Difference between revisions of "Timeline of medical ethics"

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This is a '''timeline of {{w|medical ethics}}'''.
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This is a '''timeline of {{w|medical ethics}}'''. This timeline is closely related to [[Timeline of bioethics]].
  
 
== Sample questions ==
 
== Sample questions ==
  
 
The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:  
 
The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:  
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* What are some of the multiple topics and sub–fields related to the field of medical ethics covered in this timeline?
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** Sort the full timeline by "Main topic".
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** You will see a variety of topics within or highly related to the field of medical ethics.
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* What are some notable or illustrative codes of ethics having been adopted by governments and institutions?
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** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Adoption".
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** You will see a number of codes of ethics and guidelines being adopted. You will also see some notable amendments.
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* What are some notable cases related to various subfields of medical ethics?
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** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Notable case".
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** You will see some notable infamous cases, such as the {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} and the {{w|Milgram Experiment}}.
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* What are some notable and illustrative publications related to the field of medical ethics?
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** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Literature".
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** You will see a variety of books and journals specialized or highly related to the field.
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* What are some organizations focused or highly related to medical ethics?
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** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Organization".
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** You will mostly see a number of organizations established by governments with aims to address the topic, as concern increases along with the progress in medicine.
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* Other events are described under the following types: "Field development", "Legal", "Notable statement", "Program launch", "Research", "Statistics", "Service launch", and "{{w|Social movement}}".
  
 
==Big picture==
 
==Big picture==
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{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
! Time period !! Development summary !! More details
 
! Time period !! Development summary !! More details
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|-
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| Before 1970s || Prelude || The term medical ethics first dates back to the early 19th century, when English author and physician {{w|Thomas Percival}} publishes a document describing the requirements and expectations of medical professionals within medical facilities. The Code of Ethics is adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival's words.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Riddick|first=Frank|year=2003|title=The Code of Medical Ethics of the American Medical Association|journal=The Ochsner Journal|volume=5|issue=2|pages=6–10|pmc=3399321|pmid=22826677}}</ref> In the 1960s, the Hippocratic Oath is changed to require "utmost respect for human life from its beginning", making it a more secular obligation, not to be taken in the presence of God or any gods, but before only other people. By this time, however, a wide range of new ethical problems emerge, all of them driven by spectacular advances in medicine and biology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Callahan |first1=Daniel |title=Bioethics and Policy—A History |url=https://www.thehastingscenter.org/briefingbook/bioethics-and-policy-a-history/ |website=The Hastings Center |access-date=5 April 2021}}</ref>
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| 1970s || Field emergence || The field of {{w|applied ethics}} emerges from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early decade.<ref>Giorgini, V., Mecca, J. T., Gibson, C., Medeiros, K., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, S., & Devenport, L. D. (2015). Researcher perceptions of ethical guidelines and codes of conduct. Accountability in research, 22(3), 123-138.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Applied and Professional Ethics |url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:528632/FULLTEXT01.pdf |website=diva-portal.org |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Applied Ethics {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/applied-ethics |website=www.encyclopedia.com |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref> A notable aspect of the emergence of more systematic and theoretically sophisticated medical ethics and bioethics in the 1970s was the ground-breaking application óf broad-based ethical theories like {{w|utilitarianism}} and Kantian ethics directly to issues in medical practice, such as paternalism and end-of-life decision-making.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oakley |first1=Justin |title=Good medical ethics, from the inside out—and back again |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |date=January 2015 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=48–51 |doi=10.1136/medethics-2014-102292}}</ref>
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| 1980s || Increased awareness || More attention is payed ethical issues, revealing some excesses of medical research and medical paternalism conflicting with ethical principles.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The New Challenges for Medical Ethics |doi=10.5772/intechopen.94833}}</ref> The United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics is adopted.
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| 1990s || Continued changes || The field of medical ethics undergoes changes. Individual clinical issues, especially those related to death and dying, continue to create conflict and preoccupy hospital staffs. But professional ethicists focus on social concerns more frequently than they have in the past. Clinical practice and the law move toward less demanding standards of proof regarding the withdrawal of treatment from patients who are no longer competent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moy |first1=A |title=Why the moratorium on human-animal chimera research should not be lifted. |journal=The Linacre quarterly |date=August 2017 |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=226-231 |doi=10.1080/00243639.2017.1293931 |pmid=28912615}}</ref>
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| 2000s || Particular focus || In this decade, {{w|euthanasia}} becomes the most active area of research in bioethics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borry |first1=P |last2=Schotsmans |first2=P |last3=Dierickx |first3=K |title=Empirical research in bioethical journals. A quantitative analysis. |journal=Journal of medical ethics |date=April 2006 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=240-5 |doi=10.1136/jme.2004.011478 |pmid=16574880}}</ref>
 
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|}
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==Full timeline==
 
==Full timeline==
  
 
{| class="sortable wikitable"
 
