Difference between revisions of "Timeline of titanium"

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This is a '''timeline of FIXME'''.
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This is a '''timeline of {{w|titanium}}''', attempting to describe important events related to the discovery, science and industrial development of the metal.
  
 
==Big picture==
 
==Big picture==
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! Time period !! Development summary   
 
! Time period !! Development summary   
 
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| 1950s–1960s || In the 1950s and 1960s, the {{w|Soviet Union}} pioneer the use of titanium in military and submarine applications<ref name="Roza2008p9">{{harvnb|Roza|2008|p=9}}</ref> ([[w:Alfa-class submarine|Alfa class]] and [[w:Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets|Mike class]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://warfare.be/?lang=&linkid=1756&catid=243 |title=Submarines: general information |first=Eugene |last=Yanko |author2=Omsk VTTV Arms Exhibition and Military Parade JSC |date=2006 |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> as part of programs related to the Cold War.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stainless Steel World |title=VSMPO Stronger Than Ever |pages=16–19 |publisher=KCI Publishing B.V. |date=July–August 2001 |url=http://www.stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/ssw0107.pdf?issueID=30 |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref>   
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| 18th century || Titanium is discovered in the last decade of the century, withe reports of William Gregor and {{w|Martin Heinrich Klaproth}}.
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|-
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| 19th century || Methods to obtain pure titanium start development in the century. However, industrial production is not yet achieved.
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|-
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| 20th century || Titanium is first obtained as pure metal at the beginning of the century. The {{w|Hunter process}} becomes the first industrial process to produce pure ductile metallic titanium.
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|-
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| 1930–1950 || The only methods allowing the processing of titanium into useful shapes are the powder metallurgy techniques applied to fines of titanium sponge.<ref name="Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference"/> The {{w|Kroll process}}, developed by {{w|William Justin Kroll}}, would allow for the commercial extraction of metallic titanium from {{w|ore}}.<ref>{{cite journal |doi =10.1016/0016-0032(55)90727-4 |title =How commercial titanium and zirconium were born |year =1955 |last1 =Kroll |first1 =W.J. |journal =Journal of the Franklin Institute |volume =260 |issue =3 |pages =169}}</ref>
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|-
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| 1950s–1960s || Titanium has a relatively short production history. The first commercial quantities of titanium are produced at around 1950.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications">{{cite book |last1=Froes |first1=F.H. |title=Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=WzJ7CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=%22titanium+powder%22+%22in+1900..2017%22&source=bl&ots=Hpfa1BLQMW&sig=gz3rWOuVOG4izDhIMw566J_rIBI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwilnsjig7jcAhULl5AKHRcRC4YQ6AEwDHoECAQQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22titanium%20powder%22%20%22in%201900..2017%22&f=false}}</ref> In the early 1950s, a number of companies enter the business in the United States, with strong government support.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> In the 1950s and 1960s, the {{w|Soviet Union}} pioneers the use of titanium in military and submarine applications<ref name="Roza2008p9">{{harvnb|Roza|2008|p=9}}</ref> ([[w:Alfa-class submarine|Alfa class]] and [[w:Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets|Mike class]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://warfare.be/?lang=&linkid=1756&catid=243 |title=Submarines: general information |first=Eugene |last=Yanko |author2=Omsk VTTV Arms Exhibition and Military Parade JSC |date=2006 |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> as part of programs related to the Cold War.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stainless Steel World |title=VSMPO Stronger Than Ever |pages=16–19 |publisher=KCI Publishing B.V. |date=July–August 2001 |url=http://www.stainless-steel-world.net/pdf/ssw0107.pdf?issueID=30 |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref>   
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|-
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| 1980s || A rise in titanium shipments occur in the decade, largely in part due to the United States military buildup and the increase of aerospace and other nonmilitary uses.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/>
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|-
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| 1990s || Early in the decade, with the ending of the {{w|Cold War}} and the collapse of the {{w|Soviet Union}}, defense expenditures decline and the military demand for titanium decreases.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lütjering |first1=Gerd |last2=Williams |first2=James C. |title=Titanium |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=wBXsCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4&dq=titanium+sponge+%22in+1960..1990%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwib0Ifx88fcAhWMpFkKHXwADnoQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=titanium%20sponge%20%22in%201960..1990%22&f=false}}</ref>
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|-
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| 2000s< || China emerges as a global player in titanium sponge production.<ref name="ssssssssss"/>
 
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|}
 
|}
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==Full timeline==
 
==Full timeline==
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! Year !! Event type !! Details !! Country/region
 
