled "Pictured" because no other encyclopedia at the time has as large or as diverse a collection of illustrations.[219] The encyclopedia woul be expanded to 10 volumes in 1924 and 15 in 1932. In 1940 the title would be expanded to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact Index to emphasize its "Fact-Index" feature which combines a general index with dictionary type entries and tables. The general editor from 1922 to 1961 would be Guy Stanton Ford. He would be succeeded by Charles Alfred Ford, and then Donald Lawson in 1964. In the early 1960s, F. E. Compton Co. would be purchased by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[220] In 1968 the title would be changed to simply Compton's Encyclopedia and expanded to 24 volumes. It would be expanded to 26 volumes in 1974.[221][222][1]:188 | English | thumb|center|150px|Map within 1922 edition]] |
1925 | Biographical dictionary | The Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (Biographical Dictionary of the Italians) is released.[223] A biographical dictionary published by the Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, it would be completed in 2020. It includes about 40,000 biographies of distinguished Italians. | Italian | |
1925 | Australia | The Australian Encyclopaedia is first published.[224] In addition to biographies of notable Australians the coverage includes the geology, flora, fauna as well as the history of the continent. | English | |
1929 | The Enciclopedia Italiana de Scienze, Lettere ed Arti (best known as Treccani) is first published.[225] Edited by the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, although intended to provide local content for an exclusively Italian audience, it reflects a broader international approach, and its bibliographies cite books and periodical articles in many languages. Parts of this encyclopedia also contain nationalistic bias produced in accord with the views of Benito Mussolini's fascist regime. In fact, the article on Fascism itself is written by Mussolini. Whereas this encyclopedia defends Fascist ideology, it remains impartial in much of the rest of the text.[1] | Italian | ||
1931 | Miscellanea | An Outline of Modern Knowledge is first published by Victor Gollancz.[226] Its twenty-four articles cover the subjects of science, philosophy, religion, sex, mathematics, astronomy, biology, anthropology, cosmogony, psychology, psycho-analysis, archaeology, economics, politics, finance, industry, internationalism, history, ethnology, geography, literary criticism, music, architecture, painting and sculpture.[227] | English | |
1935 | General knowledge | The Encyclopédie Française begins publication as a set of 21 books arranged in systematic order. Its loose-leaf binding permits supplementary pages to be provided to owners of the encyclopedia whenever information on the earlier pages is updated. The new pages could be inserted in place of the old ones without affecting the design of each volume.[1] | French | |
1935 | The Columbia Encyclopedia is first issued by the Columbia University Press. A one-volume work, it is a scholarly attempt to bridge the gap between the large encyclopedias and the cheap one-volume annuals. By omitting definitions and using many crossreferences, its economy of space would pleased many purchasers. The work concentrates on providing “first aid and essential facts” rather than technical details. It would be reissued in 1950, 1963, and 1975.[1] | |||
1948 | General knowledge | Hutchinson Encyclopedia is first published.[228] | English | |
1948 | Norwegian encyclopedia Norsk Allkunnebok is released.[229] It is published by house Fonna Forlag, with journalist Arnulv Sudmann as principal editor.[230] | Norwegian | ||
1948 | The American Peoples Encyclopedia is published in New York in 20 volumes.[1] | English | ||
1949 | General knowledge | Collier's Encyclopedia is first published.[231] | ||
1949 | The Soviet Union’s Council of Ministers decrees that the Bolshaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia (Great Soviet Encyclopedia) “must show with exhaustive completeness the superiority of Socialist culture over the culture of the capitalist world.” This work includes or excludes famous Russians according to the state of their acceptance or condemnation by the government.[1] | Russian | ||
1954 | The Enciclopedia dello Spettacolo (Encyclopedia of Performing Arts) is first published.[232] An Italian language specialty encyclopedia of performing arts, it is first edited by Silvio D'Amico. It would be last published between in 1965. | Italian | ||
1954 | Basic Everyday Encyclopedia New York 1[1] | |||
1955 | The Enciclopedia Labor is published both in Spain and Argentina. Beginning to appear in nine volumes, it prioritizes Spanish and Latin American matters. It is, however, lavishly illustrated with both color and halftone photographs as well as drawings.[1] | Spanish | ||
1956 | Australian Junior Encyclopaedia Sydney 3[1] | |||
1957 | The Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950 is released. Published by the Austrian Academy of Sciences, it is a dictionary of biographical entries for individuals who have contributed to the history of Austria. | |||
1962 | American Home Library Steubenville, OH 1[1] | |||
1962 | The American Oxford Encyclopedia is published in New York, with 14 volumes.[1] | |||