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Year !! Event type !! Details !! Location
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! Year !! Main topic || Event type !! Details !! Location
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| 275 AD || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The oldest partial fragments of the {{w|Hippocratic Oath}} date to around this time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=2239|last=Norman|first=Jeremy|title=Perhaps the Earliest Surviving Text of the Hippocratic Oath|publisher=HistoryofInformation.com|access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Greece}} ([[w:Ancient Greece|ancient]])
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|-
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| 1588 || {{w|Contraception}}, {{w|abortion}} || Adoption || {{w|Pope Sixtus V}} adopts a papal bull adopting the position of {{w|Thomas Aquinas}} that {{w|contraception}} and {{w|abortion}} are crimes against nature and sins against marriage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Victory |first1=Regardless |title=RDV'S INTERNET ANTHLOGY PLUS |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=9n9pMnYBSwMC&pg=PT71&lpg=PT71&dq=In+1588,+Pope+Sixtus+V+adopted+a+papal+bull+adopting+the+position+of+St.+Thomas+Aquinas+that+contraception+and+abortion+were+crimes+against+nature+and+sins+against+marriage&source=bl&ots=j14d4p_UcI&sig=ACfU3U1ITnaJBzp8ZouYDAeTJl_QNGW2yw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjm5rTWg8jqAhV4DrkGHSFxDGwQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=In%201588%2C%20Pope%20Sixtus%20V%20adopted%20a%20papal%20bull%20adopting%20the%20position%20of%20St.%20Thomas%20Aquinas%20that%20contraception%20and%20abortion%20were%20crimes%20against%20nature%20and%20sins%20against%20marriage&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}} ({{w|Papal States}})
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| 1775 – 1780 || {{w|Organ trade}} || Field development || German philosopher {{w|Immanuel Kant}} in his lectures on ethics argues against the sale of human body parts.<ref name="Bioethicsbritannica.com">{{cite web |title=Bioethics |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/bioethics |website=britannica.com |accessdate=18 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}} ({{w|Kingdom of Prussia}})
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| 1779 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Literature || German physician {{w|Johann Peter Frank}} writes strict ethical guidelines for public health and sanitation to improve the quality of life.<ref>{{cite web |title=Johann Peter Frank’s A Complete System of Medical Policy published |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/johann-peter-franks-complete-system-medical-policy-published |website=Environment & Society Portal |access-date=24 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}} 
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| 1794 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Literature || English physician {{w|Thomas Percival}} writes the first modern code of medical ethics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=LEAKE |first1=CHAUNCEY D. |title=PERCIVAL'S CODE: A CHAPTER IN THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL ETHICS |doi=10.1001/jama.1923.02650050020007 |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/235263}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Medical Ethics |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/medical-ethics/362CABA86F05C455D49E9238F76F3110 |website=cambridge.org |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}} 
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| 1796 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || English physician {{w|Edward Jenner}} inoculates eight-year-old James Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to immunize him against {{w|smallpox}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Early smallpox vaccine is tested |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jenner-tests-smallpox-vaccine |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Riedel |first1=Stefan |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |doi=10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028 |pmid=16200144 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200696/ |pmc=1200696}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}} 
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| 1847 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Policy || The {{w|American Medical Association}} adopts its first [[w:ethical code|code of ethics]], with this being based in large part upon the work of {{w|Thomas Percival}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-10-16 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060704201058/http://www.uab.edu/reynolds/MajMedFigs/Percival.htm}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1874 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Robert Bartholomew inserts electrodes into a hole in the skull of Mary Rafferty caused by a tumor. He notes that small amounts electric current caused bodily movements and that larger amounts caused pain. Rafferty, who was mentally ill, falls into a coma and dies a few days after the experiment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Background |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68756-8_2#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20in%201874%20Robert,inserted%20electrodes%20into%20the%20hole. |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
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| 1885 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || French biologist {{w|Louis Pasteur}} administers an experimental {{w|rabies vaccine}} to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without testing it on animals first.<ref>{{cite web |title=Louis Pasteur and the Development of the Attenuated Vaccine |url=https://www.vbivaccines.com/wire/louis-pasteur-attenuated-vaccine/#:~:text=Then%2C%20in%201885%2C%20while%20studying,Louis%20Pasteur%20performing%20an%20experiment. |website=vbivaccines.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=July 6, 1885: Rabies Vaccine Saves Boy – and Pasteur |url=https://www.wired.com/2007/07/dayintech-0706/ |website=wired.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Rabies Vaccine Backstory |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/the-rabies-vaccine-backstory-33441 |website=the-scientist.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
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| 1897 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Italian bacteriologist {{w|Giuseppe Sanarelli}} injects the yellow fever bacteria into five patients without their consent. All the patients develop the disease and three die.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Background |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68756-8_2#:~:text=In%201897%2C%20Giuseppe%20Sanarelli%20(1864,fever%20symptoms%20and%20three%20died. |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Case 5 Roots of Informed Consent|url=https://highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu/units/cases/unit3_5.html |website=highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Resnik |first1=David B. |title=The Ethics of Research with Human Subjects: Protecting People, Advancing Science, Promoting Trust |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uQdGDwAAQBAJ&dq=1897+%22Giuseppe+Sanarelli+injects+the+yellow+fever+bacteria&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
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| 1900 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || {{w|United States Army}} scientist {{w|Walter Reed}} gathers volunteers in Cuba willing to be bitten by mosquitoes to see whether the insects carried {{w|yellow fever}}.<ref name="Brief History: Secret Medical Testing"/> Thirty-three participants, including eighteen Americans and six Cubans, are exposed to mosquitoes infected with yellow fever or injected with blood from yellow fever patients. Six participants die.<ref>{{cite web |title=Major Walter Reed and the Eradication of Yellow Fever |url=https://armyhistory.org/major-walter-reed-and-the-eradication-of-yellow-fever/#:~:text=In%20a%20series%20of%20experiments,to%20person%20with%20their%20bites. |website=armyhistory.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Politics of Participation: Walter Reed's Yellow-Fever Experiments |url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/politics-participation-walter-reeds-yellow-fever-experiments/2009-04 |website=journalofethics.ama-assn.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Walter Reed and Yellow Fever |url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/insects/reed/ |website=exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Cuba}}
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| 1907 || {{w|Blacklisting}} || Notable case || The Transvaal Medical Union in South Africa blacklists patients if they can not pay cash in advance.<ref name="Deacon">{{cite book | title = The Cape Doctor in the Nineteenth Century: A Social History (Clio Medica, 74) | editor-first=Harriet |editor-last=Deacon | editor2-first=Howard | editor2-last= Phillips | editor3-first=Elizabeth | editor3-last=van Heyningen | publisher = Editions Rodipi B.V. | year = 2004 | isbn=9042010649 }}</ref> || {{w|South Africa}}
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| 1918 – 1922 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Inmates at {{w|San Quentin State Prison}} in {{w|California}} are subjected to numerous medical procedures, including receiving transplanted testicles from recently executed prisoners. During the research, headed by Dr. Leo L. Stanley, many men receive transplanted sex organs from rams, goats, and boars.<ref name="Pain, Suffering, and the History of Human Experimentation">{{cite web |title=Pain, Suffering, and the History of Human Experimentation |url=https://www.healthline.com/health-news/strange-the-sordid-history-of-human-experimentation-101213 |website=Healthline |access-date=5 March 2021 |language=en |date=12 October 2013}}</ref> || {{w|United states}}
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| 1920 || {{w|Abortion}} || Policy (reproductive rights) || {{w|Vladimir Lenin}} legalizes all abortions in the {{w|Soviet Union}}<ref>{{cite web |title=ABORTION AND BIRTH CONTROL IN SOVIET RUSSIA |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/field-alice/protect/ch04.html |website=marxists.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savage |first1=Mark |title=The Law of Abortion in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the People's Republic of China: Women's Rights in Two Socialist Countries |doi=10.2307/1228777 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228777?seq=1}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}
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| 1932 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || The {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} begins. Carried out by the Public Health Service at the [[w:Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute]] in {{w|Alabama}}, the experiment would last 40 years. Nearly 400 hundred of the 600 poor, rural sharecroppers taking part would never be told they had {{w|syphilis}}, nor be treated for it. Instead, they would be given “free healthcare,” meals, and burial money as researchers study how untreated syphilis progress.<ref name="Pain, Suffering, and the History of Human Experimentation"/><ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Reverby|first=Susan|title=Examining Tuskegee:The Infamous Syphilis Study and its Legacy|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=2009|location=Chapel Hill}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Newton-Matza |first1=Mitchell |title=Disasters and Tragic Events: An Encyclopedia of Catastrophes in American History [2 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=8o6dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA307&dq=1932+Tuskegee+syphilis+experiment&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwipuKTj7MbqAhXeIbkGHQv_BJ4Q6AEwCHoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=1932%20Tuskegee%20syphilis%20experiment&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Suffering and Bioethics |edition=Ronald Michael Green, Nathan J. Palpant |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=c2cJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165&dq=1932+Tuskegee+syphilis+experiment&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI2ZHr7MbqAhUlIbkGHYEkAaM4ChDoATAAegQIAxAC#v=onepage&q=1932%20Tuskegee%20syphilis%20experiment&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1932 || || Literature (journal) || Peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|The Linacre Quarterly}}'' is established. It primarily focuses on the relationship between medicine and {{w|spirituality}}, and in particular on {{w|medical ethics}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Linacre Quarterly |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/lnq/ |website=epublications.marquette.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1932–1945 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Japanese scientists working at {{w|Unit 731}} conduct abominable experiments on thousands of Chinese {{w|war prisoner}}. Experiments include biological and chemical weapons experiments, vaccination experiments, and wound-healing and surgical studies, including vivisections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brody |first1=Howard |last2=Leonard |first2=Sarah E. |last3=Nie |first3=Jing-Bao |last4=Weindling |first4=Paul |title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency |doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 |pmid=24534743 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829/ |pmc=4487829}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
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| 1937 || || Literature || Scottish novelist A. J. Cronin publishes ''[[w:The Citadel (novel)|The Citadel]]'', which becomes notable for its treatment of the contentious theme of medical ethics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Ruth |title=A J Cronin's Citadel |journal=The Lancet |date=June 2016 |volume=387 |issue=10035 |pages=2284–2285 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30696-1}}</ref> It is credited with laying the foundation in Great Britain for the introduction of the [[w:National Health Service|NHS]] a decade later.<ref name=nhs>{{cite web |url=http://www.ournhsscotland.com/history/birth-nhs-scotland/expectant-public | title=An expectant public: 1948–2008 60 years of the NHS |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2008 |work=Birth of NHS in Scotland |publisher=Scottish Government |access-date=25 March 2013}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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| 1938 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The {{w|Osteopathic Oath}} is first used in the United States.<ref name="osteopathic oath">{{cite web|title=Osteopathic Oath|url=http://www.osteopathic.org/inside-aoa/about/leadership/Pages/osteopathic-oath.aspx|website=osteopathic.org|publisher=American Osteopathic Association|access-date=28 November 2014}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1939 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || {{w|The Monster Study}}, as it is known, is conducted as a {{w|stuttering}} experiment performed on 22 orphan children in {{w|Davenport, Iowa}}, and led by {{w|Wendell Johnson}} at the {{w|University of Iowa}}. In the experiment, half of the children receive positive speech therapy, praising the fluency of their speech, and the other half, negative speech therapy, belittling the children for speech imperfections. Many of the normal speaking orphan children who received  negative therapy in the experiment would suffer negative psychological effects, with some retaining speech problems for the rest of their lives.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reynolds |first1=Gretchen |title=The Stuttering Doctor's 'Monster Study' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/16/magazine/the-stuttering-doctor-s-monster-study.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=24 October 2021 |date=16 March 2003}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1940s || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Scientists test {{w|mustard gas}} by compelling U.S. Navy men to enter {{w|gas chamber}}s. One goes temporarily blind. When {{w|nitrogen mustard}} is discovered, doctors inject it into a patient dying of {{w|lymphosarcoma}} and notice that his tumors recede, sparking the beginning of {{w|chemotherapy}}. || {{w|United States}}
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| 1943–1944 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || {{w|Nazi human experimentation}}, with {{w|Josef Mengele}} as central leader, is conducted in this period, consisting in morally abominable research on concentration camp prisoners, including experiments exposing subjects to freezing temperatures, low air pressures, ionizing radiation and electricity, and infectious diseases; as well as wound-healing and surgical studies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414074936/http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html |date=14 April 2015|title=Josef Mengele and Experimentation on Human Twins at Auschwitz}}</ref> || {{w|German-occupied Europe}}
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| 1945 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || In an experiment, 829 pregnant women at a health clinic run by {{w|Vanderbilt University}} are administered drugs that they were told were good for them and their babies. The drugs actually contain radioactive iron. A follow-up study during the 1960s would conclude that three children born to women who took the pills likely died because of the tests.<ref>{{cite web |title=RADIATION TESTS ON WOMEN CONFIRMED |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/12/21/radiation-tests-on-women-confirmed/f89e5521-cabf-45c3-83b4-5bae3ee0cdb3/ |website=washingtonpost.com |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 7: Conclusion|url=https://bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu/achre/final/chap7_6.html |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1946 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Researchers at {{w|Massachusetts Institute of Technology}} conduct experiment consisting in feeding oatmeal that includes radioactive iron and calcium to 74 mentally deficient and disabled boys at the {{w|Walter E. Fernald State School in Massachusetts}}.<ref name="pmid13278403">{{cite journal |vauthors=BRONNER F, HARRIS RS, MALETSKOS CJ, BENDA CE | title = Studies in calcium metabolism. the fate of intravenously injected radiocalcium in human beings | journal = {{w|The Journal of Clinical Investigation}} | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–88 |date=January 1956 | pmid = 13278403 | pmc = 438780 | doi = 10.1172/JCI103254 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1946 – 1948 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || {{w|Guatemala syphilis experiment}} is conducted by the {{w|United States}}, during the administration of U.S. President {{w|Harry S. Truman}} and Guatemalan President {{w|Juan José Arévalo}} with the cooperation of some Guatemalan health ministries and officials. A team of U.S. doctors infect 700 Guatemalans with {{w|syphilis}} to test {{w|penicillin}}.<ref name="Brief History: Secret Medical Testing">{{cite web |title=Brief History: Secret Medical Testing |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2024238,00.html |website=content.time.com |accessdate=1 July 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Guatemala}}
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| 1947 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The {{w|Nuremberg Code}} is adopted as a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation. It is set as a result of the {{w|Subsequent Nuremberg trials}} at the end of the {{w|Second World War}}.<ref name="Bioethicsvv">{{cite web |title=Bioethics |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/bioethic/ |website=iep.utm.edu |accessdate=1 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
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| 1948 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The {{w|Declaration of Geneva}} is adopted by the {{w|World Medical Association}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fassin |first1=Didier |title=A Companion to Moral Anthropology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=qxImBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA500&dq=1948+Declaration+of+Geneva&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiny9auwcbqAhVvHLkGHchjC7oQ6AEwAXoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=1948%20Declaration%20of%20Geneva&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Advancing the Human Right to Health |edition=José M. Zuniga, Stephen P. Marks, Lawrence O. Gostin |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5cXwAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT425&dq=1948+Declaration+of+Geneva&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiny9auwcbqAhVvHLkGHchjC7oQ6AEwAnoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=1948%20Declaration%20of%20Geneva&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Switzerland}}
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|-
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| 1949 || || Literature (publication) || The {{w|Seven Sins of Medicine}} are published by British endocrinologist {{w|Richard Asher}} in ''{{w|The Lancet}}'' as a perspective on {{w|medical ethics}}.<ref>''Lancet'' 1949 Aug 27;2(6574):358–60</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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|-
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| 1949 || || Organization || The {{w|Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences - CIOMS {{!}} Genève internationale |url=https://www.geneve-int.ch/council-international-organizations-medical-sciences-cioms-0#:~:text=%22The%20Council%20for%20International%20Organizations,of%20the%20biomedical%20scientific%20community. |website=www.geneve-int.ch |access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=front page • COUNCIL FOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF MEDICAL SCIENCES |url=https://cioms.ch/ |website=COUNCIL FOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF MEDICAL SCIENCES |access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1949 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The International Code of Medical Ethics is adopted by the third General Assembly of the World Medical Association (WMA) at London.<ref name="www.encyclopedia.com">{{cite web |title=International Code of Medical Ethics {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/international-code-medical-ethics |website=www.encyclopedia.com |access-date=31 August 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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|-
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| 1951 || {{w|Medical privacy}} || Notable case || Doctors at the {{w|Johns Hopkins Hospital}} in {{w|Baltimore}} take samples of patient {{w|Henrietta Lacks}}' cancerous cells while diagnosing and treating the disease. They give some of that tissue to a researcher without Lacks’s knowledge or consent. The product derived, called {{w|HeLa}} would become the cornerstone of an industry. In the laboratory, her cells would prove to have an extraordinary capacity to survive and reproduce; they were, in essence, immortal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Henrietta Lacks: science must right a historical wrong |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02494-z |website=Nature |access-date=30 August 2021 |pages=7–7 |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-02494-z |date=1 September 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1953 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || The {{w|Project MKUltra}} is officially sanctioned as a program of experiments on human subjects designed and undertaken by the U.S. {{w|Central Intelligence Agency}}, some of which would be illegal. Experiments on humans would be intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogations in order to weaken the individual and force confessions through {{w|mind control}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2013/09/one-shocking-cia-programs-time-project-mkultra/|title=One of the Most Shocking CIA Programs of All Time: Project MKUltra|date=2013-09-23|language=en-US|access-date=2016-08-18}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1954 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || A new version of the {{w|Osteopathic Oath}} is adopted in the United States.<ref name="osteopathic oath"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Osteopathic Oath |url=https://osteopathic.org/about/leadership/aoa-governance-documents/osteopathic-oath/ |website=American Osteopathic Association |access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1954 || || Literature (book) || Joseph F. Fletcher publishes ''Morals and Medicine: The Moral Problems of the Patient’s Right to Know the Truth, Contraception, Artificial Insemination, Sterilization, and Euthanasia''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morals and Medicine |url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/549.html |website=press.princeton.edu |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> ||
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|-
 +
| 1956–1980 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Research team led by Saul Krugman and Joan Giles conducts hepatitis experiments on mentally disabled children at The {{w|Willowbrook State School}}. The subjects are intentionally infected with the disease and researchers ovserve its natural progression. The experiments are approved by the [[w:New York State Department of Health|New York Department of Health]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shamoo |first1=Adil E. |last2=Resnik |first2=David B. |title=Responsible Conduct of Research |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dP7oKntCUUUC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=1956%E2%80%931980+%22Saul+Krugman,+Joan+Giles+and+other+researchers+conduct+hepatitis+experiments+on+mentally+disabled+children+at+The+Willowbrook+State+School&source=bl&ots=PF80NaLudm&sig=ACfU3U33xOo6F0mFchm1BiGwMuGC9NbdlQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXtrnJlcjqAhU7K7kGHWAXDmQQ6AEwCHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=1956%E2%80%931980%20%22Saul%20Krugman%2C%20Joan%20Giles%20and%20other%20researchers%20conduct%20hepatitis%20experiments%20on%20mentally%20disabled%20children%20at%20The%20Willowbrook%20State%20School&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Research Ethics: Where are we,  How did we get here, and Where  are we going? |url=https://research.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/content/HRPO/MIM%20files/ResearchEthicsMIM_4_18_19.pdf |website=research.columbia.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
 +
| 1956 – 1970 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Mentally retarded children held at the {{w|Willowbrook State School}} in {{w|Staten Island}}, New York are infected with {{w|hepatitis}} so that doctors there could track the spread of the viral infection and how it responds to {{w|gamma globulin}} injections. More than 700 children are infected. The school closes later in 1987 after public outcry about overcrowding and the filthy conditions.<ref name="Pain, Suffering, and the History of Human Experimentation"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
 +
| 1959 || {{w|Jewish medical ethics}} || Literature (book) || Immanuel Jakobovits publishes ''Jewish Medical Ethics: A Comparative and Historical Study of the Jewish Religious Attitude to Medicine and Its Practice''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jewish Medical Ethics: A Comparative and Historical Study of the Jewish Religious Attitude to Medicine and Its Practice|url=https://www.amazon.com/Jewish-Medical-Ethics-Comparative-Historical/dp/0819700975 |website=www.amazon.com |access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref> ||
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|-
 +
| 1960s || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || Experimentation in prisons become widespread in the United States, which becomes the only Western country that runs tests on inmates after {{w|World War II}}.<ref name="Brief History: Secret Medical Testing"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
 +
| 1961 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || The {{w|Milgram Experiment}} is conducted to test how far a subject would go to earn approval of an authority figure. The experiment is thought to violate many ethical standards due to extenuating emotional conflict and stress.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Milgram Shock Experiment |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html |website=simplypsychology.org |accessdate=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rethinking One of Psychology's Most Infamous Experiments |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/01/rethinking-one-of-psychologys-most-infamous-experiments/384913/ |website=theatlantic.com |accessdate=6 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1588 || || {{w|Pope Sixtus V}} adopts a papal bull adopting the position of {{w|Thomas Aquinas}} that {{w|contraception}} and {{w|abortion}} are crimes against nature and sins against marriage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Victory |first1=Regardless |title=RDV'S INTERNET ANTHLOGY PLUS |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=9n9pMnYBSwMC&pg=PT71&lpg=PT71&dq=In+1588,+Pope+Sixtus+V+adopted+a+papal+bull+adopting+the+position+of+St.+Thomas+Aquinas+that+contraception+and+abortion+were+crimes+against+nature+and+sins+against+marriage&source=bl&ots=j14d4p_UcI&sig=ACfU3U1ITnaJBzp8ZouYDAeTJl_QNGW2yw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjm5rTWg8jqAhV4DrkGHSFxDGwQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=In%201588%2C%20Pope%20Sixtus%20V%20adopted%20a%20papal%20bull%20adopting%20the%20position%20of%20St.%20Thomas%20Aquinas%20that%20contraception%20and%20abortion%20were%20crimes%20against%20nature%20and%20sins%20against%20marriage&f=false}}</ref> ||
+
| 1964 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The {{w|Declaration of Helsinki}} is created in order to provide researchers and physicians with ethical guidelines. It is developed for the medical community by the {{w|World Medical Association}}.<ref name="Bioethicsvv"/><ref>{{cite web |title=DECLARATION OF HELSINKI |url=https://www.wma.net/what-we-do/medical-ethics/declaration-of-helsinki/ |website=wma.net |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> The document comprises a set of ethical principles regarding {{w|human experimentation}}.<ref name="jama.jamanetwork.com">{{cite journal|last1=World Medical Association|title=Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects|journal=JAMA|date=2013|volume=310|issue=20|pages=2191–2194|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.281053|pmid=24141714|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human {{w|research ethics}}.<ref name="jama.jamanetwork.com"/><ref name="Bošnjak">{{cite journal |first1=Bošnjak |last1=Snežana |year=2001 |title=The declaration of Helsinki: The cornerstone of research ethics |journal=Archive of Oncology |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=179–84 |url=http://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?artid=0354-73100103179B&lang=en}}</ref><ref name="Tyebkhan 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Tyebkhan |first1=G |title=Declaration of Helsinki: the ethical cornerstone of human clinical research |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=245–7 |year=2003 |pmid=17642902}}</ref> || {{w|Finland}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1775 – 1780 || Field development || German philosopher {{w|Immanuel Kant}} in his lectures on ethics argues against the sale of human body parts.<ref name="Bioethicsbritannica.com">{{cite web |title=Bioethics |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/bioethics |website=britannica.com |accessdate=18 September 2018}}</ref> ||
+
| 1964 || Ethical code || Adoption || American physician {{w|Louis Lasagna}} writes a modernized version of the {{w|Hippocratic Oath}}, which emphasizes a holistic and compassionate approach to medicine. The "Lasagna Oath" would be adopted by many medical colleges, and is still in use today in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html | title=The Hippocratic Oath Today}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1779 || || German physician {{w|Johann Peter Frank}} writes strict ethical guidelines for public health and sanitation to improve the quality of life. || {{w|Germany}}
+
| 1966 || {{w|Jewish medical ethics}} || Organization || The [[W:Schlesinger Institute|Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research]] is founded.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research |url=http://www.medethics.org.il/website/index.php/en/ |website=medethics.org.il |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Partnership with the Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research and the International Responsa Project |url=https://www.israelrabbis.org/about-barkai-practical-rabbinics/newsletter-articles/90-bulletin/96-partnership-with-the-dr-falk-schlesinger-institute-for-medical-halachic-research-and-the-international-responsa-project |website=israelrabbis.org |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1794 || || English physician {{w|Thomas Percival}} writes first modern code of medical ethics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=LEAKE |first1=CHAUNCEY D. |title=PERCIVAL'S CODE: A CHAPTER IN THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL ETHICS |doi=10.1001/jama.1923.02650050020007 |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/235263}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Medical Ethics |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/medical-ethics/362CABA86F05C455D49E9238F76F3110 |website=cambridge.org |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+
| 1966 || || Organization || The first medical ethics committees in Europe emerge in the United Kingdom and Sweden.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective">{{cite book |last1=Have |first1=Ten |last2=Gordijn |first2=Bert |title=Bioethics in a European Perspective |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6kf8CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA242&lpg=PA242&dq=%22bioethics%22+%22in+1980..1990%22&source=bl&ots=EqKIhtbEXd&sig=nouvRbqMAo4_002jQdhY4WH_GSE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih_fi8yJrdAhXHQZAKHaJGCI8Q6AEwAXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22bioethics%22%20%22in%201980..1990%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|Sweden}}
 
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| 1847 || || The {{w|American Medical Association}} adopts its first [[w:ethical code|code of ethics]], with this being based in large part upon the work of {{w|Thomas Percival}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-10-16 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060704201058/http://www.uab.edu/reynolds/MajMedFigs/Percival.htm}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1966 || || Literature || American anesthesiologist {{w|Henry K. Beecher}} publishes an article in ''{{w|The New England Journal of Medicine}}'' exposing 22 unethical studies in biomedicine, including the {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} and the [[w:Willowbrook State School|Willowbrook hepatitis study]].<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)">{{cite web |title=Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present) |url=https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm |website=niehs.nih.gov |accessdate=18 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethics and clinical research / Henry K. Beecher |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/74765 |website=apps.who.int |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Henry Knowles Beecher and the Development of Informed Consent in Anesthesia Research |url=https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1946793 |website=anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1874 || || "Robert Bartholomew inserts electrodes into a hole in the skull of Mary Rafferty caused by a tumor. He notes that small amounts electric current caused bodily movements and that larger amounts caused pain. Rafferty, who was mentally ill, fell into a coma and died a few days after the experiment."<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Background |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68756-8_2#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20in%201874%20Robert,inserted%20electrodes%20into%20the%20hole. |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1968 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The International Code of Medical Ethics (adopted in 1949) is amended by the twenty-second World Medical Assembly at Sydney.<ref name="www.encyclopedia.com"/> || {{w|Australia}}
 