! Year !! Event type !! Details !! Country/region
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1791 || || ||
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| 1790 || Discovery || British Reverend William Gregor in {{w|England}} discovers the element titanium.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Review of Extraction, Processing, Properties, and Applications of Reactive Metals: 1999 TMS Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, February 28 - March 15, 1999 |edition=Brajendra Mishra |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Yee2AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT146&dq=in+%221790%22+%22William+Gregor%22+%22titanium%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNrPnS9bjcAhXFLVAKHdzjCG0Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=in%20%221790%22%20%22William%20Gregor%22%20%22titanium%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Froes |first1=F.H. |title=Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=WzJ7CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=in+%221790%22+%22William+Gregor%22+%22titanium%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNrPnS9bjcAhXFLVAKHdzjCG0Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=in%20%221790%22%20%22William%20Gregor%22%20%22titanium%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=DK |title=1000 Inventions and Discoveries |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=IztIBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA113&dq=in+%221790%22+%22William+Gregor%22+%22titanium%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNrPnS9bjcAhXFLVAKHdzjCG0Q6AEINjAD#v=onepage&q=in%20%221790%22%20%22William%20Gregor%22%20%22titanium%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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|-
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| 1791 || Scientific development || William Gregor presents a description and chemical composition of some black magnetic sands found on the southern [[w:Cornwall|Cornish coast]]. Gregor's analysis of the black sand correspond roughly to that of mineral {{w|ilmenite}} (FeTiO<sub>3</sub>).<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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|-
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| 1795 || Scientific development || German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth identifies the oxide of an unknown element, the same as the one reported by Gregor. Klaproth names the element titanium after the [[w:Titan (mythology)|Titans]], the powerful sons of the earth in {{w|Greek mythology}}.<ref name="Titanium">{{cite book |last1=Lütjering |first1=Gerd |last2=Williams |first2=James Case |title=Titanium |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=GwI9ul_wAegC&pg=PA2&dq=titanium+%22Klaproth%22+%221795%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixhanq67jcAhXIIJAKHZQ-CzEQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=titanium%20%22Klaproth%22%20%221795%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Oshida |first1=Yoshiki |title=Bioscience and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=bUb_0fKCfY4C&pg=PA3&dq=titanium+%22Klaproth%22+%221795%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_-Iiw87jcAhVMHJAKHdBmCVw4ChDoAQgzMAI#v=onepage&q=titanium%20%22Klaproth%22%20%221795%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Roza |first1=Greg |title=Titanium |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=rsAGRf7j7fQC&pg=PA10&dq=titanium+%22Klaproth%22+%22in+1795%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiB_Y3t87jcAhUDFZAKHZCOB4sQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=titanium%20%22Klaproth%22%20%22in%201795%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Interfacial Chemistry: Surface Science and Electrochemistry |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=T0VVDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA5-PA41&dq=titanium+%22Klaproth%22+%22in+1795%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiB_Y3t87jcAhUDFZAKHZCOB4sQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=titanium%20%22Klaproth%22%20%22in%201795%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
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|-
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| 1887 || Scientific development || L.F. Nilson and O. Peterson obtain a product of 97.4% purity by reducing titanium tetrachloride with sodium in an airtight steel cylinder.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> ||
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|-
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| 1906 || Scientific development || New Zelander metallurgist {{w|Matthew Hunter}} {{w|General Electric}} in the United States produces the first pure titanium metal.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1910 || Scientific development || {{w|Matthew Hunter}} achieves the production of pure metallic titanium (99.9%). The later called {{w|Hunter process}} is the first industrial process to produce pure ductile metallic titanium.<ref name="gsdgds">{{cite book |title=Direct Reduction Processes for the Production of Titanium Metal: Report of the Ad Hoc Panel on Direct Reduction Processes for the Production of Titanium Metal of the Committee on Technical Aspects of Critical and Strategic Materials |publisher=National Research Council (U.S.). Materials Advisory Board. Division of Engineering |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=-EArAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=%22in+1910%22+%22+Hunter%22+%22titanium%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJlb-1_bjcAhXCCpAKHTx3BgkQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201910%22%20%22%20Hunter%22%20%22titanium%22&f=false}}</ref><ref name="ssssssssss">{{cite book |title=Aerospace Materials and Material Technologies: Volume 1: Aerospace Materials |edition=N. Eswara Prasad, R. J. H. Wanhill |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ffF6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74&dq=%22in+1910%22+%22+Hunter%22+%22titanium%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJlb-1_bjcAhXCCpAKHTx3BgkQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201910%22%20%22%20Hunter%22%20%22titanium%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1925 || Scientific development || Titanium of very high purity is made in small quantities when Dutch chemists {{w|Anton Eduard van Arkel}} and {{w|Jan Hendrik de Boer}} discover the iodide (or [[w:crystal bar process|crystal bar]]) process, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapours over a hot filament to pure metal.<ref>{{cite journal |last=van Arkel |first=A. E. |authorlink=Anton Eduard van Arkel |author2=de Boer, J. H. |title=Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal |journal={{w|Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie}} |date=1925 |volume=148 |pages=345–50 |doi=10.1002/zaac.19251480133}}</ref><ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/><ref name="ssssssssss"/> || {{w|Netherlands}}