1962 | Příruční slovník naučný[233] | |||
1963 | General knowledge | The Encyclopedia Bulgaria (Енциклопедия "България") is published by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, in seven volumes.[234] | Bulgarian | |
1980 | General knowledge | The Academic American Encyclopedia is first published.[235] | English | |
1982 | Middle Ages | The Dictionary of the Middle Ages is first published by the American Council of Learned Societies.[236][237] | English | |
1983 | Japan | Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan is released.[238] It is a comprehensive English-language encyclopedia covering a broad range of topics on Japan. | English | |
1985 | Canadian history, Canadiana | The Canadian Encyclopedia (L'Encyclopédie canadienne) is released.[239] It is the national encyclopedia of Canada, published online by the Toronto-based historical organization Historica Canada, with the support of Canadian Heritage. | English, French | |
1987 | Indian literature | The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature is released.[240] It is a multi-volume English language encyclopedia of Indian literature published by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters.[241] | English | |
1988 | Islamic studies, Iranian studies | The Encyclopaedia Islamica is released.[242] | English | |
1989 | Morocco | Ma'lamat al-Maghrib (Encyclopedia of Morocco) is released.[243] It is an encyclopedia of Morocco produced by the Moroccan Association for Composition, Translation, and Publication (الجمعية المغربية للتأليف والترجمة والنشر) and published by Salé Press.[244][112][245][246][247] | Arabic | |
1992 | Ethics | The Encyclopedia of Ethics is released.[248] | English | |
1993 | General knowledge | Encarta is released by Microsoft.[249] | English | |
1993 | – | The concept of a free encyclopedia begins with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet, which outlines an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content and that would be freely accessible. | ||
1994 | Scotland | Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland is first published.[250] | English | |
1995 (January) | General knowledge | The Project Gutenberg starts to publish the ASCII text of the Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition (1911), but disagreement about the method would halt the work after the first volume.[251]:{{{1}}} | ||
1996 | Japan | Le Japon: Dictionnaire et Civilisation is released, covering a broad range of topics on Japan.[252] It would be later translated in English as Japan Encyclopedia.[253] | French | |
1996 | General knowledge | The Global Arabic Encyclopedia is released.[254] It is in part a translation of the American World Book Encyclopedia, edited and expanded to reflect an Arab–Muslim perspective. | Arabic | |
1997 | Human sexuality | The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality is released.[255] | English | |
1998 | The Arab Encyclopedia is first published in Syria. It is an encyclopedia in 24 volumes in the Arabic language. | Arabic | ||
1998 | Art, aesthetics | The Encyclopedia of Aesthetics is released by Oxford University Press.[256] It is an encyclopedia covering philosophical, historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics worldwide. The second edition (2014) is now available online as part of Oxford Art Online.[257][258] | English | |
1998 | Philosophy | Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy is released by Rutledge.[259] | English | |
1999 | The The Encyclopaedia of Korea is released.[260] It is the first comprehensive English language encyclopedia of Korea that covers multifarious fields of information on Korea. | English | ||
2001 | History, American studies | The Encyclopedia of American Studies is released.[261] | English | |
2002 | Music | The Oesterreichisches Musiklexikon is released. It is a five-volume music encyclopedia founded by the Austrian Academy of Sciences' Commission for Music Research. | ||
2003 | The Encyclopaedia Aethiopica is released.[262] | English | ||
2003 | The Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[263] | English | ||
2004 | English Wikipedia becomes the world's largest encyclopedia at the 300,000 article stage.[264] | English | ||
2005 | Forensic medicine, legal medicine | Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine[265] | English | |
2005 (June 19) | Baike.com is launched. It is a for-profit social network in Chinese, including the world's largest Chinese encyclopedia. It is one of the two largest wikis in China, along with Baidu Baike, claiming to have more than 18 million articles as of 2020. | |||
2005 (November) | Indian history and culture | Encyclopedia of India is released.[266] It is a four-volume encyclopedia on Indian history and culture under editor-in-chief Stanley Wolpert. | English | |
2006 | Earth | Encyclopedia of Earth is released[267] as an electronic reference about the Earth, its natural environments, and their interaction with society. The Encyclopedia is described as a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other approved experts, who collaborate and review each other's work. The articles are written in non-technical language and are intended to be useful to students, educators, scholars, and professionals, as well as to the general public. The authors, editors, and even copy editors are attributed on the articles with links to biographical pages on those individuals.[268] | English | |