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| 1897 || || Italian bacteriologist {{w|Giuseppe Sanarelli}} injects the yellow fever bacteria into five patients without their consent. All the patients develop the disease and three die.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Background |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-68756-8_2#:~:text=In%201897%2C%20Giuseppe%20Sanarelli%20(1864,fever%20symptoms%20and%20three%20died. |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Case 5 Roots of Informed Consent |url=https://highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu/units/cases/unit3_5.html |website=highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Resnik |first1=David B. |title=The Ethics of Research with Human Subjects: Protecting People, Advancing Science, Promoting Trust |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uQdGDwAAQBAJ&dq=1897+%22Giuseppe+Sanarelli+injects+the+yellow+fever+bacteria&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
+
| 1970 || || Literature (book) || Paul Ramsey publishes ''The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ashley |first1=Benedict M. |title=Health Care Ethics: A Catholic Theological Analysis, Fifth Edition |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=jEEErLTiOz8C&pg=PA9&dq=%22in+1970%22+The+Patient+as+Person:+Explorations+in+Medical+Ethics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjnqZ__scLdAhUFGJAKHXt5Cp8Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201970%22%20The%20Patient%20as%20Person%3A%20Explorations%20in%20Medical%20Ethics&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> ||
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| 1973 || || Literature (journal) || ''{{w|The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics}}'' is first issued. It is published by the {{w|American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/lmec/1/1 |website=journals.sagepub.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1900 || || "Walter Reed experiments to determine the cause of yellow fever. Thirty-three participants, including eighteen Americans and six Cubans, were exposed to mosquitoes infected with yellow fever or injected with blood from yellow fever patients. Six participants died, including two researcher-volunteers. The participants all signed consent forms, some of which were translated into Spanish."<ref>{{cite web |title=Major Walter Reed and the Eradication of Yellow Fever |url=https://armyhistory.org/major-walter-reed-and-the-eradication-of-yellow-fever/#:~:text=In%20a%20series%20of%20experiments,to%20person%20with%20their%20bites. |website=armyhistory.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Politics of Participation: Walter Reed's Yellow-Fever Experiments |url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/politics-participation-walter-reeds-yellow-fever-experiments/2009-04 |website=journalofethics.ama-assn.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Walter Reed and Yellow Fever |url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/insects/reed/ |website=exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> ||
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| 1974 || || Policy || The {{w|United States Congress}} passes the {{w|National Research Act}}, which authorizes federal agencies to develop human research regulations.<ref name="Teaching Research Methods in Public Administration">{{cite book |title=Teaching Researchd |edition=Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MfWfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=In+2003,+the+American+Society+for+Microbiology+(ASM),+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences,+and+the+Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies+held+a+meeting+to+discuss+the+censorship+biological+research+that+poses+security+risks.+Journals+agree+to+self-censor+some+research&source=bl&ots=7bYyab3-UM&sig=ACfU3U2h3BsD2NvuhgnhFJhzBzv6sFevjA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiJooKbp8nqAhX1HrkGHc1tC-EQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=In%202003%2C%20the%20American%20Society%20for%20Microbiology%20(ASM)%2C%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%2C%20and%20the%20Center%20for%20Strategic%20and%20International%20Studies%20held%20a%20meeting%20to%20discuss%20the%20censorship%20biological%20research%20that%20poses%20security%20risks.%20Journals%20agree%20to%20self-censor%20some%20research&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1975 || || Literature (journal) || The ''{{w|American Journal of Law & Medicine}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Journal of Law and Medicine |url=https://www.linkedin.com/company/ajlm/about/ |website=linkedin.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1920 || Policy (reproductive rights) || {{w|Vladimir Lenin}} legalizes all abortions in the {{w|Soviet Union}}<ref>{{cite web |title=ABORTION AND BIRTH CONTROL IN SOVIET RUSSIA |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/field-alice/protect/ch04.html |website=marxists.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savage |first1=Mark |title=The Law of Abortion in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the People's Republic of China: Women's Rights in Two Socialist Countries |doi=10.2307/1228777 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228777?seq=1}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}
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| 1975 || || Literature (journal) || The ''{{w|Journal of Medical Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Editor-in-Chief Journal of Medical Ethics |url=https://blogs.bmj.com/medical-ethics/2017/07/05/editor-in-chief-journal-of-medical-ethics/ |website=blogs.bmj.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=VEATCH |first1=ROBERT M. |title=How Philosophy of Medicine Has Changed Medical Ethics |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03605310601009315 |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1932–1945 || || Japanese scientists working at {{w|Unit 731}} conduct abominable experiments on thousands of Chinese {{w|war prisoner}}. Experiments include biological and chemical weapons experiments, vaccination experiments, and wound-healing and surgical studies, including vivisections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brody |first1=Howard |last2=Leonard |first2=Sarah E. |last3=Nie |first3=Jing-Bao |last4=Weindling |first4=Paul |title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency |doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 |pmid=24534743 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829/ |pmc=4487829}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
+
| 1975 || {{w|Right to die}} || {{w|Social movement}} || The right to die movement begins in the United States with the case of [[w:Karen Ann Quinlan|Karen Quinlan]], an American woman who was in {{w|persistent vegetative state}} for ten years.<ref name="McFadden_1985">{{cite web | vauthors = McFadden RD | title = Karen Ann Quinlan, 31, Dies; Focus of '76 Right to Die Case | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/nyregion/karen-ann-quinlan-31-dies-focus-of-76-right-to-die-case.html | work = The New York Times | date = 12 June 1985 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1943–1944 || || {{w|Nazi human experimentation}}. "German scientists conducted morally abominable research on concentration camp prisoners, including experiments that exposed subjects to freezing temperatures, low air pressures, ionizing radiation and electricity, and infectious diseases; as well as wound-healing and surgical studies. " "The central leader of the experiments was [[Josef Mengele]], who from 1943 to 1944 performed experiments on nearly 1,500 sets of imprisoned twins at Auschwitz. About 200 people survived these studies."<ref>[http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html Josef Mengele and Experimentation on Human Twins at Auschwitz] {{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414074936/http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html |date=14 April 2015|title:Josef Mengele and Experimentation on Human Twins at Auschwitz}}</ref> ||
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| 1975 || {{w|Medical torture}} || Adoption || The {{w|Declaration of Tokyo}} is adopted by the 29th World Medical Assembly as a set of international guidelines for physicians concerning {{w|torture}} and other cruel, {{w|inhuman or degrading treatment}} or punishment in relation to detention and imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |title=WMA - The World Medical Association-WMA Declaration of Tokyo – Guidelines for Physicians Concerning Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Relation to Detention and Imprisonment |url=https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-tokyo-guidelines-for-physicians-concerning-torture-and-other-cruel-inhuman-or-degrading-treatment-or-punishment-in-relation-to-detention-and-imprisonment/ |website=wma.net |access-date=1 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=DECLARATION OF TOKYO |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |date=23 May 1986 |volume=255 |issue=20 |pages=2800 |doi=10.1001/jama.1986.03370200102038}}</ref> || {{w|Japan}}
 
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| 1947 || || The {{w|Nuremberg Code}} is adopted as a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation. It is set as a result of the {{w|Subsequent Nuremberg trials}} at the end of the {{w|Second World War}}.<ref name="Bioethicsvv">{{cite web |title=Bioethics |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/bioethic/ |website=iep.utm.edu |accessdate=1 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
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| 1978 || {{w|In vitro fertilization}} || Notable case || {{w|Louise Brown}} becomes the world’s first baby conceived by {{w|in vitro fertilization}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=THIS DAY IN HISTORY |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/worlds-first-test-tube-baby-born |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Louise Brown Biography |url=https://www.biography.com/personality/louise-brown |website=biography.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{W|United Kingdom}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1948 || || The {{w|Declaration of Geneva}} is adopted by the {{w|World Medical Association}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fassin |first1=Didier |title=A Companion to Moral Anthropology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=qxImBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA500&dq=1948+Declaration+of+Geneva&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiny9auwcbqAhVvHLkGHchjC7oQ6AEwAXoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=1948%20Declaration%20of%20Geneva&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Advancing the Human Right to Health |edition=José M. Zuniga, Stephen P. Marks, Lawrence O. Gostin |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5cXwAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT425&dq=1948+Declaration+of+Geneva&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiny9auwcbqAhVvHLkGHchjC7oQ6AEwAnoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=1948%20Declaration%20of%20Geneva&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Switzerland}}
+
| 1978 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}}|| Notable case || Medical torture is performed on {{w|political prisoner}}s held at the infamous prison [[w:Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum|Tuol Sleng]] in {{w|Phnom Penh}} under the {{w|Khmer Rouge}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hunt |first1=Luke |title=Chilling Evidence in Khmer Rouge Trial |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/chilling-evidence-in-khmer-rouge-trial/ |website=thediplomat.com |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Cambodia}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1954 || Literature || Joseph F. Fletcher publishes ''Morals and Medicine: The Moral Problems of the Patient’s Right to Know the Truth, Contraception, Artificial Insemination, Sterilization, and Euthanasia''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morals and Medicine |url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/549.html |website=press.princeton.edu |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bioethicsvv"/> ||
+
| 1978 || || Organization || The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors is formed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van der Weyden |first1=Martin B |title=The ICMJE and URM: Providing Independent Advice for the Conduct of Biomedical Research and Publication |doi=10.4103/0973-1229.32145 |pmid=22058614 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3192379/#:~:text=The%20International%20Committee%20of%20Medical%20Journal%20Editors%20(ICMJE)%20is%20a,US%20National%20Library%20of%20Medicine. |pmc=3192379}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1964 || || The {{w|Declaration of Helsinki}} is created in order to provide researchers and physicians with ethical guidelines. It is developed for the medical community by the {{w|World Medical Association}}.<ref name="Bioethicsvv"/><ref>{{cite web |title=DECLARATION OF HELSINKI |url=https://www.wma.net/what-we-do/medical-ethics/declaration-of-helsinki/ |website=wma.net |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Finland}}
+
| 1979 || || Organization || The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Switzerland}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1966 || Organization || The [[W:Schlesinger Institute|Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research]] is founded.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research |url=http://www.medethics.org.il/website/index.php/en/ |website=medethics.org.il |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Partnership with the Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research and the International Responsa Project |url=https://www.israelrabbis.org/about-barkai-practical-rabbinics/newsletter-articles/90-bulletin/96-partnership-with-the-dr-falk-schlesinger-institute-for-medical-halachic-research-and-the-international-responsa-project |website=israelrabbis.org |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
+
| 1979 || || Literature || The {{w|Belmont Report}} is published by the U.S. {{w| National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research}}. It provides the conceptual foundation for a major revision of the research regulations in 1981 in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Resnik |first1=David B. |title=Playing Politics with Science: Balancing Scientific Independence and Government Oversight |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=I-MQEWXLrXUC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1979+%22The+National+Commission+for+the+Protection+of+Human+Subjects+in+Biomedical+and+Behavioral+Research+publishes+The+Belmont+Report:+Principles+of+Ethical+Research+on+Human+Subjects.+The+Report+provides+the+conceptual+foundation+for+a+major+revision+of+the+U.S.+research+regulations+in+1981&source=bl&ots=oAgfAik88e&sig=ACfU3U2OKd_knXpOtiUVuoCbiTRVuKV_dQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD9I71_8jqAhX_GbkGHfyqCMIQ6AEwC3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=1979%20%22The%20National%20Commission%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Human%20Subjects%20in%20Biomedical%20and%20Behavioral%20Research%20publishes%20The%20Belmont%20Report%3A%20Principles%20of%20Ethical%20Research%20on%20Human%20Subjects.%20The%20Report%20provides%20the%20conceptual%20foundation%20for%20a%20major%20revision%20of%20the%20U.S.%20research%20regulations%20in%201981&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metcalf |first1=Jacob |last2=Crawford |first2=Kate |title=Where are human subjects in Big Data research? The emerging ethics divide |doi=10.1177/2053951716650211 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053951716650211}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1966 || Organization || The first medical ethics committees in Europe emerge in the United Kingdom and Sweden.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective">{{cite book |last1=Have |first1=Ten |last2=Gordijn |first2=Bert |title=Bioethics in a European Perspective |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6kf8CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA242&lpg=PA242&dq=%22bioethics%22+%22in+1980..1990%22&source=bl&ots=EqKIhtbEXd&sig=nouvRbqMAo4_002jQdhY4WH_GSE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih_fi8yJrdAhXHQZAKHaJGCI8Q6AEwAXoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22bioethics%22%20%22in%201980..1990%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|Sweden}}
+
| 1979 || || Literature || Peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|IRB: Ethics & Human Research}}'' is launched. It covers [[w:bioethics|bioethical]] aspects of research using human subjects. It is published by {{w|The Hastings Center}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Announcing Ethics & Human Research |url=https://www.thehastingscenter.org/news/announcing-ethics-human-research/ |website=thehastingscenter.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1966 || Field development || American anesthesiologist {{w|Henry K. Beecher}} publishes an article in ''{{w|The New England Journal of Medicine}}'' exposing 22 unethical studies in biomedicine, including the {{w|Tuskegee syphilis experiment}} and the [[w:Willowbrook State School|Willowbrook hepatitis study]].<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)">{{cite web |title=Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present) |url=https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/timeline/index.cfm |website=niehs.nih.gov |accessdate=18 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethics and clinical research / Henry K. Beecher |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/74765 |website=apps.who.int |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Henry Knowles Beecher and the Development of Informed Consent in Anesthesia Research |url=https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1946793 |website=anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref>  || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1979 || || Organization || The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Switzerland}}
|-
 
| 1974 || Policy || The {{w|United States Congress}} passes the {{w|National Research Act}}, which authorizes federal agencies to develop human research regulations.<ref name="Teaching Research Methods in Public Administration">{{cite book |title=Teaching Researchd |edition=Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MfWfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=In+2003,+the+American+Society+for+Microbiology+(ASM),+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences,+and+the+Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies+held+a+meeting+to+discuss+the+censorship+biological+research+that+poses+security+risks.+Journals+agree+to+self-censor+some+research&source=bl&ots=7bYyab3-UM&sig=ACfU3U2h3BsD2NvuhgnhFJhzBzv6sFevjA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiJooKbp8nqAhX1HrkGHc1tC-EQ6AEwAHoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=In%202003%2C%20the%20American%20Society%20for%20Microbiology%20(ASM)%2C%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%2C%20and%20the%20Center%20for%20Strategic%20and%20International%20Studies%20held%20a%20meeting%20to%20discuss%20the%20censorship%20biological%20research%20that%20poses%20security%20risks.%20Journals%20agree%20to%20self-censor%20some%20research&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
 