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|-
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| 1932 || Scientific development || Luxembourgish {{w|metallurgist}} {{w|William Justin Kroll}} proves that titanium can be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl<sub>4</sub>) with {{w|calcium}}.<ref name="Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference">{{cite book |last1=Cardarelli |first1=François |title=Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=koRjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA397&lpg=PA397&dq=%22Kroll+process%22+%22in+1930..1950%22&source=bl&ots=ykHwp_mfvT&sig=lOkEW2vXt7aAqiCibY9U9p3nG0I&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiWp7SH_7jcAhUIDZAKHfCKBkUQ6AEwAHoECAAQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Kroll%20process%22%20%22in%201930..1950%22&f=false}}</ref>  The process, known today as {{w|Kroll process}}, would replace the {{w|Hunter process}} for almost all commercial production.<ref>Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. {{ISBN|0-12-352651-5}}.</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1937 || Scientific development || {{w|William Justin Kroll}} invents the magnesium reduction process (reducing titanium tetrachloride with {{w|magnesium}}) by utilizing an inert {{w|argon}} atmosphere to protect the titanium metal from reoxidizing. Kroll is credited with developing the technology that would lead eventually to the large-scale commercialization of titanium metallurgy.<ref name="gsdgds"/><ref name="ssssssssss"/> ||
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|-
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| 1938 || Scientific development || {{w|William Justin Kroll}}, at the Bureau of Mines in Albany, Oregon, produces the first display of cold ductile titanium in the United States. The work of W.J. Kroll is considered the start of the present large-scale titanium industry.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1946 || Scientific development || A {{w|United States Bureau of Mines}} publication describes a [[w:Kroll process|Kroll]] unit capable of making 7kg batches of good-quality titanium powder by magnesium reduction, followed by acid leaching to remove the excess magnesium and MgCl<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1947 || Production || [[w:P. R. Mallory and Co Inc|P.R. Mallory Company]] begins work on the powder metallurgy of titanium under the {{w|United States Navy}} sponsorship.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1948 || Production || Titanium sponge production begins at {{w|Imperial Chemical Industries}} in the United Kingdom.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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|-
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| 1948 || Production || The first commercial titanium is produced. The total production that year is just over 1800 kg.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> ||
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|-
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| 1949 || Production || The {{w|United States Bureau of Mines}} reports the successful operation of a magnesium-reduction unit for making 40kg batches of titanium.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1949 || Application || The first titanium for actual flight is ordered from {{w|Remingtom Arms}} by the Douglas Company.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1949 || Facility || A semicommercial titanium-melting facility is started by Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation in the United States.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1950 || Organization || American steel producer {{w|Republic Steel}} organizes a titanium division to produce mill products.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1950 || Organization || The Titanium Metals Corporation of America (TMCA) is organized by Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation and the National Steel Company. TMCA would become the first fully integrated company for producing titanium from ore to finished products.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1950 || Production || Titanium starts being produced in the {{w|Soviet Union}}.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> ||
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|-
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| 1951 || Organization || The Mallory-Sharon Titanium Corporation is organized by [[w:P. R. Mallory and Co Inc|P.R. Mallory Company]] and {{w|Sharon Steel Corporation}}.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1951 || Facility || The United States [[w:NL Industries|National Lead]] operates the Bureau of Mines titanium sponge plant, and at around the same time, constructs pilot plants for sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1951 || Application || Clinical and laboratory experience demonstrates the suitability of titanium for implant use, specifically, because of its excellent strenght, corrosopm resistance, and biocompatibility.<ref name="Titanium Alloys in Surgical Implants"/> ||
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|-
