Difference between revisions of "Timeline of antibiotics"

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This is a '''timeline of antibiotics''', also known as antibacterials and antimicrobials.
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This is a '''timeline of antibiotics''', mainly focusing on both the introduction of drugs and first reported drug resistances. For historic events focusing on bacteria, visit [[Timeline of bacteriology]].
  
 
==Big picture==
 
==Big picture==
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! Time period !! Development summary  
 
! Time period !! Development summary  
 
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| <19th century || although people did not know infections were caused by bacteria, antibiotics have been used for millennia to treat infections. Some of the earliest civilizations used various moulds and plant extracts to treat infections. The ancient Egyptians, for example, applied mouldy bread to infected wounds.<ref name="THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS">{{cite web|title=THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS|url=https://microbiologysociety.org/education-outreach/antibiotics-unearthed/antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance/the-history-of-antibiotics.html|website=microbiologysociety.org|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref>  
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| <19th century || Although people did not know infections were caused by bacteria, antibiotics have been used for millennia to treat infections. Some of the earliest civilizations used various {{w|mold}}s and plant extracts for treatment. The ancient Egyptians, for example, applied mouldy bread to infected wounds.<ref name="THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS">{{cite web|title=THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS|url=https://microbiologysociety.org/education-outreach/antibiotics-unearthed/antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance/the-history-of-antibiotics.html|website=microbiologysociety.org|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref>  
 
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| 19th century || Scientists begin to observe antibacterial chemicals in action.<ref name="THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS"/> By the late century, a few notable breakthroughs occur.
 
| 19th century || Scientists begin to observe antibacterial chemicals in action.<ref name="THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS"/> By the late century, a few notable breakthroughs occur.
 
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| 20th century || Antibiotics revolutionized medicine during the later half of the 20th century.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time">{{cite web|title=A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time|url=https://www.medicaldaily.com/antibiotic-resistance-history-373773|website=medicaldaily.com|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> The major event in the history of antibiotics is the discovery of {{w|penicillin}} by {{w|Alexander Fleming}} in 1928. The period between the 1950s and 1970s is considered the golden era of discovery of novel antibiotics classes, with no new classes discovered since then.<ref name="A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future"/> In the 1970s and 1980s synthetic versions of {{w|erythromycin}}, including {{w|clarithromycin}} and {{w|azithromycin}}, are developed.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> After the 1970s, with the decline of the discovery rate, the mainstream approach for the development of new drugs to combat emerging and re-emerging resistance of pathogens to antibiotics would be the modification of existing antibiotics.<ref name="A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future"/> In the 1980s and 1990s, scientists only manage to make improvements within classes.<ref name="A brief history of antibiotics">{{cite web|title=A brief history of antibiotics|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/background_briefings/antibiotics/163997.stm|website=news.bbc.co.uk|accessdate=30 March 2018}}</ref>
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| 20th century || Antibiotics revolutionize medicine during the later half of the 20th century.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time">{{cite web|title=A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time|url=https://www.medicaldaily.com/antibiotic-resistance-history-373773|website=medicaldaily.com|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> The major event in the history of antibiotics is the discovery of {{w|penicillin}} by {{w|Alexander Fleming}} in 1928. The first antibiotics are prescribed in the late 1930s.<ref name="antibiotics 1928-2000">{{cite web|title=antibiotics 1928-2000|url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/antibiotics/history.htm|website=abc.net.au|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref> The period between the 1950s and 1970s is considered the golden era of discovery of novel antibiotics classes, with no new classes discovered since then.<ref name="A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future"/> In fact, between 1944 and 1972 human life expectancy jumps by eight years, largely due to the introduction of antibiotics.<ref name="antibiotics 1928-2000"/> In the 1970s and 1980s synthetic versions of {{w|erythromycin}}, including {{w|clarithromycin}} and {{w|azithromycin}}, are developed.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> After the 1970s, with the decline of the discovery rate, the mainstream approach for the development of new drugs to combat emerging and re-emerging resistance of pathogens to antibiotics would be the modification of existing antibiotics.<ref name="A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future"/> By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists only manage to make improvements within classes.<ref name="A brief history of antibiotics">{{cite web|title=A brief history of antibiotics|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/background_briefings/antibiotics/163997.stm|website=news.bbc.co.uk|accessdate=30 March 2018}}</ref>
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| 21th century || At present, there are more than 100 antibiotics available to treat human and animal diseases.<ref name="antibiotics science">{{cite web |title=Antibiotics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/antibiotics |website=sciencedirect.com |accessdate=11 July 2018}}</ref>
 
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! Year !! Event type !! Details !! Geographical location
 