|-
 
|-
| 1975 || Literature (journal) || ''{{w|American Journal of Law & Medicine}}''<ref>{{cite web |title=American Journal of Law and Medicine |url=https://www.linkedin.com/company/ajlm/about/ |website=linkedin.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1979 || || Organization || The {{w|Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics}} is established in {{w|Saint Louis, Missouri}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Center for Health Care Ethics |url=https://www.slu.edu/arts-and-sciences/bioethics/about/index.php |website=slu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics |url=https://catalog.slu.edu/colleges-schools/arts-sciences/health-care-ethics/ |website=catalog.slu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1975 || Literature (journal) || The ''{{w|Journal of Medical Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Editor-in-Chief Journal of Medical Ethics |url=https://blogs.bmj.com/medical-ethics/2017/07/05/editor-in-chief-journal-of-medical-ethics/ |website=blogs.bmj.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=VEATCH |first1=ROBERT M. |title=How Philosophy of Medicine Has Changed Medical Ethics |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03605310601009315 |accessdate=17 September 2018}}</ref> ||
+
| 1979 || || Literature || The {{w|Belmont Report}} is released by the {{w| National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research}}. The Report becomes a key document in human research ethics regulations in the United States.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=The Belmont Report |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html |website=hhs.gov |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1975 || || The right to die movement begins in the United States with the case of [[w:Karen Ann Quinlan|Karen Quinlan]], an American woman who was in {{w|persistent vegetative state}} for ten years.<ref name="McFadden_1985">{{cite web | vauthors = McFadden RD | title = Karen Ann Quinlan, 31, Dies; Focus of '76 Right to Die Case | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/nyregion/karen-ann-quinlan-31-dies-focus-of-76-right-to-die-case.html | work = The New York Times | date = 12 June 1985 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1979 || || Literature (book) || Tom Beauchamp publishes ''Principles of biomedical ethics''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beauchamp |first1=Tom L. |last2=Beauchamp |first2=Professor of Philosophy and Senior Research Scholar Tom L. |last3=Childress |first3=James F. |title=Principles of Biomedical Ethics |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-505902-1 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Principles_of_Biomedical_Ethics.html?id=ic5pAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1978 || || {{w|Louise Brown}} becomes the world’s first baby conceived by in {{w|vitro fertilization}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=THIS DAY IN HISTORY |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/worlds-first-test-tube-baby-born |website=history.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Louise Brown Biography |url=https://www.biography.com/personality/louise-brown |website=biography.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{W|United Kingdom}}
+
| 1980 || || Literature (journal) || Bimonthly peer-reviewed {{w|medical journal}} ''{{w|Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics}}'' is first issued.<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume 1, Issue 1, February 1980 |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/11017/1/1 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1978 || Organization || The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors is formed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van der Weyden |first1=Martin B |title=The ICMJE and URM: Providing Independent Advice for the Conduct of Biomedical Research and Publication |doi=10.4103/0973-1229.32145 |pmid=22058614 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3192379/#:~:text=The%20International%20Committee%20of%20Medical%20Journal%20Editors%20(ICMJE)%20is%20a,US%20National%20Library%20of%20Medicine. |pmc=3192379}}</ref> ||
+
| 1981 || || Organization || Japan establishes its first ethics committee, at the Medical Institute of Tokyo University.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Japan}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1979 || || The {{w|Belmont Report}} is published by the U.S. {{w| National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research}}. It provides the conceptual foundation for a major revision of the research regulations in 1981 in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Resnik |first1=David B. |title=Playing Politics with Science: Balancing Scientific Independence and Government Oversight |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=I-MQEWXLrXUC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=1979+%22The+National+Commission+for+the+Protection+of+Human+Subjects+in+Biomedical+and+Behavioral+Research+publishes+The+Belmont+Report:+Principles+of+Ethical+Research+on+Human+Subjects.+The+Report+provides+the+conceptual+foundation+for+a+major+revision+of+the+U.S.+research+regulations+in+1981&source=bl&ots=oAgfAik88e&sig=ACfU3U2OKd_knXpOtiUVuoCbiTRVuKV_dQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD9I71_8jqAhX_GbkGHfyqCMIQ6AEwC3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=1979%20%22The%20National%20Commission%20for%20the%20Protection%20of%20Human%20Subjects%20in%20Biomedical%20and%20Behavioral%20Research%20publishes%20The%20Belmont%20Report%3A%20Principles%20of%20Ethical%20Research%20on%20Human%20Subjects.%20The%20Report%20provides%20the%20conceptual%20foundation%20for%20a%20major%20revision%20of%20the%20U.S.%20research%20regulations%20in%201981&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metcalf |first1=Jacob |last2=Crawford |first2=Kate |title=Where are human subjects in Big Data research? The emerging ethics divide |doi=10.1177/2053951716650211 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053951716650211}}</ref> ||
+
| 1981 || {{w|Clinical Medicine}} || Organization || The {{w|MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics}} is founded. Founded by {{w|Mark Siegler}}, it is a non-profit {{w|clinical medical ethics}} research institute promoting research in the field.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Steven Miles Wins MacLean Prize |url=https://macleanethics.uchicago.edu/ |website=macleanethics.uchicago.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Laura Weiss |last2=Siegler |first2=Mark |title=Clinical Medical Ethics: Landmark Works of Mark Siegler, MD |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=M3ckDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=1981++MacLean+Center+for+Clinical+Medical+Ethics&source=bl&ots=8DkQOp1Zll&sig=ACfU3U3FGPbvVjfEjGA5sQxGamQvGhDtnA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYndjPvMbqAhUSIbkGHfIbDw0Q6AEwA3oECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=1981%20%20MacLean%20Center%20for%20Clinical%20Medical%20Ethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1979 || Literature || {{w|IRB: Ethics & Human Research}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Announcing Ethics & Human Research |url=https://www.thehastingscenter.org/news/announcing-ethics-human-research/ |website=thehastingscenter.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1982 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || {{w|United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics}} is adopted by the {{w|United Nations}} as a code of {{w|medical ethics}} relating to the "roles of health personnel in the protection of persons against torture and other cruel, {{w|inhuman or degrading treatment}} or punishment."<ref>{{cite web |title=OHCHR {{!}} Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/medicalethics.aspx |website=www.ohchr.org |access-date=29 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Refugees |first1=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Principles of Medical Ethics |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f01464.html |website=Refworld |access-date=29 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
| 1979 || Organization || The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Switzerland}}
+
| 1983 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The International Code of Medical Ethics is amended by the thirty-fifth World Medical Assembly at Venice.<ref name="www.encyclopedia.com"/> || {{w|Italy}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1979 || Organization || {{w|Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics}}<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Center for Health Care Ethics |url=https://www.slu.edu/arts-and-sciences/bioethics/about/index.php |website=slu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics |url=https://catalog.slu.edu/colleges-schools/arts-sciences/health-care-ethics/ |website=catalog.slu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1985 || || Literature (book) || Zhi-zheng Du's ''Outline of Medical Ethics'' is published in China as the first systematic textbook of medical ethics after the cultural revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics">{{cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Mark J. |last2=Peppin |first2=John F. |title=Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=CUB5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248&dq=%22in+1987%22+Journal+Bioethics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiWuKHx_8DdAhVGlZAKHQ2DArwQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201987%22%20Journal%20Bioethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1979 || || The {{w|Belmont Report}} is released by the {{w| National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research}}. The Report becomes a key document in human research ethics regulations in the United States.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=The Belmont Report |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html |website=hhs.gov |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1987 || || Organization || The European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Health Care is founded by an international company of philosophers, physicians, ethicists and other interested professionals in the field.<ref name="The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare">{{cite web |title=The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare |url=http://www.espmh.org/about.php |website=espmh.org |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1980 || Literature (journal) || ''{{w|Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics}}''<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume 1, Issue 1, February 1980 |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/11017/1/1 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
+
|1987 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Concept development || Benjamin Freedman introduces the term ''{{w|clinical equipoise}}'' (also known as the ''principle of equipoise''), which provides the ethical basis for medical research that involves assigning patients to different treatment arms of a {{w|clinical trial}}.<ref name="Freedman">Freedman, B. (1987) 'Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research'. ''The New England Journal of Medicine'', 317, (3):141–145.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davies|first=Hugh|date=March 2007|title=Ethical reflections on Edward Jenner's experimental treatment|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|volume=33|issue=3|pages=174–176|doi=10.1136/jme.2005.015339|issn=0306-6800|pmc=2598263|pmid=17329392}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1981 || Organization || Japan establishes its first ethics committee, at the Medical Institute of Tokyo University.<ref name="Bioethics in a European Perspective"/> || {{w|Japan}}
+
| 1988 || || Literature (book) || Zhao-xiong He's ''History of Chinese Medical Morality'' is published, providing material on medical ethics from ancient to current China.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics"/> || {{w|China}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1981 || Organization || {{w|MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Steven Miles Wins MacLean Prize |url=https://macleanethics.uchicago.edu/ |website=macleanethics.uchicago.edu |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Laura Weiss |last2=Siegler |first2=Mark |title=Clinical Medical Ethics: Landmark Works of Mark Siegler, MD |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=M3ckDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=1981++MacLean+Center+for+Clinical+Medical+Ethics&source=bl&ots=8DkQOp1Zll&sig=ACfU3U3FGPbvVjfEjGA5sQxGamQvGhDtnA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjYndjPvMbqAhUSIbkGHfIbDw0Q6AEwA3oECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=1981%20%20MacLean%20Center%20for%20Clinical%20Medical%20Ethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1989 || || Literature (journal) || {{w|Peer-reviewed}} {{w|academic journal}} ''{{w|Accountability in Research}}'' is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Accountability in Research |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gacr20 |website=tandfonline.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1981 || Literature (journal) || ''{{w|The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics}}'' ||
+
| 1990 || {{w|Human genome}} research || Program launch || The {{w|Human Genome Project}} is launched by the {{w|United States}} as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the {{w|human genome}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=1990: Launch of the Human Genome Project |url=https://www.genome.gov/25520329/online-education-kit-1990-launch-of-the-human-genome-project |website=genome.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Human Genome Project (1990-2003) |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/human-genome-project-1990-2003 |website=embryo.asu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1985 || Literature || Zhi-zheng Du's ''Outline of Medical Ethics'' is published in China as the first systematic textbook of medical ethics after the cultural revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics">{{cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Mark J. |last2=Peppin |first2=John F. |title=Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=CUB5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248&dq=%22in+1987%22+Journal+Bioethics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiWuKHx_8DdAhVGlZAKHQ2DArwQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201987%22%20Journal%20Bioethics&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
+
| 1990 || || Notable case || American physician {{w|William French Anderson}} begins the first human gene therapy clinical trial on patients with {{w|adenosine deaminase deficiency}}, a genetic disease that affects the {{w|immune system}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Making History with the 1990 Gene Therapy Trial |url=https://www.genengnews.com/magazine/269/making-history-with-the-1990-gene-therapy-trial/ |website=genengnews.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Reprogenetics: Law, Policy, and Ethical Issues |edition=Lori P. Knowles, Gregory E. Kaebnick |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ZhTGhDlOgsYC&pg=PA1973&lpg=PA1973&dq=1990+%22W.+French+Anderson+begins+the+first+human+gene+therapy+clinical+trial+on+patients+with+ADA+deficiency,+a+genetic+disease+that+affects+the+immune+system&source=bl&ots=dPCjDTfiaF&sig=ACfU3U2Dx_PdGt6fqJW9BLW6vbufuLvx-w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinuqeHlsnqAhWoIbkGHTsTDqoQ6AEwC3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=1990%20%22W.%20French%20Anderson%20begins%20the%20first%20human%20gene%20therapy%20clinical%20trial%20on%20patients%20with%20ADA%20deficiency%2C%20a%20genetic%20disease%20that%20affects%20the%20immune%20system&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1987 || Organization || The European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Health Care is founded by an international company of philosophers, physicians, ethicists and other interested professionals in the field.<ref name="The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare">{{cite web |title=The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare |url=http://www.espmh.org/about.php |website=espmh.org |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
+
| 1992 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The {{w|Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief}} is drawn up by the {{w|Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response}} (SCHR) to set ethical standards for organizations involved in humanitarian work.<ref>{{cite web |title=Code of Conduct for Health Systems Strengthening |url=https://www.who.int/workforcealliance/news/Code%20booklet%20lowres.pdf?ua=1 |website=who.int |access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1987 || || ''{{w|Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy}}'' ||
+
| 1992 || || Literature (journal) || {{w|Peer-reviewed}} {{w|academic journal}} ''{{w|Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics}}'' is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-quarterly-of-healthcare-ethics/information/digital-archive-1992-1997 |website=cambridge.org |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1988 || Literature || Zhao-xiong He's ''History of Chinese Medical Morality'' is published, providing material on medical ethics from ancient to current China.<ref name="Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics"/> || {{w|China}}
+
| 1993 || || Literature (journal) || The ''Indian Journal of Medical Ethics'' is launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jesani |first1=Amar |title=In the 25th year of bioethics publishing: new challenges of the post-truth era |url=http://ijme.in/articles/in-the-25th-year-of-bioethics-publishing-new-challenges-of-the-post-truth-era-2/?galley=html |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1989 || || ''{{w|Accountability in Research}}'' ||
+
| 1993 || {{w|Human cloning}} || Notable case || Researchers successfully clone human {{w|embryo}}s.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1990 || Program launch || The {{w|Human Genome Project}} is launched by the {{w|United States}} as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the {{w|human genome}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=1990: Launch of the Human Genome Project |url=https://www.genome.gov/25520329/online-education-kit-1990-launch-of-the-human-genome-project |website=genome.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Human Genome Project (1990-2003) |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/human-genome-project-1990-2003 |website=embryo.asu.edu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1993 || || Literature (journal) || Peer-reviewed {{w|law review}} ''{{w|Medical Law International}}'' is established. It covers issues in medical law, bioethics, and health governance.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical Law International - Volume 1, Number 1, Mar 01, 1993 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/mli/1/1 |website=SAGE Journals |access-date=1 September 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1990 || || American physician {{w|William French Anderson}} begins the first human gene therapy clinical trial on patients with {{w|adenosine deaminase deficiency}}, a genetic disease that affects the {{w|immune system}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Making History with the 1990 Gene Therapy Trial |url=https://www.genengnews.com/magazine/269/making-history-with-the-1990-gene-therapy-trial/ |website=genengnews.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Reprogenetics: Law, Policy, and Ethical Issues |edition=Lori P. Knowles, Gregory E. Kaebnick |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ZhTGhDlOgsYC&pg=PA1973&lpg=PA1973&dq=1990+%22W.+French+Anderson+begins+the+first+human+gene+therapy+clinical+trial+on+patients+with+ADA+deficiency,+a+genetic+disease+that+affects+the+immune+system&source=bl&ots=dPCjDTfiaF&sig=ACfU3U2Dx_PdGt6fqJW9BLW6vbufuLvx-w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinuqeHlsnqAhWoIbkGHTsTDqoQ6AEwC3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=1990%20%22W.%20French%20Anderson%20begins%20the%20first%20human%20gene%20therapy%20clinical%20trial%20on%20patients%20with%20ADA%20deficiency%2C%20a%20genetic%20disease%20that%20affects%20the%20immune%20system&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1994 || Data fraud || Notable case || {{w|Montreal}} surgeon Roger Poisson admits to fabricating and falsifying patient data in NIH-funded breast cancer clinical trials in order allow his patients to qualify for enrollment and have access to experimental treatments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Doctor Says He Falsified Cancer Data to Help Patients |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/01/us/doctor-says-he-falsified-cancer-data-to-help-patients.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2019 Tri-I Responsible Conduct of Research Course RCR Case Studies |url=https://www.mskcc.org/sites/default/files/node/26556/documents/case-study-instructions-and-guidelines-fall-2019.pdf |website=mskcc.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Canada}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1991 || || "The 1991 {{w|Patient Self-Determination Act}} passed by the {{w|US Congress}} at the request of the financial arm of Medicare does permit elderly Medicare/Medicaid patients (and by implication, all "terminal" patients) to prepare an advance directive in which they elect or choose to refuse life-extending and/or life-saving treatments as a means of shortening their lives to shorten their suffering unto certain death.  The treatment refused in an advance directive under US law, because of the 1991 PSDA,  does not have to be proved to be "medically futile" under some existing due-process procedure developed under state laws, such as TADA in Texas."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kelley K | title = The Patient Self-Determination Act. A matter of life and death | journal = Physician Assistant | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 49, 53–6, 59–60 passim | date = March 1995 | pmid = 10141946 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1994 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || The United States Government declassifies information about secret human radiation experiments conducted from the 1940s-1980s and issues an apology.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1992 || || ''{{w|Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics}}'' || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+
| 1994 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Organization || The {{w|Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments}} is formed to investigate questions of the record of the United States government with respect to human radiation experiments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments |url=https://bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu/achre/ |website=bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments - Executive Summary |url=https://ehss.energy.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/summary.html |website=ehss.energy.gov |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1993 || Journal || The ''Indian Journal of Medical Ethics'' is launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jesani |first1=Amar |title=In the 25th year of bioethics publishing: new challenges of the post-truth era |url=http://ijme.in/articles/in-the-25th-year-of-bioethics-publishing-new-challenges-of-the-post-truth-era-2/?galley=html |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
+
| 1994 || {{w|Health law}} || Literature (journal) || The ''{{w|European Journal of Health Law}}'' is first issued.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nys |first1=Herman |title=The European Journal of Health Law 1994-2019: How Innovative Has Its Contribution Been to the Development of Health Law in Europe? |doi=10.1163/15718093-12265006 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ejhl/26/5/article-p379_1.xml?language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Netherlands}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1993 || Scientific development || Researchers successfully clone human {{w|embryo}}s.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
+
| 1994 || {{w|Nursing ethics}} || Literature (journal) || [[w:Peer review|Peer-reviewed]] {{w|academic journal}} ''{{w|Nursing Ethics}}'' is first issued.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nursing Ethics |url=https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/journal/nursing-ethics |website=us.sagepub.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1994 || || The United States Government declassifies information about secret human radiation experiments conducted from the 1940s-1980s and issues an apology.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1994 || || Literature (book) || American philosophers {{w|Tom Beauchamp}} and {{w|James Childress}} publish ''The principles of biomedical ethics'', in which they state their basic principles of bioethics as "the principle of respect for patient autonomy, which has grounded, in particular, the concept of informed consent; dates back to the Hippocratic principle of “do no harm,” which requires minimization of damage to the patient during the medical intervention; the principle of “do good” (beneficence), emphasizing the physician’s responsibility to take positive steps to improve the condition of the patient; and the principle of justice, emphasizing the need for fairness and equal treatment of patients, and equitable distribution of resources (which are always limited) in the provision of medical care".<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present">{{cite web |title=Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present |url=https://www.intechopen.com/books/reflections-on-bioethics/russian-school-of-bioethics-history-and-the-present- |website=intechopen.com |accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1994 || || The {{w|Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments}} is formed to investigate questions of the record of the United States government with respect to human radiation experiments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments |url=https://bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu/achre/ |website=bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments - Executive Summary |url=https://ehss.energy.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/summary.html |website=ehss.energy.gov |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1997 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Notable case || United States President {{w|Bill Clinton}} formally apologizes on behalf of the United States to victims of the [[w:U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee|syphilis study at Tuskegee]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Apology |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/clintonp.htm |website=cdc.gov |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Apology for the Study at Tuskegee |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Presidential-Apology-for-the-Study-at-Tuskegee-1369625 |website=britannica.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1994 || || ''{{w|European Journal of Health Law}}''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nys |first1=Herman |title=The European Journal of Health Law 1994-2019: How Innovative Has Its Contribution Been to the Development of Health Law in Europe? |doi=10.1163/15718093-12265006 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ejhl/26/5/article-p379_1.xml?language=en}}</ref> ||
+
| 1997 || Human Genome research || Adoption || The {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}} is issued by the {{w|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization}} (UNESCO) at its 29th session. It is perhaps best known for its statement against {{w|human cloning}} and abuse of {{w|human genome}} against human dignity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/HumanGenomeAndHumanRights.aspx |website=ohchr.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mayor |first1=Federico |title=The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human RightsLa Déclaration Universelle sur le Génome Humain et les Droits de l'Homme |doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2003.09.017 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069103002154}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1994 || || ''{{w|Nursing Ethics}}''<ref>{{cite web |title=Nursing Ethics |url=https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/journal/nursing-ethics |website=us.sagepub.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1997 || {{w|Euthanasia}} ({{w|assisted suicide}}) || Policy || The {{w|Constitutional Court of Colombia}} decriminalises piety homicide, for terminally ill patients, stating that "the medical author cannot be held responsible for the assisted suicide of a terminally ill patient" and urges [[w:Congress of Colombia|Congress]] to regulate {{w|voluntary euthanasia|euthanasia}} "in the shortest time possible".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dmd.org.co/pdf/sentencia-c-239.pdf|title= REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA Corte Constitucional Sentencia No. C-239/97 |date=20 May 1997 |access-date=13 July 2020|author-link= Constitutional Court of Colombia }}</ref> || {{w|Colombia}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1994 || Literature || American philosophers {{w|Tom Beauchamp}} and {{w|James Childress}} publish ''The principles of biomedical ethics'', in which they state their basic principles of bioethics as "the principle of respect for patient autonomy, which has grounded, in particular, the concept of informed consent; dates back to the Hippocratic principle of “do no harm,” which requires minimization of damage to the patient during the medical intervention; the principle of “do good” (beneficence), emphasizing the physician’s responsibility to take positive steps to improve the condition of the patient; and the principle of justice, emphasizing the need for fairness and equal treatment of patients, and equitable distribution of resources (which are always limited) in the provision of medical care".<ref name="Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present">{{cite web |title=Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present |url=https://www.intechopen.com/books/reflections-on-bioethics/russian-school-of-bioethics-history-and-the-present- |website=intechopen.com |accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1997 || Education || Service launch || The first {{w|research ethics consultation}} (REC) service is established at the {{w|National Institutes of Health}} (NIH) Clinical Center. REC describes a formal way for researchers to solicit and receive expert ethical guidance related to {{w|biomedical research}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Emanuel|first=EJ|title=The blossoming of bioethics at NIH|journal={{w|Kennedy Inst Ethics J}}|date=Dec 1998|volume=8|issue=4|pages=455–66|pmid=11657322}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}  
 