2006 | Baidu Baike is launched.[269] Also known as Baidu Wiki[270]), it is a semi-regulated Chinese-language collaborative online encyclopedia owned by the Chinese technology company Baidu.[271] | Chinese | ||
2007 (February 16) | Marefa is launched.[272] It is a not-for-profit online encyclopedia project that uses the wiki system to provide a free Arabic encyclopedia similar to Wikipedia. | Arabic | ||
2008 (February 26) | Life | The Encyclopedia of Life is first published.[273] It is a free, online encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1.9 million living species known to science. It is compiled from existing trusted databases curated by experts and with the assistance of non-experts throughout the world.[274][275] It aims to build one "infinitely expandable" page for each species, including video, sound, images, graphics, as well as text.[276] | English | |
2009 (January 2) | Agropedia is released.[277] | English, Hindi | ||
2009 | Holocaust studies | The Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945 is released.[278] It is a seven-part encyclopedia series that explores the history of the concentration camps, ghettos, forced-labor camps, and other sites of detention, persecution, or state-sponsored murder run by Nazi Germany and other Axis powers in Europe and Africa. | English | |
2010 | Clothing, fashion | The Berg Encyclopedia of World Dress and Fashion is released.[279] | English | |
2010 | Public health | The King Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz Arabic Health Encyclopedia is released.[280] It is an Arabic public health encyclopedia. It is created by the King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS) in collaboration with the Saudi Association for Health Informatics (SAHI). Medical content is added by the World Health Organization (WHO), the Health On the Net Foundation (HON) and the National Guard Health Affairs (NGHA).[281] | Arabic | |
2010 | Motherhood | Encyclopedia of Motherhood[282] It is a comprehensive, specialized encyclopedia of all issues relevant to motherhood, published by SAGE Publications in three volumes (700 entries). Its General Editor is Andrea O'Reilly.[283] | English | |
2012 | Conifers | The Encyclopedia of Conifers is published.[284] This 1,500-page reference book, in two volumes, includes information on 8,000 cultivars of conifers, over 5,000 photographs, and all 615 known species of conifers, as well as their subspecies and varieties.[285] | English | |
2012 | Islamic Jurisprudence | The Encyclopedia of Islamic Jurisprudence is released.[286] It is the biggest encyclopedia authored and published in Arabic language by the Kuwait Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs.[287] Also known as the Mausua Fiqhiya Kuwaitiya, it is a project that began in 1965 and was completed in 2005. Many Islamic scholars contributed to the project, which was organized in alphabetical order and published in 45 volumes with a total of 17,650 pages. It covers the Islamic Jurisprudence of all four major Islamic schools of thought. The Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs in Kuwait also made the work available as a CD and mobile app.[288][289] | Arabic | |
2012 | Hinduism | The Encyclopedia of Hinduism is released.[290] It is a comprehensive, multi-volume, English language encyclopedia of Hinduism, comprising Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase, meaning "the eternal law", or the "eternal way", that is used to refer to Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[291] | English | |
2013 | Ethics | The International Encyclopedia of Ethics is released.[292] It is an 11-volume encyclopedia of ethics edited by Hugh LaFollette. The encyclopedia is given Honorable Mention in competition for the Best Reference Work of 2013 by the Research User Services Association.[293] | English | |
2017 | Christianity | The Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States is released.[294] It is a five-volume encyclopedia published by Rowman & Littlefield and edited by George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport.[295] The work is a comprehensive reference work about the history of Christianity in the United States.[296] | English |
Numerical and visual data
Google trends
The chart below shows Google trends data for Encyclopedia (topic) from January 2004 to September 2022, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[297]
The chart below shows Google trends data for Wikipedia (search term) from January 2004 to September 2022, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map. As of 2022, Wikipedia is the largest encyclopedia ever assembled.[298]
Google Ngram Viewer
The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for both "encyclopedia" and "cyclopedia" terms, from 1700 to 2019.[299]
Meta information on the timeline
How the timeline was built
Base literature:
- A History of Information Storage and Retrieval by Foster Stockwell.[1]
- Genealogy of Popular Science: From Ancient Ecphrasis to Virtual Reality by Jesús Muñoz Morcillo and Caroline Y. Robertson-von Trotha
- Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance, by Jason König and Greg Woolf
The initial version of the timeline was written by Sebastian.