! Year !! Event type !! Details !! Geographical location
 
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| 350 CE–550 CE || || Traces of {{w|tetracycline}} are found in human skeletal remains from ancient Sudanese Nubia.<ref name="A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future">{{cite journal|last1=Aminov|first1=Rustam I.|title=A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134|pmid=21687759|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109405/|pmc=3109405}}</ref><ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>
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| 350 CE–550 CE || || Traces of {{w|tetracycline}} are found in human skeletal remains from ancient Sudanese Nubia.<ref name="A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future">{{cite journal|last1=Aminov|first1=Rustam I.|title=A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134|pmid=21687759|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109405/|pmc=3109405}}</ref><ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
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| 1877 || Scientific development || French microbiologist {{w|Louis Pasteur}} shows that the bacterial disease {{w|anthrax}} can be rendered harmless in animals with the injection of {{w|soil bacteria}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tierno|first1=Philip M.|title=The Secret Life of Germs: What They Are, Why We Need Them, and How We Can Protect Ourselves Against Them|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=LpRzt3u_3P8C&pg=PA223&dq=%22in+1877%22+%22pasteur%22+%22anthrax%22+%22soil%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjU3bbHzaPaAhWDxpAKHQMSBRMQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201877%22%20%22pasteur%22%20%22anthrax%22%20%22soil%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Elizabeth S.|last2=Barker|first2=Ian K.|title=Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HJDsAU-NWiYC&pg=PA398&dq=%22in+1877%22+%22pasteur%22+%22anthrax%22+%22soil%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjU3bbHzaPaAhWDxpAKHQMSBRMQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201877%22%20%22pasteur%22%20%22anthrax%22%20%22soil%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
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| 1887 || Scientific development || German bacteriologist {{w|Rudolf Emmerich}} shows that the intestinal infection cholera is prevented in animals that have been previously infected with the streptococcus bacterium and then injected with the cholera bacillus.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Newell-McGloughlin|first1=Martina|last2=Re|first2=Edward|title=The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=U27lbghWOfsC&pg=PA23&dq=%22in+1887%22+%22streptococcus+%22+%22emmerich%22+%22cholera%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_zbvmz6PaAhVJvZAKHY3TCsIQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201887%22%20%22streptococcus%20%22%20%22emmerich%22%20%22cholera%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1888 || Scientific development || German scientist E. de Freudenreich manages to isolate an actual product from a bacterium that had antibacterial properties.<ref name="The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology">{{cite book|last1=Newell-McGloughlin|first1=Martina|last2=Re|first2=Edward|title=The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=U27lbghWOfsC&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=E.+de+Freudenreich&source=bl&ots=69HqimydSe&sig=021aY8DvwKO8_TlY5ZfeEenZ8d4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtvvWs5pTaAhXDGJAKHb5WB5AQ6AEIWTAK#v=onepage&q=E.%20de%20Freudenreich&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1896 || Scientific development || French medical student {{w|Ernest Duchesne}} originally discovers the antibiotic properties of {{w|Penicillium}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zhang|first1=Yawei|title=Encyclopedia of Global Health, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=1_XIbBRvD0gC&pg=PA145&dq=%22in+1896%22+%22Ernest+Duchesne%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo15Pi75TaAhUDCpAKHVFPDLQQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201896%22%20%22Ernest%20Duchesne%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Myers|first1=Richard L.|title=The 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=nKtzCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA210&dq=%22in+1896%22+%22Ernest+Duchesne%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo15Pi75TaAhUDCpAKHVFPDLQQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201896%22%20%22Ernest%20Duchesne%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Manning|first1=Shannon D.|last2=Alcamo|first2=I. Edward|last3=Heymann|first3=David L.|title=Escherichia Coli Infections|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=TFkzNocHde4C&pg=PA64&dq=%22in+1896%22+%22Ernest+Duchesne%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo15Pi75TaAhUDCpAKHVFPDLQQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201896%22%20%22Ernest%20Duchesne%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1897 || Resistance || Doctoral student {{w|Ernest Duchesne}} submits a dissertation, ''Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes'' (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between molds and microbes), the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of molds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposes that bacteria and molds engage in a perpetual battle for survival.<ref>{{cite book | last = Duchesne | first = Ernest | translator-last = Witty | translator-first = Michael | name-list-format = vanc | title = Duchesne's Antagonism between molds and bacteria, an English Colloquial Translation|asin=B00DZVXPIK|publisher=Amazon.com|access-date=| isbn = 978-1-5498-1696-3 }}</ref> || {{w|France}}
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| 1907 || New drug || German chemist {{w|Alfred Bertheim}} and {{w|Paul Ehrlich}} discover arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics. This marks the beginning of the era of antibacterial treatment.<ref name="ANTIBIOTIC USAGE IN PEDIATRICS">{{cite journal|last1=SWATHY|first1=S|last2=ARYA|first2=US|title=ANTIBIOTIC USAGE IN PEDIATRICS|journal=INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN MULTIDISCIPLINARY FIELD|url=http://www.ijirmf.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/201610126.pdf}}</ref> ||
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| 1909 || Scientific development || Japanese bacteriologist {{w|Sahachiro Hata}} discovers the antisyphilitic activity of {{w|arsphenamine}}.<ref name="THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Gareth|title=Medicinal Chemistry: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Qe9lsbfM_m0C&pg=PT21&dq=%22arsphenamine%22+%22in+1909%22+%22hata%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifi7qwuufaAhVFGpAKHXg3DNUQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22arsphenamine%22%20%22in%201909%22%20%22hata%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1912 || New drug || {{w|Paul Ehrlich}} discovers {{w|Neosalvarsan}}, a synthetic {{w|chemotherapeutic}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Neosalvarsan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/neosalvarsan|website=sciencedirect.com|accessdate=1 April 2018}}</ref> ||
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| 1928 || New drug || Scottish microbiologist {{w|Alexander Fleming}}, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called {{w|staphylococcus}}, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.<ref name="The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology"/><ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/>|| {{w|United Kingdom}}
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| 1930 || Scientific development || French-born American microbiologist {{w|René Dubos}} isolates from a soil microorganism an enzyme that can decompose part of the bacillum that causes lobar pneumonia in humans.<ref name="René Dubos">{{cite web|title=René Dubos|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Dubos|website=britannica.com|accessdate=30 March 2018}}</ref> ||
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| 1932 || New drug || German pathologist {{w|Gerhard Domagk}} develops {{w|prontosil}}, the first sulphonamide microbial.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ravina|first1=Enrique|title=The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=iDNy0XxGqT8C&pg=PA48&dq=%22in+1932%22+%22prontosil%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLxOHfn4PaAhVEGZAKHWKXB_gQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201932%22%20%22prontosil%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Savona-Ventura|first1=Charles|title=Contemporary Medicine in Malta [1798-1979]|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=eMgkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA465&dq=%22in+1932%22+%22prontosil%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLxOHfn4PaAhVEGZAKHWKXB_gQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201932%22%20%22prontosil%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology">{{cite book|last1=Torok|first1=Estee|last2=Moran|first2=Ed|last3=Cooke|first3=Fiona|title=Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5W-WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT56&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
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| 1936 || New drug || [[w:Sulfonamide (medicine)|Sulfonamide]] {{w|antibacterial}} {{w|sulfanilamide}} is introduced in the {{w|United States}} and is immediately established as a powerful antiinfective agent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=HUGHES|first1=RAYMOND P.|title=THE USE OF SULFANILAMIDE IN DERMATOLOGY|doi=10.1001/archderm.1940.01490130037006|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/519536?redirect=true}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1937 || New drug || The first effective {{w|antimicrobial}}s ({{w|sulfonamide}}s) are introduced.<ref name="Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance">{{cite journal|last1=Davies|first1=Julian|last2=Davies|first2=Dorothy|title=Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|url=http://mmbr.asm.org/content/74/3/417.full.pdf%26a=bi%26pagenumber=1%26w=100?site=MicrobiolMolBiolRev&utm_source=TrendMDMicrobiolMolBiolRev&utm_medium=TrendMDMicrobiolMolBiolRev&utm_campaign=trendmdalljournals_0}}</ref> || 
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| 1938 || New drug || {{w|Sulfapyridine}} is introduced for clinical use for the treatment of pneumococcic pneumonia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Sulfonamides and Their Metabolites|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/414206|website=karger.com|accessdate=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=DETWEILER|first1=H. K.|last2=KINSEY|first2=H. I.|last3=HURST|first3=W.|title=TREATMENT OF PNEUMONIA WITH SULFAPYRIDINE|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/545831?redirect=true}}</ref> Today it is used to help control {{w|dermatitis herpetiformis}} (Duhring's disease), a skin problem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sulfapyridine (Oral Route)|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/sulfapyridine-oral-route/description/drg-20066133|website=mayoclinic.org|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> ||
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| 1939 || Scientific development || Microbiologist {{w|René Dubos}} manages to isolate an antibacterial substance and names it {{w|tyrothricin}}.<ref name="René Dubos"/> ||
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| 1939 || New drug || {{w|Gramicidin A}} is discovered from the soil bacterium {{w|bacillus brevis}}, and becomes the first clinically useful topical antibiotic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhattacharjee|first1=Mrinal K.|title=Chemistry of Antibiotics and Related Drugs|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=vgXWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163&dq=%22in+1939%22+%22Gramicidin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwio-9mTzKPaAhVHHpAKHcJhApYQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201939%22%20%22Gramicidin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mouritsen|first1=Ole G.|title=Life - As a Matter of Fat: The Emerging Science of Lipidomics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3J9enifNNTUC&pg=PA186&dq=%22in+1939%22+%22Gramicidin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwio-9mTzKPaAhVHHpAKHcJhApYQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201939%22%20%22Gramicidin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Current Topics in Membranes and Transport, Volume 33|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Wktpa3-5HO8C&pg=PA15&dq=%22in+1939%22+%22Gramicidin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwio-9mTzKPaAhVHHpAKHcJhApYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201939%22%20%22Gramicidin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1939 || Scientific development || Australian pharmacologist {{w|Howard Florey}} and {{w|Ernst Boris Chain}} manage to elucidate the structure of {{w|penicillin G}}, the first penicillin used in therapy.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stadler|first1=Marc|last2=Dersch|first2=Petra|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=WADGDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA250&dq=%22in+1939%22+%22penicillin+G%22+%22florey%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJraez1Z_aAhUGTZAKHUVeBGgQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201939%22%20%22penicillin%20G%22%20%22florey%22&f=false|title=How to Overcome the Antibiotic Crisis: Facts, Challenges, Technologies and Future Perspectives}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Persson|first1=Sheryl|title=Smallpox, Syphilis and Salvation: Medical Breakthroughs that Changed the World|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ZA0v9N7S2LgC&pg=PA225&dq=%22in+1939%22+%22penicillin+G%22+%22florey%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJraez1Z_aAhUGTZAKHUVeBGgQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201939%22%20%22penicillin%20G%22%20%22florey%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Smallman-Raynor,|first1=Matthew|last2=Cliff|first2=Andrew|title=Atlas of Epidemic Britain: A Twentieth Century Picture|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=iMnN4fZrj70C&pg=PA103&dq=%22in+1939%22+%22penicillin+G%22+%22florey%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJraez1Z_aAhUGTZAKHUVeBGgQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201939%22%20%22penicillin%20G%22%20%22florey%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1939 || New drug || [[w:Sulfonamide (medicine)|Sulfonamide]] antibiotic {{w|sulfacetamide}} is first reported in the treatment of diseases of the eye.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=DUEMLING|first1=WERNER W.|title=SODIUM SULFACETAMIDE IN TOPICAL THERAPY|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/523845?redirect=true}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=DUEMLING|first1=WERNER W.|title=SODIUM SULFACETAMIDE IN TOPICAL THERAPY|doi=10.1001/archderm.1954.01540130077007|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/523845?redirect=true}}</ref> Today it is used to treat bacterial eye infections, such as {{w|conjunctivitis}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sulfacetamide Sodium Drops|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-4184-836/sulfacetamide-sodium-ophthalmic-eye/sulfacetamide-drops-ophthalmic/details|website=webmd.com|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> ||
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| 1940 || New drug || Sulfonamide antibiotic {{w|sulfamethizole}} is introduced and marketed as a single compound for the treatment of urinary tract infections.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vree|first1=T.B.|title=Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Sulfonamides and Their Metabolites|doi=10.1159/000414195|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/414195}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Vree|first1=Tom B.|last2=Aaron|first2=Yechiel|last3=Karger|first3=Hekster S.|title=Antibiotics and Chemotherapy, Volume 37|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=z9R3AAAAIAAJ&q=%22in+1940%22+%22sulfamethizole%22&dq=%22in+1940%22+%22sulfamethizole%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_87uU8pnaAhULjZAKHXhSBeYQ6AEIKDAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The New Yorker, Volume 45, Part 2|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Q9oeAQAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1940%22+%22sulfamethizole%22&dq=%22in+1940%22+%22sulfamethizole%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_87uU8pnaAhULjZAKHXhSBeYQ6AEILjAB}}</ref> ||
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| 1941 || New drug || {{w|β-lactam antibiotic}}s enter initial clinical trials. In time, they would become the most widely produced and used antibacterial drugs in the world.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Beta lactam antibiotics|url=https://www.slideshare.net/SmitaShukla1/beta-lactam-antibiotics-74795188|website=slideshare.net|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> β-lactam antibiotics now the most economically important of all the groups of antimicrobials.<ref>{{cite web|title=β-Lactam Antibiotics|url=http://www.sciencenutshell.com/%CE%B2-lactam-antibiotics/|website=sciencenutshell.com|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> ||
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| 1941 || New drug || {{w|Penicillin}} is introduced for medical use.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History">{{cite journal|last1=Landecker|first1=Hannah|title=Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1357034X14561341}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> Just before the introduction of penicillin, the mortality rate from Staphylococcus aureus infections that had reached the blood stream was reported to be 80%.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/> ||
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| 1942 || New drug || {{w|Sulfadimidine}} is introduced for the treatment of bacterial infections.<ref>{{cite book|title=[Consolidated list of products whose consumption and/or sale have been banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by governments / Pharmaceuticals ] ; Consolidated list of products whose consumption and/or sale have been banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by governments. Pharmaceuticals|publisher=United Nations|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=leVCukUgNlsC&pg=PA211&lpg=PA211&dq=%22Sulfadimidine%22+%22in+1942%22&source=bl&ots=N9yqy6daPQ&sig=f5dcgU8srWd41ylc-FPoa4FonDo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiohJCI4-faAhWrxFkKHf_xAh8Q6AEIKjAB#v=onepage&q=%22Sulfadimidine%22%20%22in%201942%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Sulfonamides and Their Metabolites|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/414183|website=karger.com|accessdate=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=[Consolidated list of products whose consumption and/or sale have been banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by governments / Pharmaceuticals ] ; Consolidated list of products whose consumption and/or sale have been banned, withdrawn, severely restricted or not approved by governments. Pharmaceuticals|publisher=United Nations|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=leVCukUgNlsC&pg=PA211&dq=%22in+1942%22+%22sulfadimidine%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9zPHCh5raAhUBl5AKHTxcDZ4Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201942%22%20%22sulfadimidine%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Vree|first1=Tom B.|last2=Hekster|first2=Yechiel Aaron|title=Antibiotics and Chemotherapy, Volume 37|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=z9R3AAAAIAAJ&q=%22in+1942%22+%22sulfadimidine%22&dq=%22in+1942%22+%22sulfadimidine%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9zPHCh5raAhUBl5AKHTxcDZ4Q6AEILjAB}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1942 || Resistance || Penicillin resistant bacteria are first detected, about one year after the introduction of penicillin.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1877 || || French microbiologist {{w|Louis Pasteur}} shows that the bacterial disease anthrax, can be rendered harmless in animals with the injection of {{w|soil bacteria}}.
+
| 1942 || New drug || {{w|Gramicidin S}}, the first {{w|peptide}} antibiotic, is isolated by Gauze and Brazhnikova.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berditsch|first1=Marina|last2=Afonin|first2=Sergii|last3=Ulrich|first3=Anne S.|title=The Ability of Aneurinibacillus migulanus (Bacillus brevis) To Produce the Antibiotic Gramicidin S Is Correlated with Phenotype Variation▿|url=http://aem.asm.org/content/73/20/6620.full?ck=nck}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=GAUSE|first1=G. F.|last2=BRAZHNIKOVA|first2=M. G.|title=Gramicidin S and its use in the Treatment of Infected Wounds|journal=Nature|doi=10.1038/154703a0|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/154703a0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Korzybski|first1=Tadeusz|last2=Kowszyk-Gindifer|first2=Zuzanna|last3=Kurylowicz|first3=Wlodzimierz|title=Antibiotics: Origin, Nature and Properties|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=JxElBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48&dq=%22in+1942%22+%22gramicidin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiCj_nghZraAhVBkJAKHTcWDMoQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201942%22%20%22gramicidin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
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| 1887 || || German bacteriologist {{w|Rudolf Emmerich}} shows that the intestinal infection cholera is prevented in animals that have been previously infected with the streptococcus bacterium and then injected with the cholera bacillus.
+
| 1943 || New drug || American biochemists {{w|Selman Waksman}}, [[w:Albert Schatz (scientist)|Albert Schatz]], and Elizabeth Bugie discover antibiotic {{w|streptomycin}}, the first aminoglycoside. It is the first antibiotic effective against {{w|tuberculosis}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lorian|first1=Victor|title=Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HdA4dl8m_T4C&pg=PA197&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22streptomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlxteRoYPaAhVRyVMKHZn_DQYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943%22%20%22streptomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Morabia|first1=Alfredo|title=Enigmas of Health and Disease: How Epidemiology Helps Unravel Scientific Mysteries|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=H00ZBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA143&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22streptomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlxteRoYPaAhVRyVMKHZn_DQYQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943%22%20%22streptomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cumo|first1=Christopher Martin|title=The Ongoing Columbian Exchange: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=tzqhBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA319&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22streptomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlxteRoYPaAhVRyVMKHZn_DQYQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943%22%20%22streptomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1888 || || German scientist E. de Freudenreich manages to isolate an actual product from a bacterium that had antibacterial properties.<ref name="The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology">{{cite book|last1=Newell-McGloughlin|first1=Martina|last2=Re|first2=Edward|title=The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=U27lbghWOfsC&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=E.+de+Freudenreich&source=bl&ots=69HqimydSe&sig=021aY8DvwKO8_TlY5ZfeEenZ8d4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtvvWs5pTaAhXDGJAKHb5WB5AQ6AEIWTAK#v=onepage&q=E.%20de%20Freudenreich&f=false}}</ref>
+
| 1943 || New drug || {{w|Sulfamerazine}} is synthesized by American chemists.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Boothe|first1=Russell G|title=Comparison of sulfathiazole with sulfamerazine in extraction and impaction|url=https://www.ajodo.org/article/0096-6347(45)90205-5/pdf}}</ref> The drug is today used as an antibacterial agent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sulfamerazine|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/sulfamerazine#section=Top|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Santo Tomas Journal of Medicine, Volume 3|publisher=University of Santo Tomas, College of Medicine|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6C0wAQAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1943%22+%22sulfamerazine%22&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22sulfamerazine%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjO3YDaiZraAhXEkJAKHfLAAskQ6AEIMzAC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Biennial Report|publisher=North Dakota. State Dept. of Health|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=B6tNAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1943%22+%22sulfamerazine%22&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22sulfamerazine%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjO3YDaiZraAhXEkJAKHfLAAskQ6AEIKDAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Nelson loose-leaf living medicine, Volume 8|publisher=T. Nelson & Sons|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=0OkSAQAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1943%22+%22sulfamerazine%22&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22sulfamerazine%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjO3YDaiZraAhXEkJAKHfLAAskQ6AEINzAD}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1896 || || French medical student {{w|Ernest Duchesne}} originally discovers the antibiotic properties of {{w|Penicillium}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zhang|first1=Yawei|title=Encyclopedia of Global Health, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=1_XIbBRvD0gC&pg=PA145&dq=%22in+1896%22+%22Ernest+Duchesne%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo15Pi75TaAhUDCpAKHVFPDLQQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201896%22%20%22Ernest%20Duchesne%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Myers|first1=Richard L.|title=The 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=nKtzCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA210&dq=%22in+1896%22+%22Ernest+Duchesne%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo15Pi75TaAhUDCpAKHVFPDLQQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201896%22%20%22Ernest%20Duchesne%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Manning|first1=Shannon D.|last2=Alcamo|first2=I. Edward|last3=Heymann|first3=David L.|title=Escherichia Coli Infections|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=TFkzNocHde4C&pg=PA64&dq=%22in+1896%22+%22Ernest+Duchesne%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo15Pi75TaAhUDCpAKHVFPDLQQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201896%22%20%22Ernest%20Duchesne%22&f=false}}</ref>
+
| 1943 || Production || Penicillin is mass produced and used heavily to treat Allied troops fighting in Europe during {{w|World War II}}.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1909 || || German physician {{w|Paul Ehrlich}} discovers that a chemical called {{w|arsphenamine}} is an effective treatment for {{w|syphilis}}.<ref name="THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS"/>
+
| 1943 || New drug || {{w|Bacitracin}} is first isolated.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bacitracin A|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Bacitracin_A#section=Top|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials">{{cite web|title=The Golden Age of Antibacterials|url=https://amrls.cvm.msu.edu/pharmacology/historical-perspectives/the-golden-age-of-antibacterials|website=amrls.cvm.msu.edu|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref> The drug is used to prevent minor skin infections caused by small cuts, scrapes, or burns.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bacitracin Ointment|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-14270/bacitracin-topical/details|website=webmd.com|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1928 || || Scottish microbiologist {{w|Alexander Fleming}}, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called {{w|staphylococcus}}, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.<ref name="The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology"/><ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/>|| {{w|United Kingdom}}
+
| 1945 || New drug || The {{w|cephalosporins}} are discovered from a fungus, ''{{w|Cephalosporium acremonium}}'', in seawater samples near a sewage outfall in {{w|Sardinia}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stephanie Watts|last2=Faingold|first2=Carl|last3=Dunaway|first3=George|last4=Crespo|first4=Lynn|title=Brody's Human Pharmacology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=kfsrz_-OrMQC&pg=PA536&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Riviere|first1=Jim E.|last2=Papich|first2=Mark G.|title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC&pg=PA865&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Peter N.|last2=Brown|first2=Morris J.|title=Clinical Pharmacology E-Book: With STUDENTCONSULT Access|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=FaXRAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1930 || || French-born American microbiologist {{w|René Dubos}} isolates from a soil microorganism an enzyme that can decompose part of the bacillum that causes lobar pneumonia in humans.<ref name="René Dubos">{{cite web|title=René Dubos|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Dubos|website=britannica.com|accessdate=30 March 2018}}</ref>  
+
| 1947 || New drug || {{w|Chloramphenicol}} is isolated from the soil organism ''{{w|Streptomyces venezuelae}}''. Merketed in 1949, its use would quickly become widespread due to its broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kacew|first1=Sam|title=Drug Toxicity and Metabolism in Pediatrics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=UrtHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT262&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Riviere|first1=Jim E.|last2=Papich|first2=Mark G.|title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC&pg=PA946&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Shapiro|first1=Stuart|title=Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in Actinomycetes|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=pfZoaHwA1j0C&pg=PA167&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Aschenbrenner|first1=Diane S.|last2=Venable|first2=Samantha J.|title=Drug Therapy in Nursing|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5zd_W_PUwvYC&pg=PA800&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
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| 1932 || || German pathologist {{w|Gerhard Domagk}} develops {{w|prontosil}}, the first sulphonamide microbial.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ravina|first1=Enrique|title=The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=iDNy0XxGqT8C&pg=PA48&dq=%22in+1932%22+%22prontosil%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLxOHfn4PaAhVEGZAKHWKXB_gQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201932%22%20%22prontosil%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Savona-Ventura|first1=Charles|title=Contemporary Medicine in Malta [1798-1979]|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=eMgkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA465&dq=%22in+1932%22+%22prontosil%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLxOHfn4PaAhVEGZAKHWKXB_gQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201932%22%20%22prontosil%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology">{{cite book|last1=Torok|first1=Estee|last2=Moran|first2=Ed|last3=Cooke|first3=Fiona|title=Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5W-WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT56&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
+
| 1947 || New drug || American plant physiologist {{w|Benjamin Minge Duggar}} isolates {{w|chlortetracycline}} from a {{w|Missouri River}} mud sample. It is the first {{w|tetracycline}} introduced.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dougherty|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Pucci|first2=Michael J.|title=Antibiotic Discovery and Development|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=av5SHPiHVcsC&pg=PA152&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kokate|first1=Chandrakant|last2=Jalalpure|first2=SS|last3=Pramod|first3=H.J|title=Textbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=p70UCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MyNwTA-iWvgC&pg=PA163&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=McKenna|first1=John|title=Natural Alternatives to Antibiotics – Revised and Updated: How to treat infections without antibiotics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=T0t_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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−
| 1939 || || Microbiologist {{w|René Dubos}} manages to isolate an antibacterial substance and names it {{w|tyrothricin}}.<ref name="René Dubos"/>
+
| 1947 || New drug || The {{w|polymyxin}} family of antibiotics is discovered, with {{w|polymyxin B}} being the first isolated from bacterium {{w|paenibacillus polymyxa}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=NKsalcHkxmAC&pg=PA74&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22polymyxin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixxNmOoZfaAhVLipAKHR6QCwsQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22polymyxin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 46|publisher=Academic Press, Oct 12, 2011 - Science|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=_PWJ3dJWG7oC&pg=PA254&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22polymyxin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixxNmOoZfaAhVLipAKHR6QCwsQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22polymyxin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1939 || || "1939, that Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and Norman Heatley"
+
| 1947 || New drug || Drug class {{w|Nitrofuran}} is introduced.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> Nitrofurans are synthetic chemotherapeutic agents with a broad antimicrobial spectrum, active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including {{w|salmonella}} and ''Giardia spp'', trichomonads, amebae, and some coccidial species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nitrofurans|url=https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/nitrofurans|website=msdvetmanual.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1941 || || {{w|Penicillin}} is introduced for medical use.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History">{{cite journal|last1=Landecker|first1=Hannah|title=Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1357034X14561341}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> Just before the introduction of penicillin, the mortality rate from Staphylococcus aureus infections that had reached the blood stream was reported to be 80%.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/> ||
+
| 1948 || New drug || {{w|Mafenide}} –a sulfonamide-type antibiotic, is approved by the United States {{w|FDA}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Evolve Reach Testing and Remediation Comprehensive Review for the NCLEX-RN Examination |publisher=CTI Reviews |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=vxPMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=%22Mafenide%22+%22in+1948%22&source=bl&ots=-wZwzA4gHO&sig=Dt7alH-toK-m87hNnHX3IP9CaNA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZ9abLx67bAhXCiZAKHUdWAvwQ6AEIPDAB#v=onepage&q=%22Mafenide%22%20%22in%201948%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Adult Health Nursing |publisher=CTI Reviews |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=D6waDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT48&lpg=PT48&dq=%22Mafenide%22+%22in+1948%22&source=bl&ots=GlaP3MR-hN&sig=ESZK8326K6TCZucZeUJnQMHbyJY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZ9abLx67bAhXCiZAKHUdWAvwQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=%22Mafenide%22%20%22in%201948%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 +
|- 
 +
| 1949 || New drug || Jewish-American biochemist {{w|Selman Waksman}} and Hubert A. Lechevalier first isolates {{w|neomycin}}, as {{w|aminoglycoside}} antibiotic found in many topical medications such as creams, ointments, and eyedrops.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schindel|first1=Leo|title=Unexpected Reactions to Modern Therapeutics: Antibiotics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ff_fBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&dq=%22neomycin%22+%22in+1949%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEo_rIsoPaAhXN51MKHXGiDTMQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=%22neomycin%22%20%22in%201949%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grayson|first1=M Lindsay|last2=Crowe|first2=Suzanne M|last3=McCarthy|first3=James S|last4=Mills|first4=John|last5=Mouton|first5=Johan W|last6=Norrby|first6=S Ragnar|last7=Paterson|first7=David L|last8=Pfaller|first8=Michael A|title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics Sixth Edition: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Drugs|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=XR3cBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA742&dq=%22neomycin%22+%22in+1949%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEo_rIsoPaAhXN51MKHXGiDTMQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22neomycin%22%20%22in%201949%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry, Volume 18|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Nwu3tgVqx3IC&pg=PA266&dq=%22neomycin%22+%22in+1949%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEo_rIsoPaAhXN51MKHXGiDTMQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=%22neomycin%22%20%22in%201949%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1942 || || Penicillin resistant bacteria are first detected, about one year after the introduction of penicillin.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/>
+
| 1949 || Scientific development || British chemist {{w|Dorothy Hodgkin}} reveals the complete structure of molecular {{w|penicillin}}, using the X-ray crystallography.<ref name="Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance"/> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
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| 1943 || || American biochemists {{w|Selman Waksman}}, [[w:Albert Schatz (scientist)|Albert Schatz]], and Elizabeth Bugie discover antibiotic {{w|Streptomycin}}, the first aminoglycoside. It is the first antibiotic effective against {{w|tuberculosis}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lorian|first1=Victor|title=Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HdA4dl8m_T4C&pg=PA197&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22streptomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlxteRoYPaAhVRyVMKHZn_DQYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943%22%20%22streptomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Morabia|first1=Alfredo|title=Enigmas of Health and Disease: How Epidemiology Helps Unravel Scientific Mysteries|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=H00ZBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA143&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22streptomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlxteRoYPaAhVRyVMKHZn_DQYQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943%22%20%22streptomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cumo|first1=Christopher Martin|title=The Ongoing Columbian Exchange: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=tzqhBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA319&dq=%22in+1943%22+%22streptomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjlxteRoYPaAhVRyVMKHZn_DQYQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943%22%20%22streptomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1950 || New drug || {{w|Oxytetracycline}} comes into commercial use.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/><ref>{{cite web|title=CHEBI:27701 - oxytetracycline|url=https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=27701|website=ebi.ac.uk|accessdate=2 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shwachman|first1=Harry|last2=Schuster|first2=Augusto|title=The Tetracyclines: Applied Pharmacology|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031395516303649}}</ref> Since then, this antibiotic would be used widely in human and veterinary medicine.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=BRUNO|first1=D. W.|title=An investigation into oxytetracycline residues in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L.|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2761.1989.tb00279.x}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1943 || || Penicillin is mass produced and used heavily to treat Allied troops fighting in Europe during {{w|World War II}}.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>
+
| 1950 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|chloramphenicol}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease">{{cite book|last1=Stearns|first1=Stephen C.|last2=Koella|first2=Jacob C.|title=Evolution in Health and Disease|publisher=Evolution in Health and Disease|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=d_-0LsF3OBsC&pg=PA126&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjM_q6Gkt7ZAhXEE5AKHeKhBJEQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1945 || || The {{w|cephalosporins}} are discovered from a fungus, ''{{w|Cephalosporium acremonium}}'', in seawater samples near a sewage outfall in {{w|Sardinia}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stephanie Watts|last2=Faingold|first2=Carl|last3=Dunaway|first3=George|last4=Crespo|first4=Lynn|title=Brody's Human Pharmacology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=kfsrz_-OrMQC&pg=PA536&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Riviere|first1=Jim E.|last2=Papich|first2=Mark G.|title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC&pg=PA865&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Peter N.|last2=Brown|first2=Morris J.|title=Clinical Pharmacology E-Book: With STUDENTCONSULT Access|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=FaXRAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
+
| 1952 || New drug || {{w|Lincosamides}} are introduced.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> A small group of agents with a novel structure unlike that of any other antibiotic, lincosamides are widely active against Gram-positive bacteria and most anaerobes, with the exception of Gram-negative aerobes. Lincosamides are also active against some {{w|mycoplasma}}s and {{w|protozoa}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lincosamides|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/lincosamides|website=sciencedirect.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1947 || || {{w|Chloramphenicol}} is isolated from the soil organism ''{{w|Streptomyces venezuelae}}''. Merketed in 1949, its use would quickly become widespread due to its broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kacew|first1=Sam|title=Drug Toxicity and Metabolism in Pediatrics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=UrtHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT262&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Riviere|first1=Jim E.|last2=Papich|first2=Mark G.|title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC&pg=PA946&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Shapiro|first1=Stuart|title=Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in Actinomycetes|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=pfZoaHwA1j0C&pg=PA167&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Aschenbrenner|first1=Diane S.|last2=Venable|first2=Samantha J.|title=Drug Therapy in Nursing|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5zd_W_PUwvYC&pg=PA800&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22chloramphenicol%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiepeLgo4PaAhUFsFMKHc4IAAUQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22chloramphenicol%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1952 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|thiamphenicol}} is first synthesized.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Peter M.|last2=Seiple|first2=Ian B.|last3=Myers|first3=Andrew G.|title=The Evolving Role of Chemical Synthesis in Antibacterial Drug Discovery|doi=10.1002/anie.201310843|pmid=24990531|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536949/|pmc=4536949}}</ref> It is a broad spectrum antibiotic with good activity against Gram negative and anaerobic bacteria.<ref>{{cite web|title=THIAMPHENICOL|url=https://www.agscientific.com/all-product/thiamphenicol-7946.html|website=agscientific.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1947 || || American plant physiologist {{w|Benjamin Minge Duggar}} isolates {{w|chlortetracycline}} from a {{w|Missouri River}} mud sample. It is the first {{w|tetracycline}} introduced.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dougherty|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Pucci|first2=Michael J.|title=Antibiotic Discovery and Development|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=av5SHPiHVcsC&pg=PA152&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kokate|first1=Chandrakant|last2=Jalalpure|first2=SS|last3=Pramod|first3=H.J|title=Textbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=p70UCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MyNwTA-iWvgC&pg=PA163&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=McKenna|first1=John|title=Natural Alternatives to Antibiotics – Revised and Updated: How to treat infections without antibiotics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=T0t_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1952 || New drug || {{w|Eli Lilly and Company}} introduces {{w|erythromycin}}, an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections, including {{w|respiratory tract infections}}, {{w|skin infections}}, {{w|chlamydia infections}}, {{w|pelvic inflammatory disease}}, and {{w|syphilis}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rubin|first1=Bruce K.|last2=Tamaoki|first2=Jun|title=Antibiotics as Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Agents|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YY6GBWpVV3sC&pg=PR11&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxITKtoPaAhUD3FMKHWpoA5MQ6AEITTAG#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Piscitelli|first1=Stephen C.|last2=Rodvold|first2=Keith A.|last3=Pai|first3=Manjunath P.|title=Drug Interactions in Infectious Diseases|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=94x8C5pbhqoC&pg=PA243&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxITKtoPaAhUD3FMKHWpoA5MQ6AEISDAF#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Nightingale|last2=Mur|title=Antimicrobial Pharmacodynamics in Theory and Clinical Practice, Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=sXf42EROuhEC&pg=PA217&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxITKtoPaAhUD3FMKHWpoA5MQ6AEIQTAE#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref> Erythromycin is the first macrolide antibiotic.<ref name="Nomenclature for Macrolide and Macrolide-Lincosamide-Streptogramin B Resistance Determinants">{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Marilyn C.|last2=Sutcliffe|first2=Joyce|last3=Courvalin|first3=Patrice|last4=Jensen|first4=Lars Bogo|last5=Rood|first5=Julian|last6=Seppala|first6=Helena|title=Nomenclature for Macrolide and Macrolide-Lincosamide-Streptogramin B Resistance Determinants|url=http://aac.asm.org/content/43/12/2823.full?site=AntimicrobAgentsChemother&utm_source=TrendMDAntimicrobAgentsChemother&utm_medium=trendmdantimicrobagentschemother&utm_campaign=TrendMD_AACCLIN_0}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1947 || || Antibiotic {{w|polymyxin}} is discovered.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> ||
+
| 1952 || New drug || {{w|Streptogramin}}s are introduced. Streptogramins are effective in the treatment of {{w|vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus}} (VRSA) and {{w|vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus}} (VRE), two of the most rapidly growing strains of multidrug-resistant bacteria.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 
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| 1949 || || Jewish-American biochemist {{w|Selman Waksman}} and Hubert A. Lechevalier first isolate {{w|neomycin}}, as {{w|aminoglycoside}} antibiotic found in many topical medications such as creams, ointments, and eyedrops.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schindel|first1=Leo|title=Unexpected Reactions to Modern Therapeutics: Antibiotics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ff_fBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&dq=%22neomycin%22+%22in+1949%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEo_rIsoPaAhXN51MKHXGiDTMQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=%22neomycin%22%20%22in%201949%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grayson|first1=M Lindsay|last2=Crowe|first2=Suzanne M|last3=McCarthy|first3=James S|last4=Mills|first4=John|last5=Mouton|first5=Johan W|last6=Norrby|first6=S Ragnar|last7=Paterson|first7=David L|last8=Pfaller|first8=Michael A|title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics Sixth Edition: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Drugs|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=XR3cBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA742&dq=%22neomycin%22+%22in+1949%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEo_rIsoPaAhXN51MKHXGiDTMQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22neomycin%22%20%22in%201949%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry, Volume 18|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Nwu3tgVqx3IC&pg=PA266&dq=%22neomycin%22+%22in+1949%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEo_rIsoPaAhXN51MKHXGiDTMQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=%22neomycin%22%20%22in%201949%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1953 || New drug || {{w|Oxford University}} scientists discover antibiotic {{w|cephalosporin C}}, from which cephalosporins later develop. Like penicillins, cephalosporins inhibit cell wall synthesis by preventing cross-linking of peptidoglycan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cephalosporin C|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/cephalosporin-c|website=sciencedirect.com|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery">{{cite web|title=Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery|url=https://correctiv.org/en/investigations/superbugs/article/2017/07/03/ten-important-early-moments-history-antibiotic-discovery/|website=correctiv.org|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}  
 