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| 1952 || Scientific development || The {{w|United States Bureau of Mines}} reports the removal of {{w|magnesium}} and {{w|magnesium chloride}} from titanium sponge by vacuum distillation.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1951 || Application || Titanium alloys are introduced as bone replancements, offering low weight and a modulus of elasticity closer to bone.<ref name="Prosthetic Alloys">{{cite web |title=Prosthetic Alloys |url=https://www.cobaltinstitute.org/prosthetic-alloys.html |website=cobaltinstitute.org |accessdate=25 July 2018}}</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1952 || Facility || A pilot unit created in 1947 at {{w|DuPont}} expands production to 800,000 kg of titanium sponge per year.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1954 || Organization || American corporation {{w|Dow Chemical Company}} starts titanium sponge production.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1954 || Production || Titanium sponge production begins in Japan, with two companies, Osaka Titanium and Toho Titanium, reaching relatively large capacities by 1954.<ref name="Titanium"/> || {{w|Japan}}
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|-
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| 1955 || Production || {{w|Imperial Chemical Industries}} becomes the principal European manufacturer of titanium and titanium alloy mill products, with a production oj 1.5 million kg in the year.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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|-
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| 1955 || Production || The production of titanium grows to 9000kg, up from 1800kg in 1948.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> The United States is the world's leading producer of titanium metal at the time.<ref name="gsdgds"/> ||
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|-
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| 1956 || Organization || {{w|Union Carbide}} Corporation begins production of titanium sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1958 || Organization || National Distillers and Chemical Corporation begins production of titanium sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1966 || Organization || Oregon Metallurgical Corporation begins production of titanium sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1967 || Technology || The first patent to use hydrogenated titanium in a {{w|sintering}} process is filed.<ref name="Titanium Powder Metallurgy">{{cite book |title=Titanium Powder Metallurgy: Science, Technology and Applications |edition=Ma Qian, Francis H. Froes |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=pnSDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=%22titanium+powder%22+%22in+1900..2017%22&source=bl&ots=lSToUnCkTy&sig=mQAdyQEvdcn-cQ1mPOLX6sRovlM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwilnsjig7jcAhULl5AKHRcRC4YQ6AEwCnoECAIQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22titanium%20powder%22%20%22in%201900..2017%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1970 || Technology || The process of "decomposition powder metallurgy" is first reported as a means to produce titanium alloys and metal matrix composites via hot pressing.<ref name="Titanium Powder Metallurgy"/> ||
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|-
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| 1972 || Application || Titanium alloy 318 (Ti-318)(Ti-6A1-4V) is introduced for surgical implants.<ref name="Titanium Alloys in Surgical Implants">{{cite book |last1=Luckey |first1=Hugh A. |title=Titanium Alloys in Surgical Implants |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=-VK-gMeTfPEC&pg=PA174&dq=Titanium+alloys+%22in+1950..1960%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6re33zsfcAhUFpFkKHVm3C34Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=Titanium%20alloys%20%22in%201950..1960%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1974 || || Cycling companies start to use {{w|titanium}} for their bikes due to its many key traits.<ref name="58 Milestones from Bicycle History You Must Know">{{cite web |last1=Hiles |first1=Dillon |title=58 Milestones from Bicycle History You Must Know |url=https://www.icebike.org/58-milestones-from-bicycle-history-you-must-know/ |website=icebike.org |accessdate=20 June 2019}}</ref> ||
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|-
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| 1979 || Production || The {{w|Soviet Union}} becomes the world's largest titanium sponge producer.<ref name="Titanium"/> ||
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|-
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| 1980 || Organization || [[w:Wah Chang Corporation|Teledine Wah Chang Albany]] begins production of titanium sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
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|-
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| 1981 || Organization || D-H Titanium Company begins production of titanium sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1795 || || titanium "Klaproth" ||
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| 1982 || Organization || The Western Zirconium Company begins production of titanium sponge.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1910 || || "Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter" ||
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| 1986 || Production || The worldwide titanium ingot capacity excluding the Communist bloc increases to approximately 90,000kg. In the same year, it is estimated that USSR produced an additional 36,000 kg.<ref name="Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1925 || || Titanium of very high purity is made in small quantities when {{w|Anton Eduard van Arkel}} and {{w|Jan Hendrik de Boer}} discover the iodide, or [[w:crystal bar process|crystal bar]], process, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapours over a hot filament to pure metal.<ref>{{cite journal |last=van Arkel |first=A. E. |authorlink=Anton Eduard van Arkel |author2=de Boer, J. H. |title=Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal |journal={{w|Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie}} |date=1925 |volume=148 |pages=345–50 |doi=10.1002/zaac.19251480133}}</ref>
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| 1993 || Application || The Fukuoka Dome is built in Japan. It is covered with titanium roofing.<ref name="Titanium"/> || {{w|Japan}}
 