|-
 
|-
| 1997 || || United States President {{w|Bill Clinton}} formally apologizes on behalf of the United States to victims of the [[w:U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee|syphilis study at Tuskegee]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Apology |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/clintonp.htm |website=cdc.gov |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Apology for the Study at Tuskegee |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Presidential-Apology-for-the-Study-at-Tuskegee-1369625 |website=britannica.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1998 || {{w|Biomedical research}} || Literature (book) || American bioethicist {{w|Baruch Brody}} publishes ''The Ethics of Biomedical Research''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brody |first1=Baruch A. |last2=Brody |first2=Leon Jaworski Professor of Biomedical Ethics Director of the Center for Medical Ethics and Health Policy Baruch A. |title=The Ethics of Biomedical Research: An International Perspective |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509007-9 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/The_Ethics_of_Biomedical_Research.html?id=FDJrAAAAMAAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1997 || || {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/HumanGenomeAndHumanRights.aspx |website=ohchr.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mayor |first1=Federico |title=The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human RightsLa Déclaration Universelle sur le Génome Humain et les Droits de l'Homme |doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2003.09.017 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069103002154}}</ref> ||
+
| 1998 || || Literature (journal) || {{w|Medicine Health Care and Philosophy}} is launched by the European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare.<ref name="The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare"/> || {{w|Europe}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1997 || || "The {{w|Constitutional Court of Colombia}} decriminalised piety homicide, for terminally ill patients, stating that "the medical author cannot be held responsible for the assisted suicide of a terminally ill patient" and urged [[w:Congress of Colombia|Congress]] to regulate {{w|voluntary euthanasia|euthanasia}} "in the shortest time possible"."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dmd.org.co/pdf/sentencia-c-239.pdf|title= REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA Corte Constitucional Sentencia No. C-239/97 |author=Constitutional Court of Colombia |date=20 May 1997 |access-date=13 July 2020|author-link= Constitutional Court of Colombia }}</ref> || {{w|Colombia}}
+
| 1998 || || Literature (book) || Allen M. Hornblum publishes ''{{w|Acres of Skin}}'', which documents clinical non-therapeutic [[w:Research Involving Prisoners|medical experiments on prison inmates]] at [[w:Holmesburg, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania#Prisons|Holmesburg Prison]] in Philadelphia from 1951 to 1974, conducted under the direction of {{w|dermatologist}} {{w|Albert Kligman}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hornblum |first1=Allen M. |title=Acres of Skin: Human Experiments at Holmesburg Prison : a Story of Abuse and Exploitation in the Name of Medical Science |date=1998 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-91990-6 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Acres_of_Skin.html?id=HyFbdu7KKswC&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1997 || || "As the health of citizens is considered a police power left for individual states to regulate, it was not until 1997 that the US Supreme Court made a ruling on the issue of assisted suicide and one's right to die. That year, the Supreme Court heard two appeals arguing that New York and Washington statutes that made physician-assisted suicide a felony violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment."<ref>{{cite web | title = Vacco, Attorney General of New York, et al. v. Quill et al.| url = https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10644975876581235704&q=vacco+v.+quill&hl=en&as_sdt=40000006 | publisher = United States Supreme Court }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1998 || {{w|Stem cell controversy}} || Notable case || Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Stem Cell Research as Innovation: Expanding the Ethical and Policy Conversation |doi=10.1111/j.1748-720X.2010.00492.x |pmid=20579255 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2941662/ |pmc=2941662}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 13Embryos, Cloning, Stem Cells, and the Promise of Reprogramming |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK190607/ |website=ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=European Citizens' Initiative: European Commission replies to 'One of Us' – Q&A |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_14_385 |website=ec.europa.eu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1998 || Literature (journal) || {{w|Medicine Health Care and Philosophy}} is launched by the European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare.<ref name="The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare"/> ||
+
| 1998 || || Literature (journal) || Quarterly peer-reviewed medical journal ''{{w|Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/11019/volumes-and-issues |website=springer.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 1998 || Scientific development || Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Stem Cell Research as Innovation: Expanding the Ethical and Policy Conversation |doi=10.1111/j.1748-720X.2010.00492.x |pmid=20579255 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2941662/ |pmc=2941662}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 13Embryos, Cloning, Stem Cells, and the Promise of Reprogramming |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK190607/ |website=ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=European Citizens' Initiative: European Commission replies to 'One of Us' – Q&A |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_14_385 |website=ec.europa.eu |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1999 || {{w|Reproductive technology}}, {{w|human genetics}} || Organization || {{w|Human Genetics Alert}} is founded in {{w|London}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Human Genetics Alert |url=http://www.hgalert.org/aboutUs/ |website=hgalert.org |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> It advocates against uses of {{w|reproductive technology}} and {{w|human genetics}} research, which it considers harmful.<ref name="detail">{{cite web |title=Participant Detail |url=http://www.biopolitics-berlin2003.org/participants.asp?id=302&od=1 |website=Within and Beyond the Limits to Human Nature |accessdate=18 December 2019}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1998 || Scientific development || American biotechnologist {{w|Craig Venter}} forms [[w:Celera Corporation|Celera Genomics]] and begins a private effort to sequence the human genome, using dozens of automated sequencing machines.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> ||
+
| 1999 || Education || Policy || The {{w|National Institutes of Health}} and the {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research have some training in research ethics.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1999 || Organization || {{w|Human Genetics Alert}} is founded in {{w|London}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Human Genetics Alert |url=http://www.hgalert.org/aboutUs/ |website=hgalert.org |accessdate=19 December 2019}}</ref> It advocates against uses of {{w|reproductive technology}} and {{w|human genetics}} research that it considers harmful.<ref name="detail">{{cite web |title=Participant Detail |url=http://www.biopolitics-berlin2003.org/participants.asp?id=302&od=1 |website=Within and Beyond the Limits to Human Nature |accessdate=18 December 2019}}</ref> ||
+
| 1999 || || Policy || The United States {{w|National Institutes of Health}} and the {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research to have training in research ethics.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1999 || Policy || The {{w|National Institutes of Health}} and the {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research have some training in research ethics.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2000 || || Organization || The {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=OHRP History |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/about-ohrp/history/index.html |website=hhs.gov |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 1999 || Policy || The United States {{w|National Institutes of Health}} and the {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research to have training in research ethics.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2000 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || The {{w|Declaration of Helsinki}} is revised.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Heidi P |last2=Emanuel |first2=Ezekiel |last3=Grady |first3=Christine |title=The 2000 revision of the Declaration of Helsinki: a step forward or more confusion? |journal=The Lancet |date=October 2001 |volume=358 |issue=9291 |pages=1449–1453 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06534-5}}</ref> This revision requires monitoring of scientific research on human subjects to assure ethical standards are being met.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Heidi P |last2=Emanuel |first2=Ezekiel |last3=Grady |first3=Christine |title=The 2000 revision of the Declaration of Helsinki: a step forward or more confusion? |journal=The Lancet |date=October 2001 |volume=358 |issue=9291 |pages=1449–1453 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06534-5}}</ref> || {{w|Finland}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2000 || Organization || The {{w|Office for Human Research Protections}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=OHRP History |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/about-ohrp/history/index.html |website=hhs.gov |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2000 || || Literature (book) || American lawyer and author {{w|Wesley J. Smith}} publishes ''Culture of Death: The Assault on Medical Ethics in America'', which describes medical ethics as a field in crisis. This book would be named Best Health Book of the Year at the 2001 Independent Publishers Book Awards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Culture of Death: The Assault on Medical Ethics in America |url=https://www.amazon.com/Culture-Death-Assault-Medical-America/dp/189355449X |website=amazon.com |access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=IPPY Awards 2001: The Results Are In! |url=http://www.independentpublisher.com/article.php?page=381 |website=independentpublisher.com |access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}  
 
|-
 
|-
| 2001 || || The United States Government announces that the {{w|National Institutes of Health}} will fund research on approximately 64 embryonic stem cell lines created from leftover human {{w|embryo}}s.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2000 || {{w|Medical error}} || Literature (report) || The {{w|Institute of Medicine}} releases "[[w:To Err Is Human (report)|To Err is Human]]," which asserts that the problem in medical errors is not bad people in health care but it is that good people are working in bad systems that need to be made safer.<ref name=toerr>{{cite book |last=Institute of Medicine |year=2000 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/9728 |title=To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System |location=Washington, DC | publisher=The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-26174-6 |doi=10.17226/9728 |doi-access=free |pmid=25077248 |page=4}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2001 || || ''{{w|Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics}}''<ref>{{cite web |title=Yale journal of health policy, law, and ethics. |url=https://search.library.dartmouth.edu/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991033296908805706&context=L&vid=01DCL_INST:01DCL&lang=en |website=search.library.dartmouth.edu |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2001 || || Literature (journal) || ''{{w|Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yale journal of health policy, law, and ethics. |url=https://search.library.dartmouth.edu/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991033296908805706&context=L&vid=01DCL_INST:01DCL&lang=en |website=search.library.dartmouth.edu |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2001 || Field development || The {{w|United States Congress}} starts debating legislation on human cloning.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2001 || {{w|Human cloning}} || Notable case || The {{w|United States Congress}} starts debating legislation on human cloning.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite web |title=THE HUMAN CLONING PROHIBITION ACT OF 2001 AND THE CLONING PROHIBITION |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-107hhrg73733/html/CHRG-107hhrg73733.htm |website=govinfo.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Not Waiting for Congress to Act, Some States Move to Ban Human Cloning |url=https://www.guttmacher.org/gpr/2002/02/not-waiting-congress-act-some-states-move-ban-human-cloning |website=guttmacher.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Stolberg |first1=Sheryl Gay |title=HOUSE BACKS BAN ON HUMAN CLONING FOR ANY OBJECTIVE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/01/us/house-backs-ban-on-human-cloning-for-any-objective.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2001 || || "Congress debates legislation on human cloning."<ref>{{cite web |title=THE HUMAN CLONING PROHIBITION ACT OF 2001 AND THE CLONING PROHIBITION |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-107hhrg73733/html/CHRG-107hhrg73733.htm |website=govinfo.gov |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Not Waiting for Congress to Act, Some States Move to Ban Human Cloning |url=https://www.guttmacher.org/gpr/2002/02/not-waiting-congress-act-some-states-move-ban-human-cloning |website=guttmacher.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Stolberg |first1=Sheryl Gay |title=HOUSE BACKS BAN ON HUMAN CLONING FOR ANY OBJECTIVE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/01/us/house-backs-ban-on-human-cloning-for-any-objective.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 2001 || Embryonic stem cell research || Policy || United Sates President {{w|George W. Bush}} introduces a ban on federal funding for research on newly created human embryonic stem cell lines. He also announces the creation of a special council to oversee stem cell research.<ref>{{cite web |title=President George W. Bush's Announcement on Stem Cells, 9 August 2001 {{!}} The Embryo Project Encyclopedia |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/president-george-w-bushs-announcement-stem-cells-9-august-2001 |website=embryo.asu.edu |access-date=29 August 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2001 || {{w|Philosophy of healthcare}} || Program launch || The United States federal government takes up an initiative to provide patients with an explicit list of rights concerning their healthcare. The political philosophy behind such an initiative essentially blends ideas of the [[w:Consumer Bill of Rights|Consumers' Bill of Rights]] with the field of healthcare. It is undertaken in an effort to ensure the quality of care of all patients by preserving the integrity of the processes that occur in the healthcare industry.<ref>{{cite web |title=SUMMARY OF THE MCCAIN-EDWARDS-KENNEDY PATIENTS' BILL OF RIGHTS |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414202540/http://democrats.senate.gov/pbr/summary.html |website=web.archive.org |access-date=31 August 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2001 || || "The Bush Administration announces that the NIH will only fund human embryonic stem cell research on approximately 64 cell lines created from leftover human embryos."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murugan |first1=Varnee |title=Embryonic Stem Cell Research: A Decade of Debate from Bush to Obama |pmid=19774120 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2744932/ |pmc=2744932}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CRS Report for Congress |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31015.pdf |website=fas.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 2002 || {{w|Euthanasia}} || Notable case || The Netherlands legalizes {{w|voluntary euthanasia}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Euthanasia in the Netherlands |url=https://www.alliancevita.org/en/2017/11/euthanasia-in-the-netherlands/ |website=alliancevita.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Euthanasia now legal in Holland |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/01/netherlands.euthanasia/ |website=edition.cnn.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Netherlands}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2002 || || The Netherlands legalizes {{w|voluntary euthanasia}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Euthanasia in the Netherlands |url=https://www.alliancevita.org/en/2017/11/euthanasia-in-the-netherlands/ |website=alliancevita.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Euthanasia now legal in Holland |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/01/netherlands.euthanasia/ |website=edition.cnn.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Netherlands}}
+
| 2003 || || Adoption || The {{w|International Bioethics Committee}} issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Declaration on Human Genetic Data |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/human-genetic-data |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INTERNATIONAL DECLARATION ON HUMAN GENETIC DATA |url=https://www.who.int/genomics/elsi/regulatory_data/region/international/031/en/ |website=who.int |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 2003 || || The {{w|International Bioethics Committee}} issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the {{w|Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Declaration on Human Genetic Data |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/human-genetic-data |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INTERNATIONAL DECLARATION ON HUMAN GENETIC DATA |url=https://www.who.int/genomics/elsi/regulatory_data/region/international/031/en/ |website=who.int |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 2003 || || Notable case || The ''{{w|Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute}}'' takes place as a decision by the {{w|United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida}} which rules that individuals do not own their tissue samples when researchers take them for testing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=United States District Court, S.D. Florida, Miami |first1=Division. |title=Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute. |journal=West's federal supplement |date=2003 |volume=264 |pages=1064-78 |pmid=15776537}}</ref> This case sets a precedent for determining ownership of donated tissue samples.<ref>{{cite web |title=Patent Rights in Biological Material |url=https://archive.is/20120907234846/http://www.ipfrontline.com/depts/article.aspx?id=12910&deptid=5 |website=archive.md |access-date=24 October 2021 |date=7 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ho Owns My Tissue? |url=http://www.dddmag.com/intellectual-property-and-biological-materials.aspx |website=dddmag.com |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2003 || Organization || {{w|The Regenerative Medicine Institute}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Regenerative Medicine Institute |url=http://www.nuigalway.ie/remedi/about-us |website=nuigalway.ie |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stem Cells, Regenerative Medicine, and Tissue Engineering |url=https://www.fightaging.org/archives/2003/11/stem-cells-regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering/ |website=fightaging.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Ireland}}
+
| 2003 || || Literature (book) || Tony Hope publishes ''Medical Ethics and Law: The Core Curriculum'', a short textbook of medical ethics and law primarily aimed at medical students.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical Ethics & Law: The Core Curriculum |url=https://www.amazon.com/Medical-Ethics-Law-Core-Curriculum/dp/0443062552 |website=amazon.com |access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
| 2004 || Literature || Medical ethicist James Hughes publishes ''{{w|Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future}}'', which argues that technologies pushing the boundaries of humanness can radically improve our quality of life if they are controlled democratically.<ref>{{cite web |title=Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/111902.Citizen_Cyborg |website=goodreads.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> ||
+
| 2004 || || Literature || Medical ethicist [[w:James Hughes (sociologist)|James Hughes]] publishes ''{{w|Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future}}'', which argues that technologies pushing the boundaries of humanness can radically improve our quality of life if they are controlled democratically.<ref>{{cite web |title=Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/111902.Citizen_Cyborg |website=goodreads.com |accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
| 2004 || Literature (book) || {{w|Nicholas Agar}} publishes ''Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement''<ref>{{cite web |title=Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470775004 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Liberal eugenics: In defence of human enhancement |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02448849 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 2004 || || Literature (book) || New Zelander ethics professor {{w|Nicholas Agar}} publishes ''Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement''<ref>{{cite web |title=Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470775004 |website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Liberal eugenics: In defence of human enhancement |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02448849 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|New Zeland}}
 