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| 1950 || || Resistance against {{w|chloramphenicol}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease">{{cite book|last1=Stearns|first1=Stephen C.|last2=Koella|first2=Jacob C.|title=Evolution in Health and Disease|publisher=Evolution in Health and Disease|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=d_-0LsF3OBsC&pg=PA126&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjM_q6Gkt7ZAhXEE5AKHeKhBJEQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1953 || Resistance || {{w|Macrolide}} resistance is observed.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?">{{cite web|title=Antibiotics armageddon?|url=https://mega.online/articles/antibiotic-armageddon/|website=mega.online|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1952 || || {{w|Eli Lilly and Company}} introduces {{w|erythromycin}}, an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections, including {{w|respiratory tract infections}}, {{w|skin infections}}, {{w|chlamydia infections}}, {{w|pelvic inflammatory disease}}, and {{w|syphilis}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rubin|first1=Bruce K.|last2=Tamaoki|first2=Jun|title=Antibiotics as Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Agents|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YY6GBWpVV3sC&pg=PR11&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxITKtoPaAhUD3FMKHWpoA5MQ6AEITTAG#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Piscitelli|first1=Stephen C.|last2=Rodvold|first2=Keith A.|last3=Pai|first3=Manjunath P.|title=Drug Interactions in Infectious Diseases|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=94x8C5pbhqoC&pg=PA243&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxITKtoPaAhUD3FMKHWpoA5MQ6AEISDAF#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Nightingale|last2=Mur|title=Antimicrobial Pharmacodynamics in Theory and Clinical Practice, Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=sXf42EROuhEC&pg=PA217&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjOxITKtoPaAhUD3FMKHWpoA5MQ6AEIQTAE#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1954 || New drug || {{w|Benzathine penicillin}} is established as a method for the treatment of {{w|syphilis}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Albert|last2=Abarbanel|first2=Albert|title=The Encyclopædia of Sexual Behaviour, Volume 2|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=FniLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA881&lpg=PA881&dq=%22in+1954%22+%22+benzathine+penicillin%22&source=bl&ots=PT-NukoduX&sig=GPt_S_7nrsOYrsyTDvCRIoHozks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGyOTmxpraAhWHIpAKHYB_D_MQ6AEISTAF#v=onepage&q=%22in%201954%22%20%22%20benzathine%20penicillin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1953 || || {{w|Oxford University}} scientists discover antibiotic {{w|cephalosporin C}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery">{{cite web|title=Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery|url=https://correctiv.org/en/investigations/superbugs/article/2017/07/03/ten-important-early-moments-history-antibiotic-discovery/|website=correctiv.org|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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| 1954 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|cycloserine}} is discovered. It is used for the treatment of tuberculosis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Greenwood |first1=David |title=Antimicrobial Drugs: Chronicle of a Twentieth Century Medical Triumph |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=i4_FZHmzjzwC&pg=PA181&dq=%22Cycloserine%22+%22in+1954%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhjZj1ya7bAhXBjpAKHbn9A6QQ6AEIPDAD#v=onepage&q=%22Cycloserine%22%20%22in%201954%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cordes |first1=Eugene H. |title=Hallelujah Moments: Tales of Drug Discovery |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=lG2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA190&dq=%22Cycloserine%22+%22in+1954%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhjZj1ya7bAhXBjpAKHbn9A6QQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=%22Cycloserine%22%20%22in%201954%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1956 || || Research team at the {{w|Lilly Biological Laboratories}} in {{w|Indiana}} first isolates {{w|vancomycin}} from bacterium {{w|streplomyces orienlalis}}. {{w|Vancomycin}} is used as a treatment for complicated {{w|skin infections}}, bloodstream infections, {{w|endocarditis}}, bone and joint infections, and meningitis caused by methicillin-resistant {{w|staphylococcus aureus}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Staphylococci in Human Disease|edition=Kent B. Crossley, Kimberly K. Jefferson, Gordon L. Archer, Vance G. Fowler|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=4HdJ1t6NOIcC&pg=PA193&dq=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC_KOGkd7ZAhXBjZAKHUNpDZgQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201956%22%20%22vancomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antibiotics Annual|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6-o5AAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&dq=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1vv6uIPaAhVHyVMKHSaVBos4ChDoAQgxMAI}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hejzlar|first1=Miroslav|title=Advances in Antimicrobial and Antineoplastic Chemotherapy: Progress in Research and Clinical Application: pt. 1-2. Antimicrobial chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=qN9sAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&dq=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1vv6uIPaAhVHyVMKHSaVBos4ChDoAQgnMAA}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1955 || New drug || {{w|Macrolide}} antibiotic {{w|spiramycin}} is first introduced into the French market.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lancini|first1=Giancarlo|last2=Parenti|first2=Francesco|title=Antibiotics: An Integrated View|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5VjSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA141&lpg=PA141&dq=%22in+1955%22+%22spiramycin%22&source=bl&ots=aXcqRwkVQR&sig=pw34DhdXBLqw26AYVIcKYKXu0Qg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiyks39ypraAhUGGJAKHaJ-DX8Q6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201955%22%20%22spiramycin%22&f=false}}</ref> Spiramycin is used to treat various infections.<ref>{{cite web|title=GENERIC NAME: SPIRAMYCIN - ORAL CAPSULE (spir-uh-MY-sin)|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/spiramycin-oral_capsule/article.htm|website=medicinenet.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
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|-
 +
| 1956 || New drug || Research team at the {{w|Lilly Biological Laboratories}} in {{w|Indiana}} first isolates {{w|vancomycin}} from bacterium {{w|streplomyces orienlalis}}. {{w|Vancomycin}} is used as a treatment for complicated {{w|skin infections}}, bloodstream infections, {{w|endocarditis}}, bone and joint infections, and meningitis caused by methicillin-resistant {{w|staphylococcus aureus}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Staphylococci in Human Disease|edition=Kent B. Crossley, Kimberly K. Jefferson, Gordon L. Archer, Vance G. Fowler|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=4HdJ1t6NOIcC&pg=PA193&dq=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC_KOGkd7ZAhXBjZAKHUNpDZgQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201956%22%20%22vancomycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antibiotics Annual|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6-o5AAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&dq=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1vv6uIPaAhVHyVMKHSaVBos4ChDoAQgxMAI}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hejzlar|first1=Miroslav|title=Advances in Antimicrobial and Antineoplastic Chemotherapy: Progress in Research and Clinical Application: pt. 1-2. Antimicrobial chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=qN9sAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&dq=%22in+1956%22+%22vancomycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1vv6uIPaAhVHyVMKHSaVBos4ChDoAQgnMAA}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1956 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|erythromycin}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
| 1956 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|erythromycin}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1959 || || {{w|Colistin}} becomes available for treating infections caused by {{w|gram-negative}} bacteria.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> ||
+
| 1957 || New drug || {{w|Kanamycin}} is discovered. It is used to treat severe {{w|bacterial infections}} and {{w|tuberculosis}}.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1960 || || In an attempt to defeat penicillin-resistant strains, scientists develop {{w|methicillin}}, a different antibiotic in the penicillin class.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
+
| 1957 || New drug || {{w|Ansamycins}} are introduced. These bacterial secondary metabolites show antimicrobial activity against many {{w|Gram-positive}} and some {{w|Gram-negative}} bacteria.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1961 || Resistance || {{w|Methicillin}} resistance is first reported.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/><ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
+
| 1959 || New drug || {{w|Colistin}} becomes available for treating infections caused by {{w|gram-negative}} bacteria.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1961 || || Antibiotic {{w|ampicillin}} is introduced. Within a short time it would become the drug of choice for treatment of [[w:Haemophilus meningitis|Hemophilus influenzae meningitis]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Atta-ur-Rahman|title=Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, Volume 56|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=fB8wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375&dq=%22in+1961%22+%22ampicillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjz3PGomI7aAhWGIpAKHYqkA5UQ6AEIPjAE#v=onepage&q=%22in%201961%22%20%22ampicillin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thompson|first1=R.A.|last2=Green|first2=John R.|title=Infectious Diseases of the Central Nervous System|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=gnYrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA94&dq=%22in+1961%22+%22ampicillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjz3PGomI7aAhWGIpAKHYqkA5UQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201961%22%20%22ampicillin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Fifty Years of Antimicrobials: Past Perspectives and Future Trends|publisher=Society for General Microbiology. Symposium|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=l4jkktiBUgQC&pg=PA59&dq=%22in+1961%22+%22ampicillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjz3PGomI7aAhWGIpAKHYqkA5UQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201961%22%20%22ampicillin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1959 || New drug || {{w|Nitroimidazoles}} are introduced. They are effective bactericidal agents against anaerobes and {{w|protozoa}}.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1960 || New drug || In an attempt to defeat penicillin-resistant strains, scientists develop {{w|methicillin}}, a different antibiotic in the penicillin class.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/><ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1960 || New drug || {{w|Metronidazole}} is commercially introduced as an effective antitrichomonal agent. Since then, its use would be extended to the treatment of amebiasis, giardiasis, nonspecific vaginitis, and anaerobic infections, including upper genital tract infections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olson Robbie |first1=Marilyn |last2=Sweet |first2=Richard L. |title=Metronidazole use in obstetrics and gynecology: A review |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0002937883906932}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=8hMr2_SPXDoC&pg=PA224&dq=%22Metronidazole%22+%22in+1960%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGsP-t-K7bAhWEkZAKHYAACdsQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22Metronidazole%22%20%22in%201960%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Progress in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 18 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=FC9pDtB_tz0C&pg=PA88&dq=%22Metronidazole%22+%22in+1960%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGsP-t-K7bAhWEkZAKHYAACdsQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22Metronidazole%22%20%22in%201960%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1961 || Resistance || {{w|Methicillin}} resistance is first reported.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/><ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/><ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1961 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|ampicillin}} is introduced. Within a short time it would become the drug of choice for treatment of [[w:Haemophilus meningitis|Hemophilus influenzae meningitis]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Atta-ur-Rahman|title=Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, Volume 56|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=fB8wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375&dq=%22in+1961%22+%22ampicillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjz3PGomI7aAhWGIpAKHYqkA5UQ6AEIPjAE#v=onepage&q=%22in%201961%22%20%22ampicillin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thompson|first1=R.A.|last2=Green|first2=John R.|title=Infectious Diseases of the Central Nervous System|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=gnYrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA94&dq=%22in+1961%22+%22ampicillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjz3PGomI7aAhWGIpAKHYqkA5UQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201961%22%20%22ampicillin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Fifty Years of Antimicrobials: Past Perspectives and Future Trends|publisher=Society for General Microbiology. Symposium|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=l4jkktiBUgQC&pg=PA59&dq=%22in+1961%22+%22ampicillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjz3PGomI7aAhWGIpAKHYqkA5UQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201961%22%20%22ampicillin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1961 || Resistance || {{w|Methicillin}}-resistant {{w|staphylococcus aureus}} is first reported in the United Kingdom, just a year after the antibiotic methicillin was introduced in the country.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> ||
 