|-
 
|-
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| 1932 || || "Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll proved that it can be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with calcium" ||
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| 1999 || Application || {{w|Gibraltar}} releases the world's first titanium coin for the millennium celebration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pobjoy.com/us/world-firsts|title=World Firsts {{!}} British Pobjoy Mint|website=www.pobjoy.com|language=en|accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Gibraltar}}
 
|-
 
|-
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| 2005 – 2008 || Production || Titanium sponge production increased from 104,000 to 176,000 tonnes in the period. The growth is partly driven by a surge in demand from the aerospace sector, but also by growing demand for titanium in chemical plant in China. Chinese output of titanium sponge increased fivefold between 2005 and 2008.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||
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| 2005 – 2008 || Production || Titanium sponge production increased from 104,000 to 176,000 tons in the period. The growth is partly driven by a surge in demand from the aerospace sector, but also by growing demand for titanium in chemical plant in China. Chinese output of titanium sponge increased fivefold between 2005 and 2008.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||
 
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|-
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| 2006 || Production || According to data, the world's largest producer, Russian-based {{w|VSMPO-AVISMA}}, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.<ref>{{cite news|date=15 February 2006 |title=Boeing's Plan to Land Aeroflot |last=Bush |first=Jason |work=[[BusinessWeek]] |url=http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2006/tc20060215_694672.htm?campaign_id=search |accessdate=29 December 2006 |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409221829/http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2006/tc20060215_694672.htm?campaign_id=search |archivedate=9 April 2009}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}
+
| 2006 || Production || According to data, the world's largest producer, Russian-based {{w|VSMPO-AVISMA}}, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.<ref>{{cite news|date=15 February 2006 |title=Boeing's Plan to Land Aeroflot |last=Bush |first=Jason |work={{w|BusinessWeek}} |url=http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2006/tc20060215_694672.htm?campaign_id=search |accessdate=29 December 2006 |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409221829/http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2006/tc20060215_694672.htm?campaign_id=search |archivedate=9 April 2009}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2008 || Demand || A sharp decline in titanium demand is caused by the global economic slowdown and delays in the production of high-titanium content aircraft such as the A380 and B787.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||
 
| 2008 || Demand || A sharp decline in titanium demand is caused by the global economic slowdown and delays in the production of high-titanium content aircraft such as the A380 and B787.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||
Line 33: Line 126:
 
| 2009 || Production || As of date, production of titanium sponge is confined to six countries, in order of output, China, Japan, Russia, Kazakhstan, United States and Ukraine.<ref name="prnewswire.com">{{cite web |title=Roskill Information Services: Global Supply of Titanium is Forecast to Increase |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/roskill-information-services-global-supply-of-titanium-is-forecast-to-increase-105243193.html |website=prnewswire.com |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> || {{w|China}}, {{w|Japan}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|United States}} and {{w|Ukraine}}
 
| 2009 || Production || As of date, production of titanium sponge is confined to six countries, in order of output, China, Japan, Russia, Kazakhstan, United States and Ukraine.<ref name="prnewswire.com">{{cite web |title=Roskill Information Services: Global Supply of Titanium is Forecast to Increase |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/roskill-information-services-global-supply-of-titanium-is-forecast-to-increase-105243193.html |website=prnewswire.com |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> || {{w|China}}, {{w|Japan}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|United States}} and {{w|Ukraine}}
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2009 || Demand || The global market for titanium mill products is about 100,000 tonnes compared with 130,000 in 2008.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||  
+
| 2009 || Demand || The global market for titanium mill products is about 100,000 tons compared with 130,000 in 2008.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||  
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2010 || Production || China stands as the main engine for growth, and production of titanium grows strongly with several new large-scale sponge plants under construction.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> || {{w|China}}
 