Funding information for this timeline is available.
Feedback and comments
Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:
- FIXME
What the timeline is still missing
- http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Science/leishu.html
- http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Science/eryayi.html
- Category:9th-century encyclopedias
- Category:10th-century encyclopedias
- Category:11th-century encyclopedias
- Category:12th-century encyclopedias
- Category:13th-century encyclopedias
- Category:14th-century encyclopedias
- Category:15th-century encyclopedias
- Category:16th-century encyclopedias
- Category:17th-century encyclopedias
- Category:18th-century encyclopedias
- Category:19th-century encyclopedias
- Category:20th-century encyclopedias
- [1] [163]
- [2]
- [3]
- [4]
- Encyclopédistes
- Encyclopedism
- Column for media type
- Category:Encyclopedias by country
- Category:European encyclopedias
- Category:British encyclopedias
- Category:English-language encyclopedias
Timeline update strategy
See also
External links
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57 1.58 1.59 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.70 1.71 1.72 Stockwell, Foster (19 October 2007). A History of Information Storage and Retrieval. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-3772-6.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 König, Jason; Woolf, Greg (17 October 2013). Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-47089-7.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 "Encyclopaedia - History of encyclopaedias | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ "Collecting Rare Books and First Editions - Reference Book of the Day: Erya". ILAB - FR. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
- ↑ Theobald, Ulrich. "Erya 爾雅 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ↑ "Marcus Terentius Varro". biography.yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Sextus Pompeius Festus | Latin grammarian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ Kaster, Robert A. (April 2009). "Latin Lexicography - Glinister (F.), Woods (C.) (edd.) with North (J.A.), Crawford (M.H.) Verrius, Festus, & Paul. Lexicography, Scholarship, and Society. ( BICS Supplement 93.) Pp. xiv + 191. London: Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London, 2007. Paper, £25. ISBN: 978-1-905670-06-2.". The Classical Review. 59 (1): 169–171. doi:10.1017/s0009840x08002370.
- ↑ "[De verborum significatione] "Augustus locus sanctus ab avium gestu ." by Festus, Sextus Pompeius: (1483) | James Cummins Bookseller, ABAA". www.abebooks.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "[Solved] 'Naturalis Historia' was written by-". Testbook. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Morcillo, Jesús Muñoz; Trotha, Caroline Y. Robertson-von (30 November 2020). Genealogy of Popular Science: From Ancient Ecphrasis to Virtual Reality. transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-4835-9.
- ↑ "Aulus Cornelius Celsus | Roman medical writer | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ↑ "De medicina | work by Celsus | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ↑ "Seneca Naturales Quaestiones 3 Introduction". Oberlin Classics. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ↑ J Sellars - Stoicism (Routledge, 5 Dec 2014) [Retrieved 2015-3-16]
- ↑ "Right pronunciation of Naturales quaestiones - page 85". www.rightpronunciation.com. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
- ↑ "Shiming - 2 definitions - Encyclo". www.encyclo.co.uk. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
- ↑ Theobald, Ulrich. "Huanglan 皇覽 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ↑ "Julius Pollux | Greek scholar and rhetorician | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
- ↑ Capella, Martianus (1866). "Martianus Capella". openlibrary. In aedibus B.G. Teubneri. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
- ↑ "Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, CA. 420–490". Medieval Grammar and Rhetoric: 148–166. 24 May 2012. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199653782.003.0008.