| 1961 || Resistance || {{w|Methicillin}}-resistant {{w|staphylococcus aureus}} is first reported in the United Kingdom, just a year after the antibiotic methicillin was introduced in the country.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1962 || || {{w|Quinolone}}s are discovered accidentally, as a byproduct of some research on the antimalarial drug {{w|chloroquine}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/> ||
+
| 1961 || New drug || {{w|Spectinomycin}} is first reported. Today it is used for the treatment of {{w|gonorrhea infection}}s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhattacharjee|first1=Mrinal K.|title=Chemistry of Antibiotics and Related Drugs|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=vgXWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=%22Spectinomycin%22+%22in+1961%22&source=bl&ots=GIBBr5tdRw&sig=1cbcn8vC0jowhRMIQfTwnPNjUhE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifoaLU7efaAhVNj1kKHeOkD9sQ6AEIbDAL#v=onepage&q=%22Spectinomycin%22%20%22in%201961%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1961 || New drug || {{w|Ethambutol}} is discovered. The medication is primarily used for the treatment of {{w|tuberculosis}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set |edition=M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3xE4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2346&dq=%22Ethambutol%22+%22in+1961%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivq_Sl2q7bAhWCk5AKHUXiAJAQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22Ethambutol%22%20%22in%201961%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Green |first1=Keith |last2=Edelhauser |first2=Henry F. |last3=Hull |first3=David S. |last4=Potter |first4=David E. |last5=Tripathi |first5=Ramesh C. |title=Advances in Ocular Toxicology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dsJ52zQfopcC&pg=PA99&dq=%22Ethambutol%22+%22in+1961%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivq_Sl2q7bAhWCk5AKHUXiAJAQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22Ethambutol%22%20%22in%201961%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=John E. |last2=Dolin |first2=Raphael |last3=Blaser |first3=Martin J. |title=Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=BseNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA469&dq=%22Ethambutol%22+%22in+1961%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivq_Sl2q7bAhWCk5AKHUXiAJAQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=%22Ethambutol%22%20%22in%201961%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1962 || New drug || The {{w|fusidic acid}} is introduced into clinical practice.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lorian |first1=Victor |title=Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HdA4dl8m_T4C&pg=PA554&lpg=PA554&dq=%22Fusidic+acid+was+introduced%22&source=bl&ots=50tWNack7A&sig=rYQs8urH8jlXZRtWFVcwUMRdeyc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQgu3_9q7bAhXBiJAKHZhaCAYQ6AEIUzAH#v=onepage&q=%22Fusidic%20acid%20was%20introduced%22&f=false}}</ref> The antibiotic is prescribed for skin infections caused by staphylococcal bacteria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fusidic acid for skin infections |url=https://patient.info/medicine/fusidic-acid-for-skin-infections-fucidin |website=patient.info |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1963 || || Weinstein and his colleagues from the [[w:Schering-Plough|Schering Corporation]] describe the first isolation of the {{w|gentamicin}} complex.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Applied Microbiology, Volume 18|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=4e3RAZyEf3IC&pg=PA203&dq=%22in+1963%22+%22gentamicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj1uS7mY7aAhXDkJAKHY7kCS8Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201963%22%20%22gentamicin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Eardley|first1=Ian|last2=Whelan|first2=Peter|last3=Kirby|first3=Roger|last4=Schaeffer|first4=Anthony|title=Drug Treatment in Urology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=S903KFrQAC8C&pg=PA97&dq=%22in+1963%22+%22gentamicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj1uS7mY7aAhXDkJAKHY7kCS8Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201963%22%20%22gentamicin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antimicrobials: Synthetic and Natural Compounds|edition=Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran, Nooruddin Thajuddin, A. Panneerselvam|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HZLwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&dq=%22in+1963%22+%22gentamicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj1uS7mY7aAhXDkJAKHY7kCS8Q6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201963%22%20%22gentamicin%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1962 || New drug || {{w|Quinolone}}s are discovered accidentally, as a byproduct of some research on the antimalarial drug {{w|chloroquine}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/><ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1963 || New drug || Weinstein and his colleagues from the [[w:Schering-Plough|Schering Corporation]] describe the first isolation of the {{w|gentamicin}} complex.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Applied Microbiology, Volume 18|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=4e3RAZyEf3IC&pg=PA203&dq=%22in+1963%22+%22gentamicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj1uS7mY7aAhXDkJAKHY7kCS8Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201963%22%20%22gentamicin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Eardley|first1=Ian|last2=Whelan|first2=Peter|last3=Kirby|first3=Roger|last4=Schaeffer|first4=Anthony|title=Drug Treatment in Urology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=S903KFrQAC8C&pg=PA97&dq=%22in+1963%22+%22gentamicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj1uS7mY7aAhXDkJAKHY7kCS8Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201963%22%20%22gentamicin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antimicrobials: Synthetic and Natural Compounds|edition=Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran, Nooruddin Thajuddin, A. Panneerselvam|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=HZLwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&dq=%22in+1963%22+%22gentamicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj1uS7mY7aAhXDkJAKHY7kCS8Q6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201963%22%20%22gentamicin%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 1963 || New drug || {{w|Gentamicin}} is discovered. It is used to treat several types of bacterial infections.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1963 || Resistance || {{w|Gram-negative}} bacterium {{w|acinetobacter baumannii}} becomes an antibiotic resistant pathogen.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/> ||
 