|-  
 
|-  
| 2004 || || {{w|eTBLAST}} is established. It is a search engine designed to search similar texts within the MEDLINE database. eTBLAST would lead to research involving plagiarism and duplicate publications of articles in academic journals.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Plagiarism in Academia |journal=International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ909069.pdf |issn=1812-9129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Starovoytova |first1=Diana |title=Plagiarism under a Magnifying-Glass |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1143987.pdf |issn=2222-1735}}</ref> ||
+
| 2004 || {{w|Military medical ethics}} || Literature (book) || Edmund D. Pelegrino and Anthony E. Hartle publish ''Military Medical Ethics'', which addresses medical ethics within a military context.<ref>{{cite web |title=Military Medical Ethics, Volume 1-2 (Textbooks of Military Medicine) by Pelegrino, M.D. Edmund D. 0160505011 9780160505010 |url=https://www.discoverbooks.com/Military-Medical-Ethics-Volume-1-2-Textbooks-of-p/0160505011.htm |website=Discover Books |language=en}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2004 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || Poland publishes its medical ethics code ''Kodeks Etyki Lekarskiej''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kodeks Etyki Lekarskiej |url=https://www.mp.pl/etyka/dokumenty/86823,kodeks-etyki-lekarskiej |website=www.mp.pl |access-date=30 August 2021 |language=pl}}</ref> || {{w|Poland}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2005 || || Adoption || The {{w|Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights}} is adopted by {{w|UNESCO}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langlois |first1=Adèle |title=The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Perspectives from Kenya and South Africa |doi=10.1007/s10728-007-0055-7 |pmid=18240025 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2226192/#:~:text=In%20October%202005%2C1%20the,on%20Bioethics%20and%20Human%20Rights.&text=The%20onus%20is%20on%20UNESCO's,national%20laws%2C%20regulations%20or%20policies. |pmc=2226192}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/bioethics-and-human-rights |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2006 || || Literature (journal) || Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|Clinical Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clinical Ethics |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/ceta/1/3 |website=journals.sagepub.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2006 || {{w|Euthanasia}} || Research || By this time, {{w|euthanasia}} becomes the most active area of research in {{w|bioethics}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borry |first1=P |title=Empirical research in bioethical journals. A quantitative analysis |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |date=1 April 2006 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=240–245 |doi=10.1136/jme.2004.011478}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2006 || || Literature (journal) || The ''{{w|Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics: An International Journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/journal/jempreshumreseth |website=jstor.org |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2007 || {{w|Unethical human experimentation}} || Literature (book) || {{w|Harriet A. Washington}} publishes ''{{w|Medical Apartheid}}'', which recounts the history of [[w:Unethical human experimentation in the United States|medical experimentation]] on {{w|African Americans}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Unequal treatment |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/18/books/review/Emanuel.t.html |website=nytimes.com |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2007 || {{w|Ethics of circumcision}} || Notable statement || The {{w|World Health Organization}} states that provision of circumcision should be consistent with "medical ethics and human rights principles." They state that "[i]nformed consent, confidentiality and absence of coercion should be assured. ... Parents who are responsible for providing consent, including for the circumcision of male infants, should be given sufficient information regarding the benefits and risks of the procedure in order to determine what is in the best interests of the child."<ref>WHO/UNAIDS Technical Consultation. [https://www.who.int/entity/hiv/mediacentre/MCrecommendations_en.pdf Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention: Research Implications for Policy and Programming]. Montreux, 6–8 March 2007</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || || Literature || The {{w|Catholic Church}} publishes a document entitled ''{{w|Dignitas Personae}}'', about a range of bioethical issues related to the areas of assisted reproduction and human genetics. The paper analizes and comments the bioethical thinking of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pastor |first1=LM |title=[Ethical analysis and commentary of Dignitas Personae document: from continuity toward the innovation]. |pmid=21692553 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21692553}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INSTRUCTION DIGNITAS PERSONAE |url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20081208_dignitas-personae_en.html |website=vatican.va |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vatican issues new document on biotechnology |url=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all-things-catholic/vatican-issues-new-document-biotechnology |website=ncronline.org |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || || Literature (book) || Candace C. Gauthier and John E. Snyder publish ''Evidence-Based Medical Ethics: Cases for Practice-Based Learning'', which aims to address  ethical and legal guidelines essential to the everyday practice of medicine.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=John E. |last2=Gauthier |first2=Candace C. |title=Evidence-Based Medical Ethics:: Cases for Practice-Based Learning |date=9 October 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-60327-246-9 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Evidence_Based_Medical_Ethics.html?id=93y_6FFm8ikC&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || {{w|Neuroethics}} || Literature (journal) || Triannual {{w|peer-reviewed}} {{w|academic journal}} ''[[w:Neuroethics (journal)|Neuroethics]]'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume 1, Issue 1, March 2008 |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/12152/1/1 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || || Policy || The United States {{w|FDA}} publishes its decision to abandon the {{w|Declaration of Helsinki}} as a guide for clinical research ethics.<ref name="ethicsinhealth.org">{{cite web |title=Timeline of Ethics in Clinical Research |url=http://ethicsinhealth.org/?p=703 |website=ethicsinhealth.org |access-date=28 August 2021}}</ref> This allows the pharmaceutical industry to run international clinical trials in which patients in the control group can be treated with placebos instead of the best standard medical care.<ref>{{cite web |title=FDA abandons Declaration of Helsinki for international clinical trials |url=http://www.socialmedicine.org/2008/06/01/ethics/fda-abandons-declaration-of-helsinki-for-international-clinical-trials/ |website=ALAMES: Latin American Social Medicine Asociation |access-date=30 August 2021 |date=1 June 2008}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || {{w|Public health}} || Literature (journal) || Triannual peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|Public Health Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume 1, Issue 1, April 2008 |url=https://academic.oup.com/phe/issue/1/1 |website=academic.oup.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2009 || {{w|Embryonic stem cell}} research || Policy || The Obama Administration announces it will significantly expand {{w|National Institutes of Health}} funding of human embryonic stem cell research which was restricted under the Bush Administration.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolinsky |first1=Howard |title=The pendulum swung. President Barack Obama removes restrictions on stem-cell research, but are expectations now too high? |doi=10.1038/embor.2009.78 |pmid=19415078 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680887/ |pmc=2680887}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2009 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || Brazil publishes its ''Medical Ethics Code'' (''Código de Ética Médica'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Código de Ética Médica (2009/2010) {{!}} |url=https://portal.cfm.org.br/etica-medica/codigo-2010/?lang=en |website=portal.cfm.org.br |access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Brazil}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2010 || {{w|Human enhancement}} || Literature (book) || {{w|Nicholas Agar}} publishes ''Humanity's End: Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement''. The book argues against the doctrine of radical enhancement sometimes identified with the [[w:Transhumanism|transhumanist movement]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Humanity's end : why we should reject radical enhancement.|last=Nicholas.|first=Agar|date=2013|publisher=Bradford Books|isbn=978-0262525176}}</ref> || {{w|New Zeland}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2011 || {{w|Ethical code}} || Adoption || Spain publishes its medical ethics code ''Código de Deontología Médica. Guía de Ética Médica''.<ref>{{cite web |title=La OMC ultima la actualización del Código de Deontología Médica {{!}} Médicos y Pacientes |url=http://www.medicosypacientes.com/articulo/la-omc-ultima-la-actualizacion-del-codigo-de-deontologia-medica |website=www.medicosypacientes.com |access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Spain}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2016 || [[w:Chimera (genetics)|Chimeras]] || Legal || The United States {{w|National Institutes of Health}} places a temporary moratorium on funding for experiments involving part-human and part-animal organisms known as chimeras.<ref>{{cite web |title=NIH moves to lift moratorium on animal-human chimera research |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/08/nih-moves-lift-moratorium-animal-human-chimera-research |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2016 || {{w|Medical error}} || Statistics || According to a study from Johns Hopkins Medicine, medical errors are the third-leading cause of death in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Makary |first1=Martin A |last2=Daniel |first2=Michael |title=Medical error—the third leading cause of death in the US |journal=BMJ |date=3 May 2016 |pages=i2139 |doi=10.1136/bmj.i2139}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2016 || {{w|Medical torture}} || Notable case || A group consisting of 71 British medical doctors urge that {{w|Israel}}'s membership in the {{w|World Medical Association}} should be revoked, alleging that Israeli doctors perform state-endorsed "medical torture" on {{w|Palestinians}}.<ref name="israel">{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/British-doctors-seek-to-expel-Israel-from-World-Medical-Association-442215|title=British doctors seek to expel Israel from World Medical Association}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2016 || {{w|Medical malpractice}} || Legal || A survey in the United States finds that 8.2 percent of physicians under the age of forty reported having been sued for malpractice during their careers, with 49.2 percent of physicians over the age of 54 reporting having been sued.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Guardado |first1=José R. |title=Medical Liability Claim Frequency Among U.S. Physicians |url=https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/ama-assn.org/files/corp/media-browser/public/government/advocacy/policy-research-perspective-medical-liability-claim-frequency.pdf |website=American Medical Association |access-date=16 March 2021 |date=December 2017}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2018 ||  {{w|Euthanasia}} || Policy || The Supreme Court of India legalizes passive {{w|euthanasia}} in the country during a case involving [[w:Aruna Shanbaug case|Aruna Shanbaug]], a nurse who spent 37 years in a vegetative state as a result of sexual assault.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court allows passive euthanasia: How Aruna Shanbaug case changed right to die with dignity law |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/supreme-court-allows-passive-euthanasia-how-aruna-shanbaug-case-changed-right-to-die-with-dignity-law-4383451.html#:~:text=India-,Supreme%20Court%20allows%20passive%20euthanasia%3A%20How%20Aruna%20Shanbaug%20case%20changed,to%20die%20with%20dignity%20law&text=A%20five%2Djudge%20Constitution%20Bench,living%20will%20are%20%22permissible%22. |website=firstpost.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Aruna Shanbaug case which changed euthanasia laws in India |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/the-aruna-shanbaug-case-which-changed-euthanasia-laws-in-india/a-landmark-verdict/slideshow/63231071.cms |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2018 || {{w|Genome editing}} || Notable case || The birth of the world’s first gene edited babies, both girls, is announced by He Jiankui, a scientist of the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China. Jiankui claims having used {{w|CRISPR-Cas 9}} technology to modify the CCR5 gene to give the girls immunity to HIV. The announcement would generate outrage around the world and many scientists and policymakers would call for a ban on human germline, genome editing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese Scientist Claims to Use Crispr to Make First Genetically Edited Babies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/26/health/gene-editing-babies-china.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The untold story of the ‘circle of trust’ behind the world’s first gene-edited babies |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/08/untold-story-circle-trust-behind-world-s-first-gene-edited-babies |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CRISPR bombshell: Chinese researcher claims to have created gene-edited twins |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/11/crispr-bombshell-chinese-researcher-claims-have-created-gene-edited-twins |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 +
|-
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
== Numerical and visual data  ==
 +
 