- ↑ "Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, CA. 420–490". Medieval Grammar and Rhetoric: 148–166. 24 May 2012. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199653782.003.0008.
- ↑ "British Library". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
- ↑ "British Library". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ↑ "HET: Cassiodorus". www.hetwebsite.net. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
- ↑ "Cassiodorus | historian, statesman, and monk | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
- ↑ ""Besides the three parts of the circle there is a fourth part across the Ocean on the south, which is unknown to us on account of the heat of the sun, in whose boundaries, according to story, the Antipodes are said to dwell". ("An encyclopedist of the dark ages: Isidore of Seville". Ernest Brehaut, Columbia University, New York, 1912: "Etymologiae", Isidorus Hispalensis, 600-625: 14, 5, 17) - Encyclopaedia Philatelica". www.encyclopaediaphilatelica.net. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ↑ Theobald, Ulrich. "Chinese Literature - Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
- ↑ Theobald, Ulrich. "Chinese Literature - Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- ↑ "Isidore, of Seville, Saint, –636: Etymologiae [Latin] - Medieval Manuscripts". medieval.bodleian.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
- ↑ Gjertson, Donald E. (1981). "The Early Chinese Buddhist Miracle Tale: A Preliminary Survey". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 101 (3): 287–301. ISSN 0003-0279. doi:10.2307/602591.
- ↑ "Chu xue ji : 30 juan". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- ↑ Sanders, Ruth (21 June 2010). German: Biography of a Language. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-988916-7.
- ↑ Introduction to Arabesques: Selections of Biography and Poetry from Classical Arabic Literature, pg. 13. Ed. Ibrahim A. Mumayiz. Volume 2 of WATA-publications: World Arab Translators Association. Philadelphia: Garant Publishers, 2006.
- ↑ Bernard K. Freamon, "Definitions and Concepts of Slave Ownership in Islamic Law." Taken from The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary, pg. 46. Ed. Jean Allain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
- ↑ A. Cilardo, "Preliminary Notes on the Meaning of the Qur'anic Term Kalala." Taken from Law, Christianity and Modernism in Islamic Society: Proceedings of the Eighteenth Congress of the Union Européenne Des Arabisants Et Islamisants Held at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, pg. 3. Peeters Publishers, 1998.
- ↑ Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Linguistic Tradition, pg. 4. Part of the Landmarks in Linguistic Thought series, vol. 3. London: Routledge, 1997.
- ↑ "Ibn Qutaybah, Abd Allah ibn Muslim, 828-889? | The Online Books Page". onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ↑ "Saint Photius | patriarch of Constantinople | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- ↑ "Jisho.org: Japanese Dictionary". jisho.org. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 Theobald, Ulrich. "Taiping yulan 太平御覽 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
- ↑ "Michael Psellos - De Omnifaria Doctrina (MPG 122 0687 0784) [1017-1078] Full Text at Documenta Catholica Omnia" (PDF). www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ↑ Ierodiakonou, Katerina (2011). "Michael Psellos". Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy. Springer Netherlands. pp. 789–791. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9729-4_336. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ Limited, Alamy. "Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, Medieval Edition Stock Photo - Alamy". www.alamy.com. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
- ↑ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. p. 12. ISBN 978-1780744209.
- ↑ McGinnis, Jon (2010). Avicenna. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-19-533147-9.
- ↑ Heller, M.; Edelstein, P.; Mayer, M. (2001). Traditional medicine in Asia (PDF). World Health Organization. p. 31. ISBN 9789290222248. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
- ↑ Philosophy A Visual Encyclopedia. Penguin. 10 November 2020. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-7440-3826-2.