| 1963 || Resistance || {{w|Gram-negative}} bacterium {{w|acinetobacter baumannii}} becomes an antibiotic resistant pathogen.<ref name="Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1965 || || {{w|Dicloxacillin}} is synthesized by {{w|Bayer}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McGuire|first1=John L.|title=Pharmaceuticals, 4 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uG9qAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbwLDuxoPaAhWLzVMKHVNuDecQ6AEIKDAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kuemmerle|first1=Helmut Paul|title=Clinical Chemotherapy: Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=tAZtAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbwLDuxoPaAhWLzVMKHVNuDecQ6AEIOjAE}}</ref><ref name="Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7"/> ||  
+
| 1965 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|Cloxacillin}} synthesized. Today it is useful for the treatment of a number of {{w|bacterial infections}},<ref name=WHO2008/> including {{w|impetigo}}, {{w|cellulitis}}, {{w|pneumonia}}, {{w|septic arthritis}}, and {{w|otitis externa}}.<ref name=WHO2008/> It is used by mouth and by injection.<ref name=WHO2008>{{cite book|title=WHO Model Formulary 2008|date=2009|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=9789241547659|pages=110, 586|url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s16879e/s16879e.pdf|accessdate=8 December 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213060118/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s16879e/s16879e.pdf|archivedate=13 December 2016|df=}}</ref>.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McGuire|first1=John L.|title=Pharmaceuticals, 4 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uG9qAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbwLDuxoPaAhWLzVMKHVNuDecQ6AEIKDAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kuemmerle|first1=Helmut Paul|title=Clinical Chemotherapy: Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=tAZtAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1965%22+%22Dicloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbwLDuxoPaAhWLzVMKHVNuDecQ6AEIOjAE}}</ref><ref name="Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7"/> ||  
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1966 || || Antibiotic {{w|doxycycline}} is introduced.<ref name="Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice">{{cite book|last1=Yaffe|first1=Sumner J.|last2=Aranda|first2=Jacob V.|title=Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=1e2-yggGeUIC&pg=PA456&dq=%22in+1966%22+%22doxycycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje2ra1oY7aAhVEHJAKHRw4AZYQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201966%22%20%22doxycycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology">{{cite book|last1=Denyer|first1=Stephen P.|last2=Hodges|first2=Norman A.|last3=Gorman|first3=Sean P.|last4=Gilmore|first4=Brendan F.|title=Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=JSebRbvrkmUC&pg=PT241&dq=%22in+1966%22+%22doxycycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje2ra1oY7aAhVEHJAKHRw4AZYQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201966%22%20%22doxycycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Neuroinflammation in Stroke">{{cite book|last1=Dirnagl|first1=Ulrich|last2=Elger|first2=Bernd|title=Neuroinflammation in Stroke|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3-cYLFPhTz0C&pg=PA101&dq=%22in+1966%22+%22doxycycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje2ra1oY7aAhVEHJAKHRw4AZYQ6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=%22in%201966%22%20%22doxycycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1966 || Resistance || {{w|Nalidixic acid}} resistance is observed.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1966 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|doxycycline}} is synthesized.<ref name="Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice">{{cite book|last1=Yaffe|first1=Sumner J.|last2=Aranda|first2=Jacob V.|title=Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=1e2-yggGeUIC&pg=PA456&dq=%22in+1966%22+%22doxycycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje2ra1oY7aAhVEHJAKHRw4AZYQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201966%22%20%22doxycycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology">{{cite book|last1=Denyer|first1=Stephen P.|last2=Hodges|first2=Norman A.|last3=Gorman|first3=Sean P.|last4=Gilmore|first4=Brendan F.|title=Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=JSebRbvrkmUC&pg=PT241&dq=%22in+1966%22+%22doxycycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje2ra1oY7aAhVEHJAKHRw4AZYQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201966%22%20%22doxycycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Neuroinflammation in Stroke">{{cite book|last1=Dirnagl|first1=Ulrich|last2=Elger|first2=Bernd|title=Neuroinflammation in Stroke|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3-cYLFPhTz0C&pg=PA101&dq=%22in+1966%22+%22doxycycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje2ra1oY7aAhVEHJAKHRw4AZYQ6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=%22in%201966%22%20%22doxycycline%22&f=false}}</ref> Today it is used for bacterial {{w|pneumonia}}, {{w|acne}}, {{w|chlamydia infection}}s, early {{w|Lyme disease}}, {{w|cholera}} and {{w|syphilis}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Streptomyces aureofaciens|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/streptomyces-aureofaciens|website=sciencedirect.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1966 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|cephalotin}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
| 1966 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|cephalotin}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1968 || || Antibiotic {{w|rifampicin}} is introduced for clinical use.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Atta -ur-|last2=Choudhary|first2=M. Iqbal|title=Frontiers in Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, Volume 6|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=KYA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA288&dq=%22rifampicin%22+%22in+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1tfKA4Y_aAhUFkJAKHZZFBywQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22rifampicin%22%20%22in%201968%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set|edition=y M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3xE4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2369&dq=%22rifampicin%22+%22in+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1tfKA4Y_aAhUFkJAKHZZFBywQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=%22rifampicin%22%20%22in%201968%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mann|first1=R.D.|title=Modern Drug use: An Enquiry on Historical Principles|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=RzTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA551&dq=%22rifampicin%22+%22in+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1tfKA4Y_aAhUFkJAKHZZFBywQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22rifampicin%22%20%22in%201968%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
+
| 1967 || New drug || {{w|Clindamycin}} is first produced. Today it is used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1968 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|rifampicin}} is introduced for clinical use.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rahman|first1=Atta -ur-|last2=Choudhary|first2=M. Iqbal|title=Frontiers in Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, Volume 6|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=KYA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA288&dq=%22rifampicin%22+%22in+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1tfKA4Y_aAhUFkJAKHZZFBywQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22rifampicin%22%20%22in%201968%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set|edition=y M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3xE4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2369&dq=%22rifampicin%22+%22in+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1tfKA4Y_aAhUFkJAKHZZFBywQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=%22rifampicin%22%20%22in%201968%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mann|first1=R.D.|title=Modern Drug use: An Enquiry on Historical Principles|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=RzTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA551&dq=%22rifampicin%22+%22in+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1tfKA4Y_aAhUFkJAKHZZFBywQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22rifampicin%22%20%22in%201968%22&f=false}}</ref> The introduction of rifampicin would greatly shorten the duration of {{w|tuberculosis}} {{w|chemotherapy}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=Korzheva|first2=Nataliya|last3=Mustaev|first3=Arkady|last4=Murakami|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Nair|first5=Satish|last6=Goldfarb|first6=Alex|last7=Darst|first7=Seth A.|title=Structural Mechanism for Rifampicin Inhibition of Bacterial RNA Polymerase|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867401002860}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
 +
|-
 +
| 1968 || Resistance || {{w|Tetracycline}} resistance is observed.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/><ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1968 || New drug || {{w|Trimethoprim}} is introduced. It is used mainly in the treatment of bladder infections.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1969 || New drug || {{w|Fosfomycin}} (originally named phosphonomycin) is discovered in Spain. It has a broad spectrum of activity against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is highly active against Gram-positive pathogens such as ''{{w|Staphylococcus aureus}}'' and ''{{w|Enterococcus}}'', and against Gram-negative bacteria such as ''{{w|Pseudomonas aeruginosa}}'' and ''{{w|Klebsiella pneumoniae}}''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michalopoulos |first1=Argyris S. |last2=Livaditis |first2=Ioannis G. |last3=Gougoutas |first3=Vassilios |title=The revival of fosfomycin |journal=International Journal of Infectious Diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971211001664 |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Frontiers in Clinical Drug Research: Anti-Infectives |edition=Atta-ur-Rahman |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Xn4MDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42&dq=%22Fosfomycin%22+%22in+1969%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjotIvz9K7bAhWFjJAKHSZlAiIQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22Fosfomycin%22%20%22in%201969%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vardanyan |first1=Ruben |last2=Hruby |first2=Victor |title=Synthesis of Best-Seller Drugs |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=A8oHBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA623&dq=%22Fosfomycin%22+%22in+1969%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjotIvz9K7bAhWFjJAKHSZlAiIQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=%22Fosfomycin%22%20%22in%201969%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Spain}} 
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1970 || || Non-toxic semi-synthetic acid-resistant {{w|isoxazolyl}} penicillin {{w|flucloxacillin}} is introduced into clinical practice.<ref name="Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7">{{cite book|last1=Harper|first1=N. J.|last2=Simmonds|first2=Alma B.|title=Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=wy7VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV1deAxYPaAhXRq1MKHeVdDP0Q6AEILjAB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Neonatal Formulary|publisher=BMJ Books, 2000|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=1AxMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV1deAxYPaAhXRq1MKHeVdDP0Q6AEIPjAF}}</ref> ||
+
| 1970 || New drug || Non-toxic semi-synthetic acid-resistant {{w|isoxazolyl}} penicillin {{w|flucloxacillin}} is introduced into clinical practice.<ref name="Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7">{{cite book|last1=Harper|first1=N. J.|last2=Simmonds|first2=Alma B.|title=Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=wy7VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV1deAxYPaAhXRq1MKHeVdDP0Q6AEILjAB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Neonatal Formulary|publisher=BMJ Books, 2000|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=1AxMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&dq=%22in+1950..1970%22+%22flucloxacillin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV1deAxYPaAhXRq1MKHeVdDP0Q6AEIPjAF}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1972 || || Antibiotic {{w|minocycline}} is discovered.<ref name="Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice"/><ref name="Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology"/><ref name="Neuroinflammation in Stroke"/>
+
| 1971 || New drug || {{w|Aminoglycoside}} {{w|antibiotic}} {{w|Tobramycin}} is discovered. It is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, particularly {{w|Gram-negative}} infections.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1974 || || Antibiotic {{w|trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole}} is commercially released.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pharmaceutical Marketing in India|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=b4l_NyGchk4C&pg=PA78&dq=%22in+1974%22+Co-trimoxazole&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLuZSH6o_aAhXEUJAKHdVSBJgQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201974%22%20Co-trimoxazole&f=false|website=books.google.com.ar|accessdate=28 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/>
+
| 1971 || New drug || {{w|Mupirocin}} is originally isolated from ''{{w|Pseudomonas fluorescens}}''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Tara F. |last2=Hill |first2=Jennifer L. |last3=Chiu |first3=Alex |title=Alteration in Bacterial Culture After Treatment With Topical Mupirocin for Recalcitrant Chronic Rhinosinusitis |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaotolaryngology/fullarticle/2478314}}</ref> The antibiotic is primarily effective against Gram-positive bacteria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mupirocin |url=https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00410 |website=drugbank.ca |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1976 || || Antibiotic {{w|amikacin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1972 || New drug || Extracellular broad spectrum {{w|beta-lactam antibiotic}} {{w|cephamycin}} C is first isolated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Diana|first1=Patrizia|last2=Cirrincione|first2=Girolamo|title=Biosynthesis of Heterocycles: From Isolation to Gene Cluster|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=dQ91BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA320&lpg=PA320&dq=%22in+1972%22+%22Cephamycin%22&source=bl&ots=jQaDvsvSHp&sig=rte-hL9RKlNXTRPQXIsDggTof_E&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiF8_fPqOfaAhVITZAKHQm_CroQ6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201972%22%20%22Cephamycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1976 || || {{w|Tufts University}} researcher {{w|Stuart B. Levy}} becomes one of the first to identify antibiotic resistance due to their use in animals.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>
+
| 1972 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|minocycline}} is discovered.<ref name="Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice"/><ref name="Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology"/><ref name="Neuroinflammation in Stroke"/> It has both antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Minocycline is used for a variety of infectious diseases and in acne.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ochsendorf|first1=F|title=Minocycline in acne vulgaris: benefits and risks.|doi=10.2165/11319280-000000000-00000.|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20642295}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1984 || || Antibiotic {{w|ampicillin/clavulanate}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1972 || New drug || {{w|Tinidazole}} is introduced.<ref>{{cite book |title=Drug Therapy in Nursing |publisher=CTI Reviews |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=rLYKJyeex2wC&pg=PT215&dq=%22Tinidazole%22+%22in+1972%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiPmILema_bAhUBCpAKHY8HAtEQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22Tinidazole%22%20%22in%201972%22&f=false}}</ref> It is an anti-parasitic drug used against protozoan infections.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tinidazole Pellets |url=http://www.pharmaceuticalpellets.com/pharmaceutical-pellets/tinidazole-pellets.php |website=pharmaceuticalpellets.com |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1985 || || Researchers at {{w|Eli Lilly and Company}} discover antibiotic {{w|daptomycin}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Current Medical Research and Opinion, Volume 22, Issues 9-12|publisher=Clayton-Wray Publications Limited, 2006|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=yqhNAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Daptomycin%22+%22in+1985..1990%22&dq=%22Daptomycin%22+%22in+1985..1990%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjK4_3av5DaAhULiZAKHd3YBiAQ6AEIKDAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rybak|first1=M. J.|title=The efficacy and safety of daptomycin: first in a new class of antibiotics for Gram‐positive bacteria|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01342.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beiras-Fernandez|first1=Andres|last2=Ferdinand Vogt|first2=Ferdinand Vogt|last3=Sodian|first3=Ralf|last4=Weis|first4=Florian|title=Daptomycin: a novel lipopeptide antibiotic against Gram-positive pathogens|doi=10.2147/IDR.S6961|pmid=21694898|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108743/|pmc=3108743}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+
| 1973 || New drug || Bactericidal antibiotic {{w|Carbenicillin}} is discovered. It belongs to the {{w|carboxypenicillin}} subgroup of the penicillins.<ref name="2-6-ANTIBIOTIC-TIMELINE"/> Carbenicillin has bactericidal and beta-lactamase resistant activity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Carbenicillin|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/carbenicillin#section=Top|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1985 || Introduction || {{w|Carbapenems}} are introduced.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
+
| 1974 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole}} is commercially released.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pharmaceutical Marketing in India|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=b4l_NyGchk4C&pg=PA78&dq=%22in+1974%22+Co-trimoxazole&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLuZSH6o_aAhXEUJAKHdVSBJgQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201974%22%20Co-trimoxazole&f=false|website=books.google.com.ar|accessdate=28 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1986 || Resistance  || Resistance against {{w|vancomycin}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
+
| 1974 || New drug || {{w|Cotrimoxazole}} is introduced.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> It is used to treat certain bacterial infections, such as {{w|pneumonia}}, {{w|bronchitis}}, and infections of the urinary tract, ears, and intestines. Cotrimoxazole also is used to treat 'travelers' diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web|title=Co-trimoxazole|url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a684026.html|website=medlineplus.gov|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1987 || || Antibiotic {{w|imipenem/cilastin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1976 || New drug || The Bristol-Banyu research institute in Japan publishes the discovery of antibiotic {{w|amikacin}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Amikacin|url=http://www.tbonline.info/posts/2011/8/22/amikacin/|website=tbonline.info|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> Amikacin is active against a broad spectrum of {{w|Gram-negative}} organisms, including {{w|pseudomona}}s, {{w|Escherichia coli}} and some {{w|Gram-positive}} organisms, like {{w|Staphylococcus aureus}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amikacin 250 mg/ml Injection|url=https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/3784/smpc|website=medicines.org.uk|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Japan}}
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1987 || || Antibiotic {{w|ciprofloxacin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1976 || Resistance || {{w|Tufts University}} researcher {{w|Stuart B. Levy}} becomes one of the first to identify antibiotic resistance due to their use in animals.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1978 || New drug || {{w|Cefoxitin}} is introduced as an early {{w|cephamycin}}.<ref name="2-6-ANTIBIOTIC-TIMELINE"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sandford Goodman,|first1=Louis|last2=Goodman Gilman|first2=Alfred|title=Goodman and Gilman's: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=RABtAAAAMAAJ&q=cefoxitin+in+1972..1980&dq=cefoxitin+in+1972..1980&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQt8fh65naAhWBhJAKHVktBcQQ6AEIOjAE}}</ref> It is synthesized in order to create an antibiotic with a broader spectrum.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gootz|first=T D|date=1990-01-01|title=Discovery and development of new antimicrobial agents.|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=3|issue=1|pages=13–31|issn=0893-8512|pmc=358138|pmid=2404566|doi=10.1128/cmr.3.1.13}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1978 || New drug || The {{w|teicoplanin}} family of {{w|glycopeptide}}s is discovered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Safety and efficacy of glycopeptide antibiotics|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c977/337ffe04180d95e51c86c705053dc04b4137.pdf|website=pdfs.semanticscholar.org|accessdate=13 May 2018}}</ref> Teicoplanin is used in the {{w|prophylaxis}} and treatment of serious infections caused by {{w|Gram-positive}} {{w|bacteria}}, including [[w:methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']] and ''{{w|Enterococcus faecalis}}''.<ref>Reynolds, P. (1989). Structure, biochemistry and mechanism of action of glycopeptide antibiotics. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, 8(11), pp.943-950.</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1979 || New drug || {{w|Eli Lilly}} patents antibiotic {{w|cefaclor}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sinha|first1=Aseema|title=Globalizing India|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=PvnUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA258&dq=%22in+1979%22+%22cefaclor%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNoKjj0JraAhULmJAKHZtnBuMQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201979%22%20%22cefaclor%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Amann|first1=Edmund|last2=Cantwell|first2=John|title=Innovative Firms in Emerging Market Countries|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=9UfChnkJ10oC&pg=PA157&dq=%22in+1979%22+%22cefaclor%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNoKjj0JraAhULmJAKHZtnBuMQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201979%22%20%22cefaclor%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meléndez-Ortiz,|first1=Ricardo|last2=Roffe|first2=Pedro|title=Intellectual Property and Sustainable Development: Development Agendas in a Changing World|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=mX05t94yOIIC&pg=PA122&dq=%22in+1979%22+%22cefaclor%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNoKjj0JraAhULmJAKHZtnBuMQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201979%22%20%22cefaclor%22&f=false}}</ref> It is used to treat certain bacterial infections such as {{w|pneumonia}} and infections of the ear, lung, skin, throat, and urinary tract. || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 1981 || Resistance || [[w:Beta-lactamase|AmpC beta-lactamase]] resistance is observed.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1981 || New drug || Researchers at {{w|Bayer}} discover {{w|ciprofloxacin}}, the first {{w|fluoroquinolone}}. Ciproloxacin is used to treat bone and {{w|joint infection}}s, intra abdominal infections, certain type of {{w|infectious diarrhea}}, {{w|respiratory tract infection}}s, skin infections, {{w|typhoid fever}}, and {{w|urinary tract infection}}s, among others.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ciprofloxacin (Cipro®)|url=http://www.emedexpert.com/facts/ciprofloxacin-facts.shtml|website=emedexpert.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1983 || Resistance || Extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase resistance is observed.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1984 || New drug || {{w|amoxicillin clavulanate}} is introduced.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> It is specifically used for {{w|otitis media}}, {{w|strep throat}}, {{w|pneumonia}}, {{w|cellulitis}}, {{w|urinary tract infections}}, {{w|animal bites}}, and {{w|tuberculosis}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amoxicillin and Clavulanate Potassium|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/amoxicillin-and-clavulanate-potassium.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|accessdate=12 May 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129000556/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/amoxicillin-and-clavulanate-potassium.html|archivedate=29 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1985 || New drug || Researchers at {{w|Eli Lilly and Company}} discover antibiotic {{w|daptomycin}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Current Medical Research and Opinion, Volume 22, Issues 9-12|publisher=Clayton-Wray Publications Limited, 2006|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=yqhNAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Daptomycin%22+%22in+1985..1990%22&dq=%22Daptomycin%22+%22in+1985..1990%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjK4_3av5DaAhULiZAKHd3YBiAQ6AEIKDAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rybak|first1=M. J.|title=The efficacy and safety of daptomycin: first in a new class of antibiotics for Gram‐positive bacteria|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01342.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beiras-Fernandez|first1=Andres|last2=Ferdinand Vogt|first2=Ferdinand Vogt|last3=Sodian|first3=Ralf|last4=Weis|first4=Florian|title=Daptomycin: a novel lipopeptide antibiotic against Gram-positive pathogens|doi=10.2147/IDR.S6961|pmid=21694898|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108743/|pmc=3108743}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 1985 || New drug || {{w|Carbapenems}} are introduced.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> These are commonly used for the treatment of severe or high-risk bacterial infections. ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1986 || Resistance || {{w|Vancomycin}}-resistant {{w|enterococcus}} is reported.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/><ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1987 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|imipenem/cilastin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> It is useful for the treatment of {{w|pneumonia}}, {{w|sepsis}}, {{w|endocarditis}}, {{w|joint infections}}, {{w|intra-abdominal infections}}, and {{w|urinary tract infections}}.<ref name=AHFS2016>{{cite web|title=Imipenem and Cilastatin|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/imipenem-and-cilastatin.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|accessdate=12 May 2018|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220230449/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/imipenem-and-cilastatin.html|archivedate=20 December 2016|df=}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1987 || New drug || Highly potent {{w|fluoroquinolone}}s are introduced.<ref name="Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance"/> These are used to treat a variety of illnesses such as respiratory and urinary tract infections.<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Antibiotics Linked to Serious Nerve Damage|url=https://www.webmd.com/brain/news/20130826/fda-strengthens-fluoroquinolone-warning|website=webmd.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> These popular class of antibiotics would be used in a variety of infections. Newer drugs in this class are further developed with a broader spectrum of activity including better coverage of gram-positive organisms and, for some fluoroquinolones, anaerobes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fluoroquinolones |url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/fluoroquinolones |website=uptodate.com |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1987 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|cephalosporins}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