| 2010 || Production || China stands as the main engine for growth, and production of titanium grows strongly with several new large-scale sponge plants under construction.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> || {{w|China}}
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2010 || Infrastructure || As of date, There are 18 companies producing titanium sponge, of which nine are in China, compared with just two plants a decade ago. In 2010, titanium ingot melting capacity is nominally 340,000 tonnes, 85% of which is located in {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United States}}, {{w|Japan}} and {{w|China}}.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||
+
| 2010 || Infrastructure || As of date, There are 18 companies producing titanium sponge, of which nine are in China, compared with just two plants a decade ago. In 2010, titanium ingot melting capacity is nominally 340,000 tons, 85% of which is located in {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United States}}, {{w|Japan}} and {{w|China}}.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2015 || Production || India opens titanium sponge plant at {{w|Chavara}} in {{w|Kerala}}, and becomes the seventh country in the world producing titanium sponge commercially.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISRO's titanium sponge plant in Kerala fully commissioned |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isros-titanium-sponge-plant-in-kerala-fully-commissioned/articleshow/48424563.cms |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 
| 2015 || Production || India opens titanium sponge plant at {{w|Chavara}} in {{w|Kerala}}, and becomes the seventh country in the world producing titanium sponge commercially.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISRO's titanium sponge plant in Kerala fully commissioned |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isros-titanium-sponge-plant-in-kerala-fully-commissioned/articleshow/48424563.cms |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2017 || Financial || The global {{w|titanium powder}} market is valued at US$3230 million in the year.<ref name="Future of Titanium Powder Market in Global Industry 2018 -2028">{{cite web |title=Future of Titanium Powder Market in Global Industry 2018 -2028 |url=https://theaerospacenews.com/future-of-titanium-powder-market-in-global-industry-2018-2028/96953/ |website=theaerospacenews.com |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref> Also, the global Titanium Aluminide Alloy market is valued at US$ 140 million.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Titanium Aluminide Alloy market is reach 640$ M by the end of 2025, growing at a CAGR of 21.0% |url=http://www.kxxv.com/story/38717604/global-titanium-aluminide-alloy-market-is-reach-640-m-by-the-end-of-2025-growing-at-a-cagr-of-210 |website=kxxv.com |accessdate=25 July 2018}}</ref> ||
 +
|-
 +
| 2028 || Financial || Analysts predict the global market size of {{w|titanium powder}} will reach US$3450 million by the end of that year.<ref name="Future of Titanium Powder Market in Global Industry 2018 -2028"/> ||
 +
|-
 +
|}
 +
 +
== Numerical and visual data  ==
 +
 +
 +
[[File:Production capacity of titanium sponge between 1979 and 1990, in metric tonnes.png|thumb|center|500px|Production capacity of titanium sponge between 1979 and 1990, in metric tons.]]
 +
[[File:Trends in world titanium sponge production, in metric tonnes..png|thumb|center|500px|Trends in world titanium sponge production, in metric tons.]]
 +
 +
=== Google Scholar ===
 +
 +
The table below summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of May 17, 2021.
 +
 +
{| class="sortable wikitable"
 +
! Year
 +
! titanium
 +
! titanium research
 +
! titanium properties
 +
! titanium applications
 +
! titanium technology
 +
|-
 +
| 1980 || 10,800 || 5,110 || 5,350 || 2,790 || 3,950
 +
|-
 +
| 1985 || 12,700 || 6,370 || 6,290 || 3,200 || 4,620
 +
|-
 +
| 1990 || 17,900 || 9,610 || 9,390 || 5,610 || 6,690
 +
|-
 +
| 1995 || 25,600 || 14,600 || 13,600 || 8,980 || 11,200
 +
|-
 +
| 2000 || 39,500 || 20,200 || 19,200 || 13,400 || 15,700
 +
|-
 +
| 2002 || 45,800 || 24,100 || 21,900 || 15,100 || 18,000
 +
|-
 +
| 2004 || 64,300 || 33,400 || 29,700 || 19,400 || 24,500
 +
|-
 +
| 2006 || 79,200 || 43,800 || 38,700 || 26,200 || 31,800
 +
|-
 +
| 2008 || 96,600 || 56,500 || 47,900 || 33,400 || 37,600
 +
|-
 +
| 2010 || 119,000 || 75,700 || 63,300 || 45,600 || 47,800
 +
|-
 +
| 2012 || 162,000 || 111,000 || 85,900 || 66,100 || 68,900
 +
|-
 +
| 2014 || 162,000 || 125,000 || 100,000 || 81,700 || 79,700
 +
|-
 +
| 2016 || 157,000 || 122,000 || 109,000 || 91,100 || 86,300
 +
|-
 +
| 2017 || 141,000 || 110,000 || 104,000 || 88,500 || 83,100
 +
|-
 +
| 2018 || 116,000 || 94,700 || 87,700 || 81,600 || 74,900 
 +
|-
 +
| 2019 || 83,200 || 72,400 || 71,600 || 64,200 || 62,400 
 +
|-
 +
| 2020 || 52,300 || 52,100 || 52,000 || 46,400 || 40,700
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
[[File:Titanium tb.png|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
 +
=== Google Trends ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows {{w|Google Trends}} data for Titanium (Chemical element), from January 2004 to April 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.<ref>{{cite web |title=Titanium |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=%2Fm%2F025sk56 |website=Google Trends |access-date=22 April 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Titanium gt.png|thumb|center|600px]]
 +
 +
=== Google Ngram Viewer ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows {{w|Google Ngram Viewer}} data for Titanium, from 1700 to 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Titanium |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=titanium&year_start=1700&year_end=2019&corpus=26&smoothing=3&direct_url=t1%3B%2Ctitanium%3B%2Cc0 |website=books.google.com |access-date=22 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Titanium ngram.png|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
=== Wikipedia Views ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article {{w|Titanium}}, on desktop from December 2007, and on mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015; to March 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Titanium |url=https://wikipediaviews.org/displayviewsformultiplemonths.php?page=Titanium&allmonths=allmonths&language=en&drilldown=all |website=wikipediaviews.org |access-date=1 May 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Titanium ok wv.png|thumb|center|450px]]
  
 
==Meta information on the timeline==
 
==Meta information on the timeline==

Latest revision as of 20:50, 28 November 2023

This is a timeline of titanium, attempting to describe important events related to the discovery, science and industrial development of the metal.

Big picture

Time period Development summary
18th century Titanium is discovered in the last decade of the century, withe reports of William Gregor and Martin Heinrich Klaproth.
19th century Methods to obtain pure titanium start development in the century. However, industrial production is not yet achieved.
20th century Titanium is first obtained as pure metal at the beginning of the century. The Hunter process becomes the first industrial process to produce pure ductile metallic titanium.
1930–1950 The only methods allowing the processing of titanium into useful shapes are the powder metallurgy techniques applied to fines of titanium sponge.[1] The Kroll process, developed by William Justin Kroll, would allow for the commercial extraction of metallic titanium from ore.[2]
1950s–1960s Titanium has a relatively short production history. The first commercial quantities of titanium are produced at around 1950.[3] In the early 1950s, a number of companies enter the business in the United States, with strong government support.[3] In the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union pioneers the use of titanium in military and submarine applications[4] (Alfa class and Mike class)[5] as part of programs related to the Cold War.[6]
1980s A rise in titanium shipments occur in the decade, largely in part due to the United States military buildup and the increase of aerospace and other nonmilitary uses.[3]
1990s Early in the decade, with the ending of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, defense expenditures decline and the military demand for titanium decreases.[3][7]
2000s< China emerges as a global player in titanium sponge production.[8]