- ↑ "Kitāb al-shifāʾ | work by Avicenna | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
- ↑ Claus, Patricia (25 June 2022). "The Suda, The Byzantine Encyclopedia Written in the Year 1100". GreekReporter.com. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
- ↑ Vial, José Miguel de Toro (1 January 2019). "Exsilium hominis ignorantia est. Honorius Augustodunensis and Knowledge in the Twelfth Century". Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ↑ "The Sawley Map (a.k.a. the World Map of Henry of Mainz)" (PDF). myoldmaps.com. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ "Liber Floridus, a Medieval Encyclopedia, of which the Autograph Manuscript Survived : History of Information". www.historyofinformation.com. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
- ↑ "WILLIAM OF CONCHES (c.1080-c.1160). De philosophia mundi, in Latin, ILLUSTRATED MANUSCRIPT ON VELLUM". christies.com. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- ↑ Compton, Sophia. "Boethius and Sophia". academia.edu. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- ↑ "On fish in Manasollasa (c. 1131 AD)". researchgate.net. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ "The Mānasollāsa, Abhilashitartha Chintamani". Goodreads. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- ↑ FitzGerald, Brian (19 October 2017). "Hugh of St Victor and the Prophetic Contemplation of History". 1. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198808244.003.0002.
- ↑ Schein, Gabor (5 July 2022). Autobiographies of an Angel. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-26495-1.
- ↑ "Alexander Neckam | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
- ↑ Duve, Thomas; Danwerth, Otto (31 March 2020). "Knowledge of the Pragmatici: Legal and Moral Theological Literature and the Formation of Early Modern Ibero-America". doi:10.1163/9789004425736_008.
- ↑ Spacey, Beth C. (2020). The Miraculous and the Writing of Crusade Narrative. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-78327-518-2.
- ↑ Obrist, Barbara (2015). "THE PHYSICAL AND THE SPIRITUAL UNIVERSE: "INFERNUS" AND PARADISE IN MEDIEVAL COSMOGRAPHY AND ITS VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS (SEVENTH-FOURTEENTH CENTURY)". Studies in Iconography. 36: 41–78. ISSN 0148-1029.
- ↑ Brenner, Elma; Cohen, Meredith; Franklin-Brown, Mary (22 April 2016). Memory and Commemoration in Medieval Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-09771-6.
- ↑ Cervantes, Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de. "Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes". www.cervantesvirtual.com (in español). Retrieved 23 July 2022.
- ↑ "L'Image du monde | encyclopaedia by Gautier de Metz | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
- ↑ "Thomas of Cantimpré's On the Nature of Things and Natural Philosophy | University of Tennessee at Chattanooga". www.utc.edu. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- ↑ "Brief Forms in Medieval and Renaissance Hispanic Literature" (PDF). cambridgescholars. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "Tree of Science | Who is Ramon Llull?". quisestlullus.narpan.net. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ "2. Agricultural illustrations: Blueprint or icon?". Graphics and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China: 521–567. 1 January 2007. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004160637.i-772.84.
- ↑ InventorDied 1333, Name Wang ZhenRole (18 August 2017). "Wang Zhen (inventor) - Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia". Alchetron.com. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ↑ "The Ultimate Ambition in the Arts of Erudition". On Art and Aesthetics. 9 December 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ↑ Muhanna, p. 32.
- ↑ "Ma Duanlin | Chinese historian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ↑ Wight, C. "Details of an item from the British Library Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ↑ Wright, Colin. "Creation Scenes, In James Le Palmer's Encyclopaedia 'All Good Things'". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ↑ "Envío gratis en todo el mundo en todos tus libros de Book Depository". www.bookdepository.com. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
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- ↑ Arnett, Ray (2017-03-15). "The Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States. 5 vols. Rowman & Littlefield. Nov. 2016. 2864p. ed. by George Thomas Kurian & Mark A. Lamport. bibliog. index. ISBN 9781442244313. $495; ebk. ISBN 9781442244320. REF". Library Journal. 142 (5): 138.
- ↑ Kujawa-Holbrook, Sheryl A. (2017). "Review of Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States. 5 vols., by T. Kurian, M. A. Lamport, & M. Marty". Anglican and Episcopal History. 86 (3): 362–363. JSTOR 26335994.
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