| 1987 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|cephalosporins}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1987 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|carbapenem}}s is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/>
+
| 1987 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|carbapenem}}s is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1990s || Resistance || {{w|Fluorochinolone}} resistance is observed.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1993 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|azithromycin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> It is used to treat certain bacterial infections, such as bronchitis, pneumonia, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), and infections of the ears, lungs, sinuses, skin, throat, and reproductive organs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Azithromycin|url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a697037.html|website=medlineplus.gov|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 1993 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|clarithromycin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> It is used to prevent and treat certain infections caused by bacteria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clarithromycin, Oral Tablet|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/clarithromycin-oral-tablet#important-warnings|website=healthline.com|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1993 || || Antibiotics {{w|azithromycin}} and {{w|clarithromycin}} are introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1994 || New drug || {{w|Cefepime}} is introduced into clinical practice. Approved for the treatment of moderate-to-severe infections, such as {{w|pneumonia}}, uncomplicated and complicated {{w|urinary tract infection}}s (UTIs), skin and soft-tissue infections, intra-abdominal infections and {{w|febrile neutropenia}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Endimiani|first1=Andrea|last2=Perez|first2=Federico|last3=Bonomo|first3=Robert A|title=Cefepime: a reappraisal in an era of increasing antimicrobial resistance|doi=10.1586/14787210.6.6.805|pmid=19053894|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2633657/|accessdate=13 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1999 || || Antibiotic {{w|quinupristin/dalfopristin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 1997 || Resistance || {{w|Vancomycin}}-resistant {{w|staphyloccocus}} is reported.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2000 || || Antibiotic {{w|linezolid}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
+
| 1999 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|quinupristin/dalfopristin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> The combination is used to treat {{w|infection}}s by [[w:staphylococcus|staphylococci]] and by {{w|vancomycin}}-resistant ''[[w:Enterococcus|Enterococcus faecium]]''.||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2001 || || Antibiotic {{w|telithromycin}} is introduced in the {{w|European Union}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set|edition=M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3xE4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1156&dq=%22in+2001%22+%22Telithromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6z8Lg7Y_aAhWJnJAKHfXGDn0Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20%22Telithromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Alex|first1=Alexander|last2=Harris|first2=C. John|last3=Smith|first3=Dennis A.|title=Attrition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: Reasons, Implications, and Pathways Forward|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=GODRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=%22in+2001%22+%22Telithromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6z8Lg7Y_aAhWJnJAKHfXGDn0Q6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20%22Telithromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology|edition=Stephen P. Denyer, Norman A. Hodges, Sean P. Gorman, Brendan F. Gilmore|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=JSebRbvrkmUC&pg=PT243&dq=%22in+2001%22+%22Telithromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6z8Lg7Y_aAhWJnJAKHfXGDn0Q6AEITjAG#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20%22Telithromycin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
+
| 2000 || New drug || {{w|Oxazolidinones}} are introduced.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> These synthetic drugs are active against a large spectrum of Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin- and vancomycin-resistant staphylococci, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, penicillin-resistant pneumococci and anaerobes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bozdogan|first1=B|last2=Appelbaum|first2=PC.|title=Oxazolidinones: activity, mode of action, and mechanism of resistance.|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2003.11.003|pmid=15013035|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15013035}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2002 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|linezolid}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/>
+
| 2000 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|linezolid}} is introduced for the treatment of infections caused by {{w|gram-positive bacteria}} that are resistant to other antibiotics.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> An {{w|oxazolidinone}} antibiotic, linezolid represents the first principally new antibiotic platform that has entered medical practice in more than 30 years.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Leach|first1=Karen L.|last2=Swaney|first2=Steven M.|last3=Colca|first3=Jerry R.|last4=McDonald|first4=William G.|last5=Blinn|first5=James R.|last6=Thomasco|first6=Lisa M.|last7=Gadwood|first7=Robert C.|last8=Shinabarger|first8=Dean|last9=Xiong|first9=Liqun|last10=Mankin|first10=Alexander S.|title=The Site of Action of Oxazolidinone Antibiotics in Living Bacteria and in Human Mitochondria|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1097276507002213}}</ref><ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2003 || Introduction || Antibiotic {{w|daptomycin}} is introduced.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/> ||
+
| 2001 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|telithromycin}} is introduced in the {{w|European Union}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set|edition=M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3xE4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1156&dq=%22in+2001%22+%22Telithromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6z8Lg7Y_aAhWJnJAKHfXGDn0Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20%22Telithromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Alex|first1=Alexander|last2=Harris|first2=C. John|last3=Smith|first3=Dennis A.|title=Attrition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: Reasons, Implications, and Pathways Forward|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=GODRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=%22in+2001%22+%22Telithromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6z8Lg7Y_aAhWJnJAKHfXGDn0Q6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20%22Telithromycin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology|edition=Stephen P. Denyer, Norman A. Hodges, Sean P. Gorman, Brendan F. Gilmore|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=JSebRbvrkmUC&pg=PT243&dq=%22in+2001%22+%22Telithromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6z8Lg7Y_aAhWJnJAKHfXGDn0Q6AEITjAG#v=onepage&q=%22in%202001%22%20%22Telithromycin%22&f=false}}</ref> It is used to treat certain types of pneumonia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Telithromycin|url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a604026.html|website=medlineplus.gov|accessdate=12 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2005 || || Antibiotic {{w|tigecycline}} is introduced for the treatment of skin and skin structure infections and intraabdominal infections.<ref>{{cite book|title=Low-dose antibiotics: current status and outlook for the future|edition=Robert Paul Hunter, Carlos F Amábile-Cuevas, Jun Lin, Joshua D Nosanchuk, Rustam Aminov|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=lOpcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152&dq=%22Tigecycline%22+%22in+2005%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiew8zn64_aAhUDgZAKHTtHDikQ6AEIPDAE#v=onepage&q=%22Tigecycline%22%20%22in%202005%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Vincent|first1=Jean-Louis|last2=Abraham|first2=Edward|last3=Kochanek|first3=Patrick|last4=Moore|first4=Frederick A.|last5=Fink|first5=Mitchell P.|title=Textbook of Critical Care E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uAl68tCzm5IC&pg=PA964&dq=%22Tigecycline%22+%22in+2005%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiew8zn64_aAhUDgZAKHTtHDikQ6AEIRDAG#v=onepage&q=%22Tigecycline%22%20%22in%202005%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Trauma: Critical Care|edition=William C. Wilson, Christopher M. Grande, David B. Hoyt|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3H3AIEtvc8YC&pg=PA936&dq=%22Tigecycline%22+%22in+2005%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiew8zn64_aAhUDgZAKHTtHDikQ6AEIQDAF#v=onepage&q=%22Tigecycline%22%20%22in%202005%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
+
| 2001 || New drug || Broader-spectrum fluoroquinolones are introduced.<ref name="2-6-ANTIBIOTIC-TIMELINE">{{cite web|title=ANTIBIOTIC-TIMELINE|url=https://amrls.cvm.msu.edu/images/micro/2-6-ANTIBIOTIC-TIMELINE.jpg/view|website=amrls.cvm.msu.edu|accessdate=1 April 2018}}</ref> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2010 || Publication || Authors of a report on the evolution of resistance note that microbes have “extraordinary genetic capabilities” that benefit “from man’s overuse of antibiotics to exploit every source of resistance genes... to develop [resistance] for each and every antibiotic introduced into practice clinically, agriculturally, or otherwise.”<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>  
+
| 2002 || Resistance || Resistance against {{w|linezolid}} is observed.<ref name="Evolution in Health and Disease"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2012 || Study || A team of scientists propose adding the terms extensively drug-resistant (XDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) to multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria to better help them classify and potentially defeat superbugs.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>  
+
| 2002 || New drug || The United States {{w|Food and Drug Administration}} approves {{w|cefditoren}}, {{w|pivoxil}} and {{w|ertapenem}}. <ref name="The search for new antimicrobials: why we need new options.">{{cite journal|last1=Zinner|first1=SH|title=The search for new antimicrobials: why we need new options.|doi=10.1586/14787210.3.6.907|pmid=16307503|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16307503}}</ref><ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2014 || || The {{w|World Health Organization}} (WHO) releases a statement in response to major superbug outbreaks like {{w|lebsiella pneumoniae}} (which causes {{w|pneumonia}} and bloodstream infections in the hospital) and {{w|gonorrhea}} strains all over the world, noting that “this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country.”<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>
+
| 2002 || Resistance || {{w|Vancomycin}}-resistant {{w|staphylococcus aureus}} is reported.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2015 || || American fast food company {{w|McDonald's}} announces that it would phase out all meat sources that contain antibiotics.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/>
+
| 2003 || New drug || {{w|Lipopeptide}}s are introduced as antibiotics.<ref name="Antibiotics armageddon?"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2003 || New drug || {{w|Daptomycin}} (a {{w|lipopeptide}} antibiotic) is introduced for treatment of systemic and life-threatening infections caused by {{w|Gram-positive}} organisms.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Alita A. |last2=Miller |first2=Paul F. |title=Emerging Trends in Antibacterial Discovery: Answering the Call to Arms |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=B_GhBK7sgWIC&pg=PA331&dq=%22lipopeptides%22+%22in+2003%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9w47fnK_bAhUIUJAKHVn2CdsQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22lipopeptides%22%20%22in%202003%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baltz |first1=RH |last2=Miao |first2=V |last3=Wrigley |first3=SK. |title=Natural products to drugs: daptomycin and related lipopeptide antibiotics. |doi=10.1039/b416648p |pmid=16311632 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16311632}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2004 || New drug || {{w|Telythromicin}} is introduced.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> It is used to treat certain types of pneumonia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Telithromycin|url=https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a604026.html|website=medlineplus.gov|accessdate=2 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2005 || New drug || Antibiotic {{w|tigecycline}} is introduced for the treatment of skin and skin structure infections and intraabdominal infections.<ref>{{cite book|title=Low-dose antibiotics: current status and outlook for the future|edition=Robert Paul Hunter, Carlos F Amábile-Cuevas, Jun Lin, Joshua D Nosanchuk, Rustam Aminov|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=lOpcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152&dq=%22Tigecycline%22+%22in+2005%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiew8zn64_aAhUDgZAKHTtHDikQ6AEIPDAE#v=onepage&q=%22Tigecycline%22%20%22in%202005%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Vincent|first1=Jean-Louis|last2=Abraham|first2=Edward|last3=Kochanek|first3=Patrick|last4=Moore|first4=Frederick A.|last5=Fink|first5=Mitchell P.|title=Textbook of Critical Care E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=uAl68tCzm5IC&pg=PA964&dq=%22Tigecycline%22+%22in+2005%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiew8zn64_aAhUDgZAKHTtHDikQ6AEIRDAG#v=onepage&q=%22Tigecycline%22%20%22in%202005%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Trauma: Critical Care|edition=William C. Wilson, Christopher M. Grande, David B. Hoyt|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=3H3AIEtvc8YC&pg=PA936&dq=%22Tigecycline%22+%22in+2005%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiew8zn64_aAhUDgZAKHTtHDikQ6AEIQDAF#v=onepage&q=%22Tigecycline%22%20%22in%202005%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2010 || Publication || Authors of a report on the evolution of resistance note that microbes have “extraordinary genetic capabilities” that benefit “from man’s overuse of antibiotics to exploit every source of resistance genes... to develop [resistance] for each and every antibiotic introduced into practice clinically, agriculturally, or otherwise.”<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2011 || New drug || The United States {{w|Food and Drug Administration}} approves {{w|fidaxomicin}} for treatment of {{w|clostridium Difficile Infection}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Richards|first1=Jeremy B.|last2=Stapleton|first2=Renee D.|title=Non-Pulmonary Complications of Critical Care: A Clinical Guide|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YpApBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151&dq=%22in+2011%22+%22fidaxomicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigi77ByaPaAhUCrVkKHff-B1gQ6AEIQzAE#v=onepage&q=%22in%202011%22%20%22fidaxomicin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bope|first1=Edward T.|last2=Kellerman|first2=Rick D.|title=Conn's Current Therapy 2017 E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=UitFDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT617&dq=%22in+2011%22+%22fidaxomicin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigi77ByaPaAhUCrVkKHff-B1gQ6AEIPDAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%202011%22%20%22fidaxomicin%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2012 || Study || A team of scientists propose adding the terms extensively drug-resistant (XDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) to multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria to better help them classify and potentially defeat superbugs.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2012 || New drug || The United States {{w|Food and Drug Administration}} approves {{w|bedaquiline}} for the treatment of multidrug-resistant {{w|tuberculosis}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kurreck,|first1=Jens|last2=Stein|first2=Aaron|title=Molecular Medicine: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Ji6sBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158&dq=%22in+2012+%22+%22bedaquiline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwim1_ffx6PaAhXFzlMKHeGIDT4Q6AEIRTAF#v=onepage&q=%22in%202012%20%22%20%22bedaquiline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Villa,|first1=Tomas G.|last2=Vinas|first2=Miguel|title=New Weapons to Control Bacterial Growth|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=faXWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA407&dq=%22in+2012+%22+%22bedaquiline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwim1_ffx6PaAhXFzlMKHeGIDT4Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%202012%20%22%20%22bedaquiline%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2013 || New drug || The United States {{w|Food and Drug Administration}} approves {{w|telavancin}} for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia caused by susceptible {{w|staphylococcus aureus}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mandell|first1=Gerald L.|title=Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=BseNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA399&dq=%22in+2013%22+%22telavancin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9sNSjxqPaAhXOmVkKHe7NDs4Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%202013%22%20%22telavancin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=John E.|last2=Dolin|first2=Raphael|last3=Blaser|first3=Martin J.|title=Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=73pYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA399&dq=%22in+2013%22+%22telavancin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9sNSjxqPaAhXOmVkKHe7NDs4Q6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%202013%22%20%22telavancin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Villa|first1=Tomas G.|last2=Vinas|first2=Miguel|title=New Weapons to Control Bacterial Growth|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=faXWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204&dq=%22in+2013%22+%22telavancin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9sNSjxqPaAhXOmVkKHe7NDs4Q6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%202013%22%20%22telavancin%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2013 || Resistance || The US {{w|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}} identifies 17 antibiotic-resistant microorganisms that cause at least 23,000 deaths in the United States.<ref name="antibiotics science"/> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2014 || Declaration || The {{w|World Health Organization}} (WHO) releases a statement in response to major superbug outbreaks like {{w|lebsiella pneumoniae}} (which causes {{w|pneumonia}} and bloodstream infections in the hospital) and {{w|gonorrhea}} strains all over the world, noting that “this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country.”<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2014 || New drug || The United States {{w|Food and Drug Administration}} approves four new antibacterial agents, {{w|dalbavancin}}, {{w|oritavancin}}, {{w|tedizolid}} for skin infections, and {{w|ceftolozane}}/{{w|tazobactam}} for complicated intra‐abdominal and urinary tract infections.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Alex|first1=Alexander|last2=Harris|first2=C. John|last3=Smith|first3=Dennis A.|title=Attrition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: Reasons, Implications, and Pathways Forward|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=JYPgCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA172&dq=%22in+2014%22+%22ceftolozane/tazobactam%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjrrp2HxaPaAhVIx1kKHX1SBTgQ6AEIOzAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%202014%22%20%22ceftolozane%2Ftazobactam%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2015 || Policy || American fast food company {{w|McDonald's}} announces that it would phase out all meat sources that contain antibiotics.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2015 || New drug || {{w|Ceftazidime/avibactam}} is introduced for use in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stanbury|first1=Peter F|last2=Whitaker|first2=Allan|last3=Hall|first3=Stephen J|title=Principles of Fermentation Technology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=yOKoBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA85&dq=ceftazidime/avibactam+%22in+2015%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQqeXR1praAhWKgpAKHSSfBqoQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=ceftazidime%2Favibactam%20%22in%202015%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wanger|first1=Audrey|last2=Chavez|first2=Violeta|last3=Huang|first3=Richard|last4=Wahed|first4=Amer|last5=Dasgupta|first5=Amitava|last6=Actor|first6=Jeffrey K.|title=Microbiology and Molecular Diagnosis in Pathology: A Comprehensive Review for Board Preparation, Certification and Clinical Practice|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=QpLUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA141&dq=ceftazidime/avibactam+%22in+2015%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQqeXR1praAhWKgpAKHSSfBqoQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=ceftazidime%2Favibactam%20%22in%202015%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chandrasekar|first1=Pranatharthi H.|title=Infections in the Immunosuppressed Patient: An Illustrated Case-Based Approach|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=a1rhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=ceftazidime/avibactam+%22in+2015%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQqeXR1praAhWKgpAKHSSfBqoQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=ceftazidime%2Favibactam%20%22in%202015%22&f=false}}</ref> The combination is used for treatment against certain multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2015 || New drug || Natural antibiotic {{w|teixobactin}} is discovered in a screen of uncultured bacteria. It is found to kill pathogens without detectable resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ling |first1=Losee L. |last2=Schneider |first2=Tanja |last3=Peoples |first3=Aaron J. |last4=Spoering |first4=Amy L. |last5=Engels |first5=Ina |last6=Conlon |first6=Brian P. |last7=Mueller |first7=Anna |last8=Schäberle |first8=Till F. |last9=Hughes |first9=Dallas E. |last10=Epstein |first10=Slava |last11=Jones |first11=Michael |last12=Lazarides |first12=Linos |last13=Steadman |first13=Victoria A. |last14=Cohen |first14=Douglas R. |last15=Felix |first15=Cintia R. |last16=Fetterman |first16=K. Ashley |last17=Millett |first17=William P. |last18=Nitti |first18=Anthony G. |last19=Zullo |first19=Ashley M. |last20=Chao Chen |last21=Kim Lewis |title=A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14098}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Piddock |first1=Laura J. V. |title=Teixobactin, the first of a new class of antibiotics discovered by iChip technology? |journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy |url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/70/10/2679/830198}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2017 || New drug || Scientists produce new, effective and simplified forms of teixobactin - a new generation antibiotic which defeats multi-drug resistant infections such as {{w|Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus}}. The research moves closer to defeating 'superbugs' with simplified forms of the drug.<ref>{{cite web |title=Scientists move closer to defeating 'superbugs' with simplified forms of teixobactin |url=https://phys.org/news/2017-06-scientists-closer-defeating-superbugs-teixobactin.html |website=phys.org |accessdate=12 July 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2018 || New drug ||  The discovery of {{w|malacidin}}s is published.<ref>{{cite web|title=A new antibiotic Malacidin from soil kills resistant bacteria|url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20180214/A-new-antibiotic-Malacidin-from-soil-kills-resistant-bacteria.aspx|website=news-medical.net|accessdate=2 April 2018}}</ref> The novel antibiotic can work against many of the multidrug-resistant bacterial strains.<ref>{{cite web|title=A new antibiotic Malacidin from soil kills resistant bacteria|url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20180214/A-new-antibiotic-Malacidin-from-soil-kills-resistant-bacteria.aspx|website=news-medical.net|accessdate=13 May 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
== Numerical and visual data  ==
 +
 