Full timeline

Year Event type Details Country/region
1790 Discovery British Reverend William Gregor in England discovers the element titanium.[3][9][10][11] United Kingdom
1791 Scientific development William Gregor presents a description and chemical composition of some black magnetic sands found on the southern Cornish coast. Gregor's analysis of the black sand correspond roughly to that of mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3).[3] United Kingdom
1795 Scientific development German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth identifies the oxide of an unknown element, the same as the one reported by Gregor. Klaproth names the element titanium after the Titans, the powerful sons of the earth in Greek mythology.[12][13][14][15] Germany
1887 Scientific development L.F. Nilson and O. Peterson obtain a product of 97.4% purity by reducing titanium tetrachloride with sodium in an airtight steel cylinder.[3]
1906 Scientific development New Zelander metallurgist Matthew Hunter General Electric in the United States produces the first pure titanium metal.[3] United States
1910 Scientific development Matthew Hunter achieves the production of pure metallic titanium (99.9%). The later called Hunter process is the first industrial process to produce pure ductile metallic titanium.[16][8]
1925 Scientific development Titanium of very high purity is made in small quantities when Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discover the iodide (or crystal bar) process, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapours over a hot filament to pure metal.[17][3][8] Netherlands
1932 Scientific development Luxembourgish metallurgist William Justin Kroll proves that titanium can be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with calcium.[1] The process, known today as Kroll process, would replace the Hunter process for almost all commercial production.[18]
1937 Scientific development William Justin Kroll invents the magnesium reduction process (reducing titanium tetrachloride with magnesium) by utilizing an inert argon atmosphere to protect the titanium metal from reoxidizing. Kroll is credited with developing the technology that would lead eventually to the large-scale commercialization of titanium metallurgy.[16][8]
1938 Scientific development William Justin Kroll, at the Bureau of Mines in Albany, Oregon, produces the first display of cold ductile titanium in the United States. The work of W.J. Kroll is considered the start of the present large-scale titanium industry.[3] United States
1946 Scientific development A United States Bureau of Mines publication describes a Kroll unit capable of making 7kg batches of good-quality titanium powder by magnesium reduction, followed by acid leaching to remove the excess magnesium and MgCl2.[3] United States
1947 Production P.R. Mallory Company begins work on the powder metallurgy of titanium under the United States Navy sponsorship.[3] United States
1948 Production Titanium sponge production begins at Imperial Chemical Industries in the United Kingdom.[3] United Kingdom
1948 Production The first commercial titanium is produced. The total production that year is just over 1800 kg.[3]
1949 Production The United States Bureau of Mines reports the successful operation of a magnesium-reduction unit for making 40kg batches of titanium.[3] United States
1949 Application The first titanium for actual flight is ordered from Remingtom Arms by the Douglas Company.[3] United States
1949 Facility A semicommercial titanium-melting facility is started by Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation in the United States.[3] United States
1950 Organization American steel producer Republic Steel organizes a titanium division to produce mill products.[3] United States
1950 Organization The Titanium Metals Corporation of America (TMCA) is organized by Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation and the National Steel Company. TMCA would become the first fully integrated company for producing titanium from ore to finished products.[3] United States
1950 Production Titanium starts being produced in the Soviet Union.[3]
1951 Organization The Mallory-Sharon Titanium Corporation is organized by P.R. Mallory Company and Sharon Steel Corporation.[3] United States
1951 Facility The United States National Lead operates the Bureau of Mines titanium sponge plant, and at around the same time, constructs pilot plants for sponge.[3] United States
1951 Application Clinical and laboratory experience demonstrates the suitability of titanium for implant use, specifically, because of its excellent strenght, corrosopm resistance, and biocompatibility.[19]
1952 Scientific development The United States Bureau of Mines reports the removal of magnesium and magnesium chloride from titanium sponge by vacuum distillation.[3] United States
1951 Application Titanium alloys are introduced as bone replancements, offering low weight and a modulus of elasticity closer to bone.[20]
1952 Facility A pilot unit created in 1947 at DuPont expands production to 800,000 kg of titanium sponge per year.[3] United States
1954 Organization American corporation Dow Chemical Company starts titanium sponge production.[3] United States
1954 Production Titanium sponge production begins in Japan, with two companies, Osaka Titanium and Toho Titanium, reaching relatively large capacities by 1954.[12] Japan
1955 Production Imperial Chemical Industries becomes the principal European manufacturer of titanium and titanium alloy mill products, with a production oj 1.5 million kg in the year.[3] United Kingdom
1955 Production The production of titanium grows to 9000kg, up from 1800kg in 1948.[3] The United States is the world's leading producer of titanium metal at the time.[16]
1956 Organization Union Carbide Corporation begins production of titanium sponge.[3] United States
1958 Organization National Distillers and Chemical Corporation begins production of titanium sponge.[3] United States
1966 Organization Oregon Metallurgical Corporation begins production of titanium sponge.[3] United States
1967 Technology The first patent to use hydrogenated titanium in a sintering process is filed.[21]
1970 Technology The process of "decomposition powder metallurgy" is first reported as a means to produce titanium alloys and metal matrix composites via hot pressing.[21]
1972 Application Titanium alloy 318 (Ti-318)(Ti-6A1-4V) is introduced for surgical implants.[19]
1974 Cycling companies start to use titanium for their bikes due to its many key traits.[22]
1979 Production The Soviet Union becomes the world's largest titanium sponge producer.[12]
1980 Organization Teledine Wah Chang Albany begins production of titanium sponge.[3] United States
1981 Organization D-H Titanium Company begins production of titanium sponge.[3] United States
1982 Organization The Western Zirconium Company begins production of titanium sponge.[3] United States
1986 Production The worldwide titanium ingot capacity excluding the Communist bloc increases to approximately 90,000kg. In the same year, it is estimated that USSR produced an additional 36,000 kg.[3]
1993 Application The Fukuoka Dome is built in Japan. It is covered with titanium roofing.[12] Japan
1999 Application Gibraltar releases the world's first titanium coin for the millennium celebration.[23] Gibraltar
2005 – 2008 Production Titanium sponge production increased from 104,000 to 176,000 tons in the period. The growth is partly driven by a surge in demand from the aerospace sector, but also by growing demand for titanium in chemical plant in China. Chinese output of titanium sponge increased fivefold between 2005 and 2008.[24]
2006 Production According to data, the world's largest producer, Russian-based VSMPO-AVISMA, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.[25] Russia
2008 Demand A sharp decline in titanium demand is caused by the global economic slowdown and delays in the production of high-titanium content aircraft such as the A380 and B787.[24]
2009 Production As of date, production of titanium sponge is confined to six countries, in order of output, China, Japan, Russia, Kazakhstan, United States and Ukraine.[24] China, Japan, Russia, Kazakhstan, United States and Ukraine
2009 Demand The global market for titanium mill products is about 100,000 tons compared with 130,000 in 2008.[24]
2010 Production China stands as the main engine for growth, and production of titanium grows strongly with several new large-scale sponge plants under construction.[24] China
2010 Infrastructure As of date, There are 18 companies producing titanium sponge, of which nine are in China, compared with just two plants a decade ago. In 2010, titanium ingot melting capacity is nominally 340,000 tons, 85% of which is located in Russia, the United States, Japan and China.[24]
2015 Production India opens titanium sponge plant at Chavara in Kerala, and becomes the seventh country in the world producing titanium sponge commercially.[26] India
2017 Financial The global titanium powder market is valued at US$3230 million in the year.[27] Also, the global Titanium Aluminide Alloy market is valued at US$ 140 million.[28]
2028 Financial Analysts predict the global market size of titanium powder will reach US$3450 million by the end of that year.[27]