 +
=== Google Scholar ===
 +
 
 +
The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of August 10, 2021.
 +
 
 +
{| class="sortable wikitable"
 +
! Year
 +
! "medical ethics"
 +
! "bioethics"
 
|-
 
|-
| 2005 || || The {{w|Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights}} is adopted by {{w|UNESCO}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langlois |first1=Adèle |title=The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Perspectives from Kenya and South Africa |doi=10.1007/s10728-007-0055-7 |pmid=18240025 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2226192/#:~:text=In%20October%202005%2C1%20the,on%20Bioethics%20and%20Human%20Rights.&text=The%20onus%20is%20on%20UNESCO's,national%20laws%2C%20regulations%20or%20policies. |pmc=2226192}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/bioethics-and-human-rights |website=en.unesco.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1900 || 50 || 12
 
|-
 
|-
| 2006 || Literature || Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal ''{{w|Clinical Ethics}}'' is launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clinical Ethics |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/ceta/1/3 |website=journals.sagepub.com |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1910 || 57 || 11
 
|-
 
|-
| 2006 || || ''{{w|Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics}}'' ||
+
| 1920 || 29 || 21
 
|-
 
|-
| 2008 || || The {{w|Catholic Church}} publishes a document entitled ''{{w|Dignitas Personae}}'', about a range of bioethical issues related to the areas of assisted reproduction and human genetics. The paper analizes and comments the bioethical thinking of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pastor |first1=LM |title=[Ethical analysis and commentary of Dignitas Personae document: from continuity toward the innovation]. |pmid=21692553 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21692553}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=INSTRUCTION DIGNITAS PERSONAE |url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20081208_dignitas-personae_en.html |website=vatican.va |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vatican issues new document on biotechnology |url=https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/all-things-catholic/vatican-issues-new-document-biotechnology |website=ncronline.org |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> ||
+
| 1930 || 43 || 33
 
|-
 
|-
| 2008 || || ''[[w:Neuroethics (journal)|Neuroethics]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume 1, Issue 1, March 2008 |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/12152/1/1 |website=link.springer.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1940 || 38 || 25
 
|-
 
|-
| 2008 || || ''{{w|Public Health Ethics}}''<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume 1, Issue 1, April 2008 |url=https://academic.oup.com/phe/issue/1/1 |website=academic.oup.com |accessdate=7 August 2020}}</ref> ||
+
| 1950 || 126 || 30
 
|-
 
|-
| 2009 || Policy || The Obama Administration announces it will significantly expand {{w|National Institutes of Health}} funding of human embryonic stem cell research which was restricted under the Bush Administration.<ref name="Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolinsky |first1=Howard |title=The pendulum swung. President Barack Obama removes restrictions on stem-cell research, but are expectations now too high? |doi=10.1038/embor.2009.78 |pmid=19415078 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680887/ |pmc=2680887}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1960 || 163 || 74
 
|-
 
|-
| 2010 || Literature (book) || {{w|Nicholas Agar}} publishes ''Humanity's End: Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement''. The book argues against the doctrine of radical enhancement sometimes identified with the [[w:Transhumanism|transhumanist movement]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Humanity's end : why we should reject radical enhancement.|last=Nicholas.|first=Agar|date=2013|publisher=Bradford Books|isbn=978-0262525176|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=842500060}}</ref> ||
+
| 1970 || 300 || 218
 
|-
 
|-
| 2016 || || The United States {{w|National Institutes of Health}} places a temporary moratorium on funding for experiments involving human-animal chimeras.<ref>{{cite web |title=NIH moves to lift moratorium on animal-human chimera research |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/08/nih-moves-lift-moratorium-animal-human-chimera-research |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=27 September 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1980 || 945 || 1,460
 
|-
 
|-
| 2018 || || The Supreme Court of India legalizes passive {{w|euthanasia}} in the country during a case involving [[w:Aruna Shanbaug case|Aruna Shanbaug]], a nurse who spent 37 years in a vegetative state as a result of sexual assault.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court allows passive euthanasia: How Aruna Shanbaug case changed right to die with dignity law |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/supreme-court-allows-passive-euthanasia-how-aruna-shanbaug-case-changed-right-to-die-with-dignity-law-4383451.html#:~:text=India-,Supreme%20Court%20allows%20passive%20euthanasia%3A%20How%20Aruna%20Shanbaug%20case%20changed,to%20die%20with%20dignity%20law&text=A%20five%2Djudge%20Constitution%20Bench,living%20will%20are%20%22permissible%22. |website=firstpost.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Aruna Shanbaug case which changed euthanasia laws in India |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/the-aruna-shanbaug-case-which-changed-euthanasia-laws-in-india/a-landmark-verdict/slideshow/63231071.cms |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
+
| 1990 || 2,420 || 3,740
 
|-
 
|-
| 2018 || || "In October, He Jiankui, a scientist of the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China, announces the birth of the world’s first gene edited babies, both girls. He claims that he used CRISPR-Cas 9 technology to modify the CCR5 gene to give the girls immunity to HIV. The announcement generates outrage around the world and many scientists and policymakers call for a ban on human germline, genome editing."<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese Scientist Claims to Use Crispr to Make First Genetically Edited Babies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/26/health/gene-editing-babies-china.html |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The untold story of the ‘circle of trust’ behind the world’s first gene-edited babies |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/08/untold-story-circle-trust-behind-world-s-first-gene-edited-babies |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CRISPR bombshell: Chinese researcher claims to have created gene-edited twins |url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/11/crispr-bombshell-chinese-researcher-claims-have-created-gene-edited-twins |website=sciencemag.org |accessdate=13 July 2020}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
+
| 2000 || 5,910 || 8,780
 +
|-
 +
| 2010 || 13,400 || 16,300
 +
|-
 +
| 2020 || 28,000 || 28,200 
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
[[File:Medical ethics google schoolar.png|thumb|center|700px]]
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=== Google Trends ===
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The image below shows {{w|Google Trends}} data for Medical ethics (Topic), from January 2004 to March 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical ethics |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=%2Fm%2F01jfpp |website=Google Trends |access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref>
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[[File:Medical ethics gt.png|thumb|center|600px]]
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=== Google Ngram Viewer ===
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The chart below shows {{w|Google Ngram Viewer}} data for Medical ethics, from 1700 to 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical ethics |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Medical+ethics&year_start=1700&year_end=2019&corpus=26&smoothing=3&case_insensitive=true |website=books.google.com |access-date=17 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
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[[File:Medical ethics ngram.png|thumb|center|700px]]
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=== Wikipedia Views ===
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The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article {{w|Medical ethics}}, on desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015 to February 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical ethics |url=https://wikipediaviews.org/displayviewsformultiplemonths.php?page=Medical+ethics&allmonths=allmonths-api&language=en&drilldown=all |website=wikipediaviews.org |access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref>
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[[File:Medical ethics wv.png|thumb|center|400px]]
  
 
==Meta information on the timeline==
 
==Meta information on the timeline==
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===How the timeline was built===
 
===How the timeline was built===
  
The initial version of the timeline was written by [[User:FIXME|FIXME]].
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The initial version of the timeline was written by [[User:Sebastian]].
  
 
{{funding info}} is available.
 
{{funding info}} is available.
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===What the timeline is still missing===
 
===What the timeline is still missing===
 
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* {{w|Human experimentation in the United States}}
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* Myron M. Levine, Gordon Dougan, Michael F. Good, Margaret A. Liu, Gary J. Nabel, James P. Nataro, Rino Rappuoli - New Generation Vaccines, Fourth Edition (2008) (page 61)
* {{w|Medical ethics}}
 
 
* {{w|List of medical ethics cases}}
 
* {{w|List of medical ethics cases}}
* [http://ethicsinhealth.org/?p=703]
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* {{w|Fee splitting}}
* {{w|Clinical research ethics}}
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* {{w|Medical Code of Ethics}}
* [https://www.thehastingscenter.org/briefingbook/bioethics-and-policy-a-history/]
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* {{w|Resources for clinical ethics consultation}}
* {{w|Unethical human experimentation}}
 
* {{w|Project MKUltra}}
 
  
 
===Timeline update strategy===
 
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* [[Timeline of bioethics]]
 
* [[Timeline of bioethics]]
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* [[Timeline of brain preservation]]
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Latest revision as of 22:01, 7 March 2024

This is a timeline of medical ethics. This timeline is closely related to Timeline of bioethics.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

  • What are some of the multiple topics and sub–fields related to the field of medical ethics covered in this timeline?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Main topic".
    • You will see a variety of topics within or highly related to the field of medical ethics.
  • What are some notable or illustrative codes of ethics having been adopted by governments and institutions?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Adoption".
    • You will see a number of codes of ethics and guidelines being adopted. You will also see some notable amendments.
  • What are some notable cases related to various subfields of medical ethics?
  • What are some notable and illustrative publications related to the field of medical ethics?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Literature".
    • You will see a variety of books and journals specialized or highly related to the field.
  • What are some organizations focused or highly related to medical ethics?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Organization".
    • You will mostly see a number of organizations established by governments with aims to address the topic, as concern increases along with the progress in medicine.
  • Other events are described under the following types: "Field development", "Legal", "Notable statement", "Program launch", "Research", "Statistics", "Service launch", and "Social movement".

Big picture

Time period Development summary More details
Before 1970s Prelude The term medical ethics first dates back to the early 19th century, when English author and physician Thomas Percival publishes a document describing the requirements and expectations of medical professionals within medical facilities. The Code of Ethics is adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival's words.[1] In the 1960s, the Hippocratic Oath is changed to require "utmost respect for human life from its beginning", making it a more secular obligation, not to be taken in the presence of God or any gods, but before only other people. By this time, however, a wide range of new ethical problems emerge, all of them driven by spectacular advances in medicine and biology.[2]
1970s Field emergence The field of applied ethics emerges from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early decade.[3][4][5] A notable aspect of the emergence of more systematic and theoretically sophisticated medical ethics and bioethics in the 1970s was the ground-breaking application óf broad-based ethical theories like utilitarianism and Kantian ethics directly to issues in medical practice, such as paternalism and end-of-life decision-making.[6]
1980s Increased awareness More attention is payed ethical issues, revealing some excesses of medical research and medical paternalism conflicting with ethical principles.[7] The United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics is adopted.
1990s Continued changes The field of medical ethics undergoes changes. Individual clinical issues, especially those related to death and dying, continue to create conflict and preoccupy hospital staffs. But professional ethicists focus on social concerns more frequently than they have in the past. Clinical practice and the law move toward less demanding standards of proof regarding the withdrawal of treatment from patients who are no longer competent.[8]
2000s Particular focus In this decade, euthanasia becomes the most active area of research in bioethics.[9]