 +
=== Mentions on Google Scholar ===
 +
 
 +
The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of May 19, 2021.
 +
 
 +
{| class="sortable wikitable"
 +
! Year
 +
! antibiotic
 +
! antibiotic use
 +
! antibiotic resistance
 +
! antibiotic therapy
 +
! antibiotic resistance genes
 +
|-
 +
| 1980 || 14,700 || 8,710 || 4,170 || 5,480 || 3,150
 +
|-
 +
| 1985 || 18,500 || 12,000 || 5,640 || 7,640 || 4,180
 +
|-
 +
| 1990 || 23,500 || 15,300 || 7,550 || 9,210 || 7,500
 +
|-
 +
| 1995 || 35,200 || 21,100 || 10,300 || 12,000 || 10,300
 +
|-
 +
| 2000 || 73,800 || 57,100 || 20,100 || 21,700 || 18,900 
 +
|-
 +
| 2002 || 88,600 || 71,000 || 25,000 || 25,800 || 20,500
 +
|-
 +
| 2004 || 107,000 || 90,800 || 34,800 || 34,000 || 24,500
 +
|-
 +
| 2006 || 134,000 || 105,000 || 44,500 || 42,800 || 26,500
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || 138,000 || 120,000 || 53,900 || 49,800 || 29,900
 +
|-
 +
| 2010 || 161,000 || 142,000 || 67,800 || 60,400 || 35,300
 +
|-
 +
| 2012 || 182,000 || 163,000 || 86,000 || 73,700 || 46,200
 +
|-
 +
| 2014 || 184,000 || 155,000 || 89,700 || 75,300 || 50,700   
 +
|-
 +
| 2016 || 154,000 || 135,000 || 92,900 || 73,900 || 57,800 
 +
|-
 +
| 2017 || 141,000 || 123,000 || 84,300 || 67,700 || 59,700 
 +
|-
 +
| 2018 || 119,000 || 98,700 || 80,800 || 63,200 || 60,200 
 +
|-
 +
| 2019 || 88,000 || 96,100 || 69,800 || 55,300 || 58,300   
 +
|-
 +
| 2020 || 75,700 || 70,600 || 55,800 || 45,700 || 52,900   
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
[[File:Antibio tb.png|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
=== Google trends ===
 +
 +
The image below shows {{w|Google Trends}} data for Antibiotics (Drug type) from January 2004 to January 2021, when the screenshot was taken.<ref>{{cite web |title=Antibiotics |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=%2Fm%2F0tbr |website=trends.google.com |access-date=6 January 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Antibiotics (Drug type).jpeg|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
The comparative chart below shows {{w|Google Trends}} data for Penicillin (Topic), Amoxicillin (Medication) and Cephalosporin (Drug class) from January 2004 to February 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.<ref>{{cite web |title=Penicillin, Amoxicillin and Cephalosporin |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=%2Fm%2F05t37,%2Fm%2F011z0,%2Fm%2F033gj_ |website=Google Trends |access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Penicillin compared gt.jpeg|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
=== Google Ngram Viewer ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows {{w|Google Ngram Viewer}} data for Antibiotics from 1500 to 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Antibiotics |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Antibiotics&year_start=1500&year_end=2019&corpus=26&smoothing=1&case_insensitive=true |website=books.google.com |access-date=13 January 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Antibio ngram.jpeg|thumb|center|800px]]
 +
 +
=== Wikipedia views ===
 +
 +
The image shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia page {{w|Antibiotics}} on desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from June 2015; to January 2021.
 +
 +
[[File:Antibiotics wv.jpeg|thumb|center|500px]]
  
 
==Meta information on the timeline==
 
==Meta information on the timeline==
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===How the timeline was built===
 
===How the timeline was built===
  
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The initial version of the timeline was written by [[User:FIXME|FIXME]].
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The initial version of the timeline was written by [[User:Sebastian]].
  
 
{{funding info}} is available.
 
{{funding info}} is available.
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===What the timeline is still missing===
 
===What the timeline is still missing===
−
[https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5W-WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT56&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false], [https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=d_-0LsF3OBsC&pg=PA126&dq=%22in+1952%22+%22erythromycin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjM_q6Gkt7ZAhXEE5AKHeKhBJEQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201952%22%20%22erythromycin%22&f=false]
+
 
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* A column for {{w|bacteria}}.
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* Check {{w|Timeline of antibiotics}}
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* {{w|Cinoxacin}}
  
 
===Timeline update strategy===
 
===Timeline update strategy===
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
 +
 +
* [[Timeline of infection control]]
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Latest revision as of 20:18, 24 June 2023

This is a timeline of antibiotics, mainly focusing on both the introduction of drugs and first reported drug resistances. For historic events focusing on bacteria, visit Timeline of bacteriology.

Big picture

Time period Development summary
<19th century Although people did not know infections were caused by bacteria, antibiotics have been used for millennia to treat infections. Some of the earliest civilizations used various molds and plant extracts for treatment. The ancient Egyptians, for example, applied mouldy bread to infected wounds.[1]
19th century Scientists begin to observe antibacterial chemicals in action.[1] By the late century, a few notable breakthroughs occur.
20th century Antibiotics revolutionize medicine during the later half of the 20th century.[2] The major event in the history of antibiotics is the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. The first antibiotics are prescribed in the late 1930s.[3] The period between the 1950s and 1970s is considered the golden era of discovery of novel antibiotics classes, with no new classes discovered since then.[4] In fact, between 1944 and 1972 human life expectancy jumps by eight years, largely due to the introduction of antibiotics.[3] In the 1970s and 1980s synthetic versions of erythromycin, including clarithromycin and azithromycin, are developed.[5] After the 1970s, with the decline of the discovery rate, the mainstream approach for the development of new drugs to combat emerging and re-emerging resistance of pathogens to antibiotics would be the modification of existing antibiotics.[4] By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists only manage to make improvements within classes.[6]
21th century At present, there are more than 100 antibiotics available to treat human and animal diseases.[7]

Full timeline

Year Event type Details Geographical location
350 CE–550 CE Traces of tetracycline are found in human skeletal remains from ancient Sudanese Nubia.[4][2]
1877 Scientific development French microbiologist Louis Pasteur shows that the bacterial disease anthrax can be rendered harmless in animals with the injection of soil bacteria.[8][9] France
1887 Scientific development German bacteriologist Rudolf Emmerich shows that the intestinal infection cholera is prevented in animals that have been previously infected with the streptococcus bacterium and then injected with the cholera bacillus.[10]
1888 Scientific development German scientist E. de Freudenreich manages to isolate an actual product from a bacterium that had antibacterial properties.[11]
1896 Scientific development French medical student Ernest Duchesne originally discovers the antibiotic properties of Penicillium.[12][13][14]
1897 Resistance Doctoral student Ernest Duchesne submits a dissertation, Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between molds and microbes), the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of molds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposes that bacteria and molds engage in a perpetual battle for survival.[15] France
1907 New drug German chemist Alfred Bertheim and Paul Ehrlich discover arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics. This marks the beginning of the era of antibacterial treatment.[16]
1909 Scientific development Japanese bacteriologist Sahachiro Hata discovers the antisyphilitic activity of arsphenamine.[1][17]
1912 New drug Paul Ehrlich discovers Neosalvarsan, a synthetic chemotherapeutic.[18]
1928 New drug Scottish microbiologist Alexander Fleming, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called staphylococcus, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.[11][5] United Kingdom
1930 Scientific development French-born American microbiologist René Dubos isolates from a soil microorganism an enzyme that can decompose part of the bacillum that causes lobar pneumonia in humans.[19]
1932 New drug German pathologist Gerhard Domagk develops prontosil, the first sulphonamide microbial.[20][21][22] Germany
1936 New drug Sulfonamide antibacterial sulfanilamide is introduced in the United States and is immediately established as a powerful antiinfective agent.[23] United States
1937 New drug The first effective antimicrobials (sulfonamides) are introduced.[24]
1938 New drug Sulfapyridine is introduced for clinical use for the treatment of pneumococcic pneumonia.[25][26] Today it is used to help control dermatitis herpetiformis (Duhring's disease), a skin problem.[27]
1939 Scientific development Microbiologist René Dubos manages to isolate an antibacterial substance and names it tyrothricin.[19]
1939 New drug Gramicidin A is discovered from the soil bacterium bacillus brevis, and becomes the first clinically useful topical antibiotic.[28][29][30]
1939 Scientific development Australian pharmacologist Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain manage to elucidate the structure of penicillin G, the first penicillin used in therapy.[31][32][33]
1939 New drug Sulfonamide antibiotic sulfacetamide is first reported in the treatment of diseases of the eye.[34][35] Today it is used to treat bacterial eye infections, such as conjunctivitis.[36]
1940 New drug Sulfonamide antibiotic sulfamethizole is introduced and marketed as a single compound for the treatment of urinary tract infections.[37][38][39]
1941 New drug β-lactam antibiotics enter initial clinical trials. In time, they would become the most widely produced and used antibacterial drugs in the world.[40][41] β-lactam antibiotics now the most economically important of all the groups of antimicrobials.[42]
1941 New drug Penicillin is introduced for medical use.[43][22] Just before the introduction of penicillin, the mortality rate from Staphylococcus aureus infections that had reached the blood stream was reported to be 80%.[43]
1942 New drug Sulfadimidine is introduced for the treatment of bacterial infections.[44][45][46][47]
1942 Resistance Penicillin resistant bacteria are first detected, about one year after the introduction of penicillin.[43]
1942 New drug Gramicidin S, the first peptide antibiotic, is isolated by Gauze and Brazhnikova.[48][49][50]
1943 New drug American biochemists Selman Waksman, Albert Schatz, and Elizabeth Bugie discover antibiotic streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside. It is the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis.[5][51][52][53][22] United States
1943 New drug Sulfamerazine is synthesized by American chemists.[54] The drug is today used as an antibacterial agent.[55][56][57][58] United States
1943 Production Penicillin is mass produced and used heavily to treat Allied troops fighting in Europe during World War II.[2]
1943 New drug Bacitracin is first isolated.[59][60] The drug is used to prevent minor skin infections caused by small cuts, scrapes, or burns.[61]
1945 New drug The cephalosporins are discovered from a fungus, Cephalosporium acremonium, in seawater samples near a sewage outfall in Sardinia.[22][62][63][64] Italy
1947 New drug Chloramphenicol is isolated from the soil organism Streptomyces venezuelae. Merketed in 1949, its use would quickly become widespread due to its broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity.[65][66][67][68]
1947 New drug American plant physiologist Benjamin Minge Duggar isolates chlortetracycline from a Missouri River mud sample. It is the first tetracycline introduced.[69][70][71][72] United States
1947 New drug The polymyxin family of antibiotics is discovered, with polymyxin B being the first isolated from bacterium paenibacillus polymyxa.[5][73][74]
1947 New drug Drug class Nitrofuran is introduced.[40] Nitrofurans are synthetic chemotherapeutic agents with a broad antimicrobial spectrum, active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including salmonella and Giardia spp, trichomonads, amebae, and some coccidial species.[75]
1948 New drug Mafenide –a sulfonamide-type antibiotic, is approved by the United States FDA.[76][77]
1949 New drug Jewish-American biochemist Selman Waksman and Hubert A. Lechevalier first isolates neomycin, as aminoglycoside antibiotic found in many topical medications such as creams, ointments, and eyedrops.[78][79][80] United States
1949 Scientific development British chemist Dorothy Hodgkin reveals the complete structure of molecular penicillin, using the X-ray crystallography.[24] United Kingdom
1950 New drug Oxytetracycline comes into commercial use.[60][81][82] Since then, this antibiotic would be used widely in human and veterinary medicine.[83]
1950 Resistance Resistance against chloramphenicol is observed.[84]
1952 New drug Lincosamides are introduced.[40] A small group of agents with a novel structure unlike that of any other antibiotic, lincosamides are widely active against Gram-positive bacteria and most anaerobes, with the exception of Gram-negative aerobes. Lincosamides are also active against some mycoplasmas and protozoa.[85]
1952 New drug Antibiotic thiamphenicol is first synthesized.[86] It is a broad spectrum antibiotic with good activity against Gram negative and anaerobic bacteria.[87]
1952 New drug Eli Lilly and Company introduces erythromycin, an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin infections, chlamydia infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, and syphilis.[88][89][90] Erythromycin is the first macrolide antibiotic.[91] United States
1952 New drug Streptogramins are introduced. Streptogramins are effective in the treatment of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), two of the most rapidly growing strains of multidrug-resistant bacteria.[40]
1953 New drug Oxford University scientists discover antibiotic cephalosporin C, from which cephalosporins later develop. Like penicillins, cephalosporins inhibit cell wall synthesis by preventing cross-linking of peptidoglycan.[92][5] United Kingdom
1953 Resistance Macrolide resistance is observed.[40]
1954 New drug Benzathine penicillin is established as a method for the treatment of syphilis.[93]
1954 New drug Antibiotic cycloserine is discovered. It is used for the treatment of tuberculosis.[94][95]
1955 New drug Macrolide antibiotic spiramycin is first introduced into the French market.[96] Spiramycin is used to treat various infections.[97] France
1956 New drug Research team at the Lilly Biological Laboratories in Indiana first isolates vancomycin from bacterium streplomyces orienlalis. Vancomycin is used as a treatment for complicated skin infections, bloodstream infections, endocarditis, bone and joint infections, and meningitis caused by methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus.[22][98][99][100] United States
1956 Resistance Resistance against erythromycin is observed.[84]
1957 New drug Kanamycin is discovered. It is used to treat severe bacterial infections and tuberculosis.[60]
1957 New drug Ansamycins are introduced. These bacterial secondary metabolites show antimicrobial activity against many Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria.[40]
1959 New drug Colistin becomes available for treating infections caused by gram-negative bacteria.[5]
1959 New drug Nitroimidazoles are introduced. They are effective bactericidal agents against anaerobes and protozoa.[40]
1960 New drug In an attempt to defeat penicillin-resistant strains, scientists develop methicillin, a different antibiotic in the penicillin class.[2][84]
1960 New drug Metronidazole is commercially introduced as an effective antitrichomonal agent. Since then, its use would be extended to the treatment of amebiasis, giardiasis, nonspecific vaginitis, and anaerobic infections, including upper genital tract infections.[101][102][103]
1961 Resistance Methicillin resistance is first reported.[43][84][40]
1961 New drug Antibiotic ampicillin is introduced. Within a short time it would become the drug of choice for treatment of Hemophilus influenzae meningitis.[104][105][106][22]
1961 Resistance Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus is first reported in the United Kingdom, just a year after the antibiotic methicillin was introduced in the country.[5]
1961 New drug Spectinomycin is first reported. Today it is used for the treatment of gonorrhea infections.[107][60]
1961 New drug Ethambutol is discovered. The medication is primarily used for the treatment of tuberculosis.[108][109][110]
1962 New drug The fusidic acid is introduced into clinical practice.[111] The antibiotic is prescribed for skin infections caused by staphylococcal bacteria.[112]
1962 New drug Quinolones are discovered accidentally, as a byproduct of some research on the antimalarial drug chloroquine.[5][40]
1963 New drug Weinstein and his colleagues from the Schering Corporation describe the first isolation of the gentamicin complex.[22][113][114][115] United States
1963 New drug Gentamicin is discovered. It is used to treat several types of bacterial infections.[60]
1963 Resistance Gram-negative bacterium acinetobacter baumannii becomes an antibiotic resistant pathogen.[43]
1965 New drug Antibiotic Cloxacillin synthesized. Today it is useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections,[116] including impetigo, cellulitis, pneumonia, septic arthritis, and otitis externa.[116] It is used by mouth and by injection.[116].[117][118][119]
1966 Resistance Nalidixic acid resistance is observed.[40]
1966 New drug Antibiotic doxycycline is synthesized.[120][121][122] Today it is used for bacterial pneumonia, acne, chlamydia infections, early Lyme disease, cholera and syphilis.[123]
1966 Resistance Resistance against cephalotin is observed.[84]
1967 New drug Clindamycin is first produced. Today it is used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections.[60]
1968 New drug Antibiotic rifampicin is introduced for clinical use.[124][125][126] The introduction of rifampicin would greatly shorten the duration of tuberculosis chemotherapy.[127] Italy
1968 Resistance Tetracycline resistance is observed.[40][40]
1968 New drug Trimethoprim is introduced. It is used mainly in the treatment of bladder infections.[40]
1969 New drug Fosfomycin (originally named phosphonomycin) is discovered in Spain. It has a broad spectrum of activity against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is highly active against Gram-positive pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus, and against Gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae.[128][129][130] Spain
1970 New drug Non-toxic semi-synthetic acid-resistant isoxazolyl penicillin flucloxacillin is introduced into clinical practice.[119][131]
1971 New drug Aminoglycoside antibiotic Tobramycin is discovered. It is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, particularly Gram-negative infections.[60]
1971 New drug Mupirocin is originally isolated from Pseudomonas fluorescens.[132] The antibiotic is primarily effective against Gram-positive bacteria.[133]
1972 New drug Extracellular broad spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic cephamycin C is first isolated.[134][60]
1972 New drug Antibiotic minocycline is discovered.[120][121][122] It has both antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Minocycline is used for a variety of infectious diseases and in acne.[135]
1972 New drug Tinidazole is introduced.[136] It is an anti-parasitic drug used against protozoan infections.[137]
1973 New drug Bactericidal antibiotic Carbenicillin is discovered. It belongs to the carboxypenicillin subgroup of the penicillins.[138] Carbenicillin has bactericidal and beta-lactamase resistant activity.[139]
1974 New drug Antibiotic trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is commercially released.[140][22]
1974 New drug Cotrimoxazole is introduced.[60] It is used to treat certain bacterial infections, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and infections of the urinary tract, ears, and intestines. Cotrimoxazole also is used to treat 'travelers' diarrhea.[141]
1976 New drug The Bristol-Banyu research institute in Japan publishes the discovery of antibiotic amikacin.[22][60][142] Amikacin is active against a broad spectrum of Gram-negative organisms, including pseudomonas, Escherichia coli and some Gram-positive organisms, like Staphylococcus aureus.[143] Japan
1976 Resistance Tufts University researcher Stuart B. Levy becomes one of the first to identify antibiotic resistance due to their use in animals.[2]
1978 New drug Cefoxitin is introduced as an early cephamycin.[138][144] It is synthesized in order to create an antibiotic with a broader spectrum.[145]
1978 New drug The teicoplanin family of glycopeptides is discovered.[146] Teicoplanin is used in the prophylaxis and treatment of serious infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis.[147]
1979 New drug Eli Lilly patents antibiotic cefaclor.[148][149][150] It is used to treat certain bacterial infections such as pneumonia and infections of the ear, lung, skin, throat, and urinary tract. United States
1981 Resistance AmpC beta-lactamase resistance is observed.[40]
1981 New drug Researchers at Bayer discover ciprofloxacin, the first fluoroquinolone. Ciproloxacin is used to treat bone and joint infections, intra abdominal infections, certain type of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, typhoid fever, and urinary tract infections, among others.[151]
1983 Resistance Extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase resistance is observed.[40]
1984 New drug amoxicillin clavulanate is introduced.[60] It is specifically used for otitis media, strep throat, pneumonia, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, animal bites, and tuberculosis.[152]
1985 New drug Researchers at Eli Lilly and Company discover antibiotic daptomycin.[153][154][155] United States
1985 New drug Carbapenems are introduced.[84] These are commonly used for the treatment of severe or high-risk bacterial infections.
1986 Resistance Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus is reported.[84][40]
1987 New drug Antibiotic imipenem/cilastin is introduced.[22] It is useful for the treatment of pneumonia, sepsis, endocarditis, joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, and urinary tract infections.[156]
1987 New drug Highly potent fluoroquinolones are introduced.[24] These are used to treat a variety of illnesses such as respiratory and urinary tract infections.[157] These popular class of antibiotics would be used in a variety of infections. Newer drugs in this class are further developed with a broader spectrum of activity including better coverage of gram-positive organisms and, for some fluoroquinolones, anaerobes.[158]
1987 Resistance Resistance against cephalosporins is observed.[84]
1987 Resistance Resistance against carbapenems is observed.[84]
1990s Resistance Fluorochinolone resistance is observed.[40]
1993 New drug Antibiotic azithromycin is introduced.[22] It is used to treat certain bacterial infections, such as bronchitis, pneumonia, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), and infections of the ears, lungs, sinuses, skin, throat, and reproductive organs.[159]
1993 New drug Antibiotic clarithromycin is introduced.[22] It is used to prevent and treat certain infections caused by bacteria.[160]
1994 New drug Cefepime is introduced into clinical practice. Approved for the treatment of moderate-to-severe infections, such as pneumonia, uncomplicated and complicated urinary tract infections (UTIs), skin and soft-tissue infections, intra-abdominal infections and febrile neutropenia.[161]
1997 Resistance Vancomycin-resistant staphyloccocus is reported.[40]
1999 New drug Antibiotic quinupristin/dalfopristin is introduced.[22] The combination is used to treat infections by staphylococci and by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium.
2000 New drug Oxazolidinones are introduced.[40] These synthetic drugs are active against a large spectrum of Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin- and vancomycin-resistant staphylococci, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, penicillin-resistant pneumococci and anaerobes.[162]
2000 New drug Antibiotic linezolid is introduced for the treatment of infections caused by gram-positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics.[22][84] An oxazolidinone antibiotic, linezolid represents the first principally new antibiotic platform that has entered medical practice in more than 30 years.[163][40]
2001 New drug Antibiotic telithromycin is introduced in the European Union.[164][165][166] It is used to treat certain types of pneumonia.[167]
2001 New drug Broader-spectrum fluoroquinolones are introduced.[138]
2002 Resistance Resistance against linezolid is observed.[84]
2002 New drug The United States Food and Drug Administration approves cefditoren, pivoxil and ertapenem. [168][60]
2002 Resistance Vancomycin-resistant staphylococcus aureus is reported.[40]
2003 New drug Lipopeptides are introduced as antibiotics.[40]
2003 New drug Daptomycin (a lipopeptide antibiotic) is introduced for treatment of systemic and life-threatening infections caused by Gram-positive organisms.[22][169][170]
2004 New drug Telythromicin is introduced.[60] It is used to treat certain types of pneumonia.[171]
2005 New drug Antibiotic tigecycline is introduced for the treatment of skin and skin structure infections and intraabdominal infections.[172][173][174]
2010 Publication Authors of a report on the evolution of resistance note that microbes have “extraordinary genetic capabilities” that benefit “from man’s overuse of antibiotics to exploit every source of resistance genes... to develop [resistance] for each and every antibiotic introduced into practice clinically, agriculturally, or otherwise.”[2]
2011 New drug The United States Food and Drug Administration approves fidaxomicin for treatment of clostridium Difficile Infection.[175][176] United States
2012 Study A team of scientists propose adding the terms extensively drug-resistant (XDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) to multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria to better help them classify and potentially defeat superbugs.[2]
2012 New drug The United States Food and Drug Administration approves bedaquiline for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.[177][178] United States
2013 New drug The United States Food and Drug Administration approves telavancin for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia caused by susceptible staphylococcus aureus.[179][180][181] United States
2013 Resistance The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identifies 17 antibiotic-resistant microorganisms that cause at least 23,000 deaths in the United States.[7] United States
2014 Declaration The World Health Organization (WHO) releases a statement in response to major superbug outbreaks like lebsiella pneumoniae (which causes pneumonia and bloodstream infections in the hospital) and gonorrhea strains all over the world, noting that “this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country.”[2]
2014 New drug The United States Food and Drug Administration approves four new antibacterial agents, dalbavancin, oritavancin, tedizolid for skin infections, and ceftolozane/tazobactam for complicated intra‐abdominal and urinary tract infections.[182] United States
2015 Policy American fast food company McDonald's announces that it would phase out all meat sources that contain antibiotics.[2]
2015 New drug Ceftazidime/avibactam is introduced for use in the United States.[183][184][185] The combination is used for treatment against certain multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. United States
2015 New drug Natural antibiotic teixobactin is discovered in a screen of uncultured bacteria. It is found to kill pathogens without detectable resistance.[186][187]
2017 New drug Scientists produce new, effective and simplified forms of teixobactin - a new generation antibiotic which defeats multi-drug resistant infections such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. The research moves closer to defeating 'superbugs' with simplified forms of the drug.[188]
2018 New drug The discovery of malacidins is published.[189] The novel antibiotic can work against many of the multidrug-resistant bacterial strains.[190]

Numerical and visual data

Mentions on Google Scholar

The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of May 19, 2021.

Year antibiotic antibiotic use antibiotic resistance antibiotic therapy antibiotic resistance genes
1980 14,700 8,710 4,170 5,480 3,150
1985 18,500 12,000 5,640 7,640 4,180
1990 23,500 15,300 7,550 9,210 7,500
1995 35,200 21,100 10,300 12,000 10,300
2000 73,800 57,100 20,100 21,700 18,900
2002 88,600 71,000 25,000 25,800 20,500
2004 107,000 90,800 34,800 34,000 24,500
2006 134,000 105,000 44,500 42,800 26,500
2008 138,000 120,000 53,900 49,800 29,900
2010 161,000 142,000 67,800 60,400 35,300
2012 182,000 163,000 86,000 73,700 46,200
2014 184,000 155,000 89,700 75,300 50,700
2016 154,000 135,000 92,900 73,900 57,800
2017 141,000 123,000 84,300 67,700 59,700
2018 119,000 98,700 80,800 63,200 60,200
2019 88,000 96,100 69,800 55,300 58,300
2020 75,700 70,600 55,800 45,700 52,900
Antibio tb.png

Google trends

The image below shows Google Trends data for Antibiotics (Drug type) from January 2004 to January 2021, when the screenshot was taken.[191]

Antibiotics (Drug type).jpeg

The comparative chart below shows Google Trends data for Penicillin (Topic), Amoxicillin (Medication) and Cephalosporin (Drug class) from January 2004 to February 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[192]

Penicillin compared gt.jpeg

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Antibiotics from 1500 to 2019.[193]

Antibio ngram.jpeg

Wikipedia views

The image shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia page Antibiotics on desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from June 2015; to January 2021.

Antibiotics wv.jpeg

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

  • FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

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  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 "A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time". medicaldaily.com. Retrieved 29 March 2018. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "antibiotics 1928-2000". abc.net.au. Retrieved 31 March 2018. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Aminov, Rustam I. "A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future". PMC 3109405Freely accessible. PMID 21687759. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134. 
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  6. ↑ "A brief history of antibiotics". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 30 March 2018. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Antibiotics". sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 11 July 2018. 
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  164. ↑ Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set (M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson ed.). 
  165. ↑ Alex, Alexander; Harris, C. John; Smith, Dennis A. Attrition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: Reasons, Implications, and Pathways Forward. 
  166. ↑ Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology (Stephen P. Denyer, Norman A. Hodges, Sean P. Gorman, Brendan F. Gilmore ed.). 
  167. ↑ "Telithromycin". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 12 May 2018. 
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  173. ↑ Vincent, Jean-Louis; Abraham, Edward; Kochanek, Patrick; Moore, Frederick A.; Fink, Mitchell P. Textbook of Critical Care E-Book. 
  174. ↑ Trauma: Critical Care (William C. Wilson, Christopher M. Grande, David B. Hoyt ed.). 
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  176. ↑ Bope, Edward T.; Kellerman, Rick D. Conn's Current Therapy 2017 E-Book. 
  177. ↑ Kurreck,, Jens; Stein, Aaron. Molecular Medicine: An Introduction. 
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  184. ↑ Wanger, Audrey; Chavez, Violeta; Huang, Richard; Wahed, Amer; Dasgupta, Amitava; Actor, Jeffrey K. Microbiology and Molecular Diagnosis in Pathology: A Comprehensive Review for Board Preparation, Certification and Clinical Practice. 
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  187. ↑ Piddock, Laura J. V. "Teixobactin, the first of a new class of antibiotics discovered by iChip technology?". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 
  188. ↑ "Scientists move closer to defeating 'superbugs' with simplified forms of teixobactin". phys.org. Retrieved 12 July 2018. 
  189. ↑ "A new antibiotic Malacidin from soil kills resistant bacteria". news-medical.net. Retrieved 2 April 2018. 
  190. ↑ "A new antibiotic Malacidin from soil kills resistant bacteria". news-medical.net. Retrieved 13 May 2018. 
  191. ↑ "Antibiotics". trends.google.com. Retrieved 6 January 2021. 
  192. ↑ "Penicillin, Amoxicillin and Cephalosporin". Google Trends. Retrieved 16 February 2021. 
  193. ↑ "Antibiotics". books.google.com. Retrieved 13 January 2021. 
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