Full timeline

Year Main topic Event type Details Location
275 AD Ethical code Adoption The oldest partial fragments of the Hippocratic Oath date to around this time.[10] Greece (ancient)
1588 Contraception, abortion Adoption Pope Sixtus V adopts a papal bull adopting the position of Thomas Aquinas that contraception and abortion are crimes against nature and sins against marriage.[11] Italy (Papal States)
1775 – 1780 Organ trade Field development German philosopher Immanuel Kant in his lectures on ethics argues against the sale of human body parts.[12] Germany (Kingdom of Prussia)
1779 Ethical code Literature German physician Johann Peter Frank writes strict ethical guidelines for public health and sanitation to improve the quality of life.[13] Germany
1794 Ethical code Literature English physician Thomas Percival writes the first modern code of medical ethics.[14][15] United Kingdom
1796 Unethical human experimentation Notable case English physician Edward Jenner inoculates eight-year-old James Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to immunize him against smallpox.[16][17] United Kingdom
1847 Ethical code Policy The American Medical Association adopts its first code of ethics, with this being based in large part upon the work of Thomas Percival.[18] United States
1874 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Robert Bartholomew inserts electrodes into a hole in the skull of Mary Rafferty caused by a tumor. He notes that small amounts electric current caused bodily movements and that larger amounts caused pain. Rafferty, who was mentally ill, falls into a coma and dies a few days after the experiment.[19]
1885 Unethical human experimentation Notable case French biologist Louis Pasteur administers an experimental rabies vaccine to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without testing it on animals first.[20][21][22] France
1897 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Italian bacteriologist Giuseppe Sanarelli injects the yellow fever bacteria into five patients without their consent. All the patients develop the disease and three die.[23][24][25] Italy
1900 Unethical human experimentation Notable case United States Army scientist Walter Reed gathers volunteers in Cuba willing to be bitten by mosquitoes to see whether the insects carried yellow fever.[26] Thirty-three participants, including eighteen Americans and six Cubans, are exposed to mosquitoes infected with yellow fever or injected with blood from yellow fever patients. Six participants die.[27][28][29] Cuba
1907 Blacklisting Notable case The Transvaal Medical Union in South Africa blacklists patients if they can not pay cash in advance.[30] South Africa
1918 – 1922 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Inmates at San Quentin State Prison in California are subjected to numerous medical procedures, including receiving transplanted testicles from recently executed prisoners. During the research, headed by Dr. Leo L. Stanley, many men receive transplanted sex organs from rams, goats, and boars.[31] United states
1920 Abortion Policy (reproductive rights) Vladimir Lenin legalizes all abortions in the Soviet Union[32][33] Soviet Union
1932 Unethical human experimentation Notable case The Tuskegee syphilis experiment begins. Carried out by the Public Health Service at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, the experiment would last 40 years. Nearly 400 hundred of the 600 poor, rural sharecroppers taking part would never be told they had syphilis, nor be treated for it. Instead, they would be given “free healthcare,” meals, and burial money as researchers study how untreated syphilis progress.[31][34][35][36] United States
1932 Literature (journal) Peer-reviewed academic journal The Linacre Quarterly is established. It primarily focuses on the relationship between medicine and spirituality, and in particular on medical ethics.[37] United States
1932–1945 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Japanese scientists working at Unit 731 conduct abominable experiments on thousands of Chinese war prisoner. Experiments include biological and chemical weapons experiments, vaccination experiments, and wound-healing and surgical studies, including vivisections.[38] China
1937 Literature Scottish novelist A. J. Cronin publishes The Citadel, which becomes notable for its treatment of the contentious theme of medical ethics.[39] It is credited with laying the foundation in Great Britain for the introduction of the NHS a decade later.[40] United Kingdom
1938 Ethical code Adoption The Osteopathic Oath is first used in the United States.[41] United States
1939 Unethical human experimentation Notable case The Monster Study, as it is known, is conducted as a stuttering experiment performed on 22 orphan children in Davenport, Iowa, and led by Wendell Johnson at the University of Iowa. In the experiment, half of the children receive positive speech therapy, praising the fluency of their speech, and the other half, negative speech therapy, belittling the children for speech imperfections. Many of the normal speaking orphan children who received negative therapy in the experiment would suffer negative psychological effects, with some retaining speech problems for the rest of their lives.[42] United States
1940s Unethical human experimentation Notable case Scientists test mustard gas by compelling U.S. Navy men to enter gas chambers. One goes temporarily blind. When nitrogen mustard is discovered, doctors inject it into a patient dying of lymphosarcoma and notice that his tumors recede, sparking the beginning of chemotherapy. United States
1943–1944 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Nazi human experimentation, with Josef Mengele as central leader, is conducted in this period, consisting in morally abominable research on concentration camp prisoners, including experiments exposing subjects to freezing temperatures, low air pressures, ionizing radiation and electricity, and infectious diseases; as well as wound-healing and surgical studies.[43] German-occupied Europe
1945 Unethical human experimentation Notable case In an experiment, 829 pregnant women at a health clinic run by Vanderbilt University are administered drugs that they were told were good for them and their babies. The drugs actually contain radioactive iron. A follow-up study during the 1960s would conclude that three children born to women who took the pills likely died because of the tests.[44][45] United States
1946 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology conduct experiment consisting in feeding oatmeal that includes radioactive iron and calcium to 74 mentally deficient and disabled boys at the Walter E. Fernald State School in Massachusetts.[46] United States
1946 – 1948 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Guatemala syphilis experiment is conducted by the United States, during the administration of U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Guatemalan President Juan José Arévalo with the cooperation of some Guatemalan health ministries and officials. A team of U.S. doctors infect 700 Guatemalans with syphilis to test penicillin.[26] Guatemala
1947 Ethical code Adoption The Nuremberg Code is adopted as a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation. It is set as a result of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War.[47] Germany
1948 Ethical code Adoption The Declaration of Geneva is adopted by the World Medical Association.[48][49] Switzerland
1949 Literature (publication) The Seven Sins of Medicine are published by British endocrinologist Richard Asher in The Lancet as a perspective on medical ethics.[50] United Kingdom
1949 Organization The Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences is established.[51][52]
1949 Ethical code Adoption The International Code of Medical Ethics is adopted by the third General Assembly of the World Medical Association (WMA) at London.[53] United Kingdom
1951 Medical privacy Notable case Doctors at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore take samples of patient Henrietta Lacks' cancerous cells while diagnosing and treating the disease. They give some of that tissue to a researcher without Lacks’s knowledge or consent. The product derived, called HeLa would become the cornerstone of an industry. In the laboratory, her cells would prove to have an extraordinary capacity to survive and reproduce; they were, in essence, immortal.[54] United States
1953 Unethical human experimentation Notable case The Project MKUltra is officially sanctioned as a program of experiments on human subjects designed and undertaken by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, some of which would be illegal. Experiments on humans would be intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogations in order to weaken the individual and force confessions through mind control.[55] United States
1954 Ethical code Adoption A new version of the Osteopathic Oath is adopted in the United States.[41][56] United States
1954 Literature (book) Joseph F. Fletcher publishes Morals and Medicine: The Moral Problems of the Patient’s Right to Know the Truth, Contraception, Artificial Insemination, Sterilization, and Euthanasia.[57][47]
1956–1980 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Research team led by Saul Krugman and Joan Giles conducts hepatitis experiments on mentally disabled children at The Willowbrook State School. The subjects are intentionally infected with the disease and researchers ovserve its natural progression. The experiments are approved by the New York Department of Health.[58][59] United States
1956 – 1970 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Mentally retarded children held at the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York are infected with hepatitis so that doctors there could track the spread of the viral infection and how it responds to gamma globulin injections. More than 700 children are infected. The school closes later in 1987 after public outcry about overcrowding and the filthy conditions.[31] United States
1959 Jewish medical ethics Literature (book) Immanuel Jakobovits publishes Jewish Medical Ethics: A Comparative and Historical Study of the Jewish Religious Attitude to Medicine and Its Practice.[60]
1960s Unethical human experimentation Notable case Experimentation in prisons become widespread in the United States, which becomes the only Western country that runs tests on inmates after World War II.[26] United States
1961 Unethical human experimentation Notable case The Milgram Experiment is conducted to test how far a subject would go to earn approval of an authority figure. The experiment is thought to violate many ethical standards due to extenuating emotional conflict and stress.[61][62] United States
1964 Ethical code Adoption The Declaration of Helsinki is created in order to provide researchers and physicians with ethical guidelines. It is developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association.[47][63] The document comprises a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation.[64] It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics.[64][65][66] Finland
1964 Ethical code Adoption American physician Louis Lasagna writes a modernized version of the Hippocratic Oath, which emphasizes a holistic and compassionate approach to medicine. The "Lasagna Oath" would be adopted by many medical colleges, and is still in use today in the United States.[67] United States
1966 Jewish medical ethics Organization The Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research is founded.[68][69] Israel
1966 Organization The first medical ethics committees in Europe emerge in the United Kingdom and Sweden.[70] United Kingdom, Sweden
1966 Literature American anesthesiologist Henry K. Beecher publishes an article in The New England Journal of Medicine exposing 22 unethical studies in biomedicine, including the Tuskegee syphilis experiment and the Willowbrook hepatitis study.[71][72][73] United States
1968 Ethical code Adoption The International Code of Medical Ethics (adopted in 1949) is amended by the twenty-second World Medical Assembly at Sydney.[53] Australia
1970 Literature (book) Paul Ramsey publishes The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics.[74][47]
1973 Literature (journal) The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics is first issued. It is published by the American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics.[75] United States
1974 Policy The United States Congress passes the National Research Act, which authorizes federal agencies to develop human research regulations.[76] United States
1975 Literature (journal) The American Journal of Law & Medicine is launched.[77] United States
1975 Literature (journal) The Journal of Medical Ethics is launched.[78][79]
1975 Right to die Social movement The right to die movement begins in the United States with the case of Karen Quinlan, an American woman who was in persistent vegetative state for ten years.[80] United States
1975 Medical torture Adoption The Declaration of Tokyo is adopted by the 29th World Medical Assembly as a set of international guidelines for physicians concerning torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment in relation to detention and imprisonment.[81][82] Japan
1978 In vitro fertilization Notable case Louise Brown becomes the world’s first baby conceived by in vitro fertilization.[83][84][71] United Kingdom
1978 Unethical human experimentation Notable case Medical torture is performed on political prisoners held at the infamous prison Tuol Sleng in Phnom Penh under the Khmer Rouge.[85] Cambodia
1978 Organization The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors is formed.[86]
1979 Organization The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.[70] Switzerland
1979 Literature The Belmont Report is published by the U.S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. It provides the conceptual foundation for a major revision of the research regulations in 1981 in the United States.[87][88] United States
1979 Literature Peer-reviewed academic journal IRB: Ethics & Human Research is launched. It covers bioethical aspects of research using human subjects. It is published by The Hastings Center.[89] United States
1979 Organization The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.[70] Switzerland
1979 Organization The Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics is established in Saint Louis, Missouri.[90][91] United States
1979 Literature The Belmont Report is released by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Report becomes a key document in human research ethics regulations in the United States.[71][92] United States
1979 Literature (book) Tom Beauchamp publishes Principles of biomedical ethics.[93]
1980 Literature (journal) Bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics is first issued.[94]
1981 Organization Japan establishes its first ethics committee, at the Medical Institute of Tokyo University.[70] Japan
1981 Clinical Medicine Organization The MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics is founded. Founded by Mark Siegler, it is a non-profit clinical medical ethics research institute promoting research in the field.[95][96] United States
1982 Ethical code Adoption United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics is adopted by the United Nations as a code of medical ethics relating to the "roles of health personnel in the protection of persons against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment."[97][98]
1983 Ethical code Adoption The International Code of Medical Ethics is amended by the thirty-fifth World Medical Assembly at Venice.[53] Italy
1985 Literature (book) Zhi-zheng Du's Outline of Medical Ethics is published in China as the first systematic textbook of medical ethics after the cultural revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.[99] China
1987 Organization The European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Health Care is founded by an international company of philosophers, physicians, ethicists and other interested professionals in the field.[100]
1987 Ethical code Concept development Benjamin Freedman introduces the term clinical equipoise (also known as the principle of equipoise), which provides the ethical basis for medical research that involves assigning patients to different treatment arms of a clinical trial.[101][102]
1988 Literature (book) Zhao-xiong He's History of Chinese Medical Morality is published, providing material on medical ethics from ancient to current China.[99] China
1989 Literature (journal) Peer-reviewed academic journal Accountability in Research is established.[103]
1990 Human genome research Program launch The Human Genome Project is launched by the United States as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the human genome.[104][105] United States
1990 Notable case American physician William French Anderson begins the first human gene therapy clinical trial on patients with adenosine deaminase deficiency, a genetic disease that affects the immune system.[106][107] United States
1992 Ethical code Adoption The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief is drawn up by the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response (SCHR) to set ethical standards for organizations involved in humanitarian work.[108]
1992 Literature (journal) Peer-reviewed academic journal Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics is established.[109] United Kingdom
1993 Literature (journal) The Indian Journal of Medical Ethics is launched.[110] India
1993 Human cloning Notable case Researchers successfully clone human embryos.[71]
1993 Literature (journal) Peer-reviewed law review Medical Law International is established. It covers issues in medical law, bioethics, and health governance.[111] United States
1994 Data fraud Notable case Montreal surgeon Roger Poisson admits to fabricating and falsifying patient data in NIH-funded breast cancer clinical trials in order allow his patients to qualify for enrollment and have access to experimental treatments.[112][113] Canada
1994 Unethical human experimentation Notable case The United States Government declassifies information about secret human radiation experiments conducted from the 1940s-1980s and issues an apology.[71] United States
1994 Unethical human experimentation Organization The Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments is formed to investigate questions of the record of the United States government with respect to human radiation experiments.[114][115] United States
1994 Health law Literature (journal) The European Journal of Health Law is first issued.[116] Netherlands
1994 Nursing ethics Literature (journal) Peer-reviewed academic journal Nursing Ethics is first issued.[117] United Kingdom
1994 Literature (book) American philosophers Tom Beauchamp and James Childress publish The principles of biomedical ethics, in which they state their basic principles of bioethics as "the principle of respect for patient autonomy, which has grounded, in particular, the concept of informed consent; dates back to the Hippocratic principle of “do no harm,” which requires minimization of damage to the patient during the medical intervention; the principle of “do good” (beneficence), emphasizing the physician’s responsibility to take positive steps to improve the condition of the patient; and the principle of justice, emphasizing the need for fairness and equal treatment of patients, and equitable distribution of resources (which are always limited) in the provision of medical care".[118] United States
1997 Unethical human experimentation Notable case United States President Bill Clinton formally apologizes on behalf of the United States to victims of the syphilis study at Tuskegee.[119][120] United States
1997 Human Genome research Adoption The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights is issued by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) at its 29th session. It is perhaps best known for its statement against human cloning and abuse of human genome against human dignity.[121][122]
1997 Euthanasia (assisted suicide) Policy The Constitutional Court of Colombia decriminalises piety homicide, for terminally ill patients, stating that "the medical author cannot be held responsible for the assisted suicide of a terminally ill patient" and urges Congress to regulate voluntary euthanasia "in the shortest time possible".[123] Colombia
1997 Education Service launch The first research ethics consultation (REC) service is established at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Clinical Center. REC describes a formal way for researchers to solicit and receive expert ethical guidance related to biomedical research.[124] United States
1998 Biomedical research Literature (book) American bioethicist Baruch Brody publishes The Ethics of Biomedical Research.[125] United States
1998 Literature (journal) Medicine Health Care and Philosophy is launched by the European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare.[100] Europe
1998 Literature (book) Allen M. Hornblum publishes Acres of Skin, which documents clinical non-therapeutic medical experiments on prison inmates at Holmesburg Prison in Philadelphia from 1951 to 1974, conducted under the direction of dermatologist Albert Kligman.[126] United States
1998 Stem cell controversy Notable case Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.[71][127][128][129]
1998 Literature (journal) Quarterly peer-reviewed medical journal Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy is launched.[130]
1999 Reproductive technology, human genetics Organization Human Genetics Alert is founded in London.[131] It advocates against uses of reproductive technology and human genetics research, which it considers harmful.[132] United Kingdom
1999 Education Policy The National Institutes of Health and the Office for Human Research Protections require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research have some training in research ethics.[71] United States
1999 Policy The United States National Institutes of Health and the Office for Human Research Protections require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research to have training in research ethics.[71] United States
2000 Organization The Office for Human Research Protections is established.[133] United States
2000 Ethical code Adoption The Declaration of Helsinki is revised.[134] This revision requires monitoring of scientific research on human subjects to assure ethical standards are being met.[135] Finland
2000 Literature (book) American lawyer and author Wesley J. Smith publishes Culture of Death: The Assault on Medical Ethics in America, which describes medical ethics as a field in crisis. This book would be named Best Health Book of the Year at the 2001 Independent Publishers Book Awards.[136][137] United States
2000 Medical error Literature (report) The Institute of Medicine releases "To Err is Human," which asserts that the problem in medical errors is not bad people in health care but it is that good people are working in bad systems that need to be made safer.[138] United States
2001 Literature (journal) Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics is launched.[139] United States
2001 Human cloning Notable case The United States Congress starts debating legislation on human cloning.[71][140][141][142] United States
2001 Embryonic stem cell research Policy United Sates President George W. Bush introduces a ban on federal funding for research on newly created human embryonic stem cell lines. He also announces the creation of a special council to oversee stem cell research.[143] United States
2001 Philosophy of healthcare Program launch The United States federal government takes up an initiative to provide patients with an explicit list of rights concerning their healthcare. The political philosophy behind such an initiative essentially blends ideas of the Consumers' Bill of Rights with the field of healthcare. It is undertaken in an effort to ensure the quality of care of all patients by preserving the integrity of the processes that occur in the healthcare industry.[144] United States
2002 Euthanasia Notable case The Netherlands legalizes voluntary euthanasia.[145][146] Netherlands
2003 Adoption The International Bioethics Committee issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights.[147][148]
2003 Notable case The Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute takes place as a decision by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida which rules that individuals do not own their tissue samples when researchers take them for testing.[149] This case sets a precedent for determining ownership of donated tissue samples.[150][151] United States
2003 Literature (book) Tony Hope publishes Medical Ethics and Law: The Core Curriculum, a short textbook of medical ethics and law primarily aimed at medical students.[152]
2004 Literature Medical ethicist James Hughes publishes Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future, which argues that technologies pushing the boundaries of humanness can radically improve our quality of life if they are controlled democratically.[153] United States
2004 Literature (book) New Zelander ethics professor Nicholas Agar publishes Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement[154][155] New Zeland
2004 Military medical ethics Literature (book) Edmund D. Pelegrino and Anthony E. Hartle publish Military Medical Ethics, which addresses medical ethics within a military context.[156]
2004 Ethical code Adoption Poland publishes its medical ethics code Kodeks Etyki Lekarskiej.[157] Poland
2005 Adoption The Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights is adopted by UNESCO.[158][159]
2006 Literature (journal) Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal Clinical Ethics is launched.[160] United Kingdom
2006 Euthanasia Research By this time, euthanasia becomes the most active area of research in bioethics.[161]
2006 Literature (journal) The Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics is launched.[162] United States
2007 Unethical human experimentation Literature (book) Harriet A. Washington publishes Medical Apartheid, which recounts the history of medical experimentation on African Americans.[163] United States
2007 Ethics of circumcision Notable statement The World Health Organization states that provision of circumcision should be consistent with "medical ethics and human rights principles." They state that "[i]nformed consent, confidentiality and absence of coercion should be assured. ... Parents who are responsible for providing consent, including for the circumcision of male infants, should be given sufficient information regarding the benefits and risks of the procedure in order to determine what is in the best interests of the child."[164]
2008 Literature The Catholic Church publishes a document entitled Dignitas Personae, about a range of bioethical issues related to the areas of assisted reproduction and human genetics. The paper analizes and comments the bioethical thinking of the Catholic Church.[165][166][167]
2008 Literature (book) Candace C. Gauthier and John E. Snyder publish Evidence-Based Medical Ethics: Cases for Practice-Based Learning, which aims to address ethical and legal guidelines essential to the everyday practice of medicine.[168]
2008 Neuroethics Literature (journal) Triannual peer-reviewed academic journal Neuroethics is launched.[169]
2008 Policy The United States FDA publishes its decision to abandon the Declaration of Helsinki as a guide for clinical research ethics.[170] This allows the pharmaceutical industry to run international clinical trials in which patients in the control group can be treated with placebos instead of the best standard medical care.[171] United States
2008 Public health Literature (journal) Triannual peer-reviewed academic journal Public Health Ethics is launched.[172]
2009 Embryonic stem cell research Policy The Obama Administration announces it will significantly expand National Institutes of Health funding of human embryonic stem cell research which was restricted under the Bush Administration.[71][173] United States
2009 Ethical code Adoption Brazil publishes its Medical Ethics Code (Código de Ética Médica).[174] Brazil
2010 Human enhancement Literature (book) Nicholas Agar publishes Humanity's End: Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement. The book argues against the doctrine of radical enhancement sometimes identified with the transhumanist movement.[175] New Zeland
2011 Ethical code Adoption Spain publishes its medical ethics code Código de Deontología Médica. Guía de Ética Médica.[176] Spain
2016 Chimeras Legal The United States National Institutes of Health places a temporary moratorium on funding for experiments involving part-human and part-animal organisms known as chimeras.[177] United States
2016 Medical error Statistics According to a study from Johns Hopkins Medicine, medical errors are the third-leading cause of death in the United States.[178] United States
2016 Medical torture Notable case A group consisting of 71 British medical doctors urge that Israel's membership in the World Medical Association should be revoked, alleging that Israeli doctors perform state-endorsed "medical torture" on Palestinians.[179] Israel
2016 Medical malpractice Legal A survey in the United States finds that 8.2 percent of physicians under the age of forty reported having been sued for malpractice during their careers, with 49.2 percent of physicians over the age of 54 reporting having been sued.[180] United States
2018 Euthanasia Policy The Supreme Court of India legalizes passive euthanasia in the country during a case involving Aruna Shanbaug, a nurse who spent 37 years in a vegetative state as a result of sexual assault.[181][182] India
2018 Genome editing Notable case The birth of the world’s first gene edited babies, both girls, is announced by He Jiankui, a scientist of the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China. Jiankui claims having used CRISPR-Cas 9 technology to modify the CCR5 gene to give the girls immunity to HIV. The announcement would generate outrage around the world and many scientists and policymakers would call for a ban on human germline, genome editing.[183][184][185] China

Numerical and visual data

Google Scholar

The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of August 10, 2021.

Year "medical ethics" "bioethics"
1900 50 12
1910 57 11
1920 29 21
1930 43 33
1940 38 25
1950 126 30
1960 163 74
1970 300 218
1980 945 1,460
1990 2,420 3,740
2000 5,910 8,780
2010 13,400 16,300
2020 28,000 28,200
Medical ethics google schoolar.png

Google Trends

The image below shows Google Trends data for Medical ethics (Topic), from January 2004 to March 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[186]

Medical ethics gt.png

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Medical ethics, from 1700 to 2019.[187]

Medical ethics ngram.png

Wikipedia Views

The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article Medical ethics, on desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015 to February 2021.[188]

Medical ethics wv.png

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

  • FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

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