Numerical and visual data

Production capacity of titanium sponge between 1979 and 1990, in metric tons.
Trends in world titanium sponge production, in metric tons.

Google Scholar

The table below summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of May 17, 2021.

Year titanium titanium research titanium properties titanium applications titanium technology
1980 10,800 5,110 5,350 2,790 3,950
1985 12,700 6,370 6,290 3,200 4,620
1990 17,900 9,610 9,390 5,610 6,690
1995 25,600 14,600 13,600 8,980 11,200
2000 39,500 20,200 19,200 13,400 15,700
2002 45,800 24,100 21,900 15,100 18,000
2004 64,300 33,400 29,700 19,400 24,500
2006 79,200 43,800 38,700 26,200 31,800
2008 96,600 56,500 47,900 33,400 37,600
2010 119,000 75,700 63,300 45,600 47,800
2012 162,000 111,000 85,900 66,100 68,900
2014 162,000 125,000 100,000 81,700 79,700
2016 157,000 122,000 109,000 91,100 86,300
2017 141,000 110,000 104,000 88,500 83,100
2018 116,000 94,700 87,700 81,600 74,900
2019 83,200 72,400 71,600 64,200 62,400
2020 52,300 52,100 52,000 46,400 40,700
Titanium tb.png


Google Trends

The chart below shows Google Trends data for Titanium (Chemical element), from January 2004 to April 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[29]

Titanium gt.png

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Titanium, from 1700 to 2019.[30]

Titanium ngram.png

Wikipedia Views

The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article Titanium, on desktop from December 2007, and on mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015; to March 2021.[31]

Titanium ok wv.png

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

  • FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cardarelli, François. Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference. 
  2. ↑ Kroll, W.J. (1955). "How commercial titanium and zirconium were born". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 260 (3): 169. doi:10.1016/0016-0032(55)90727-4. 
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 Froes, F.H. Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications. 
  4. ↑ Roza 2008, p. 9
  5. ↑ Yanko, Eugene; Omsk VTTV Arms Exhibition and Military Parade JSC (2006). "Submarines: general information". Retrieved 24 July 2018. 
  6. ↑ Stainless Steel World (July–August 2001). "VSMPO Stronger Than Ever" (PDF). KCI Publishing B.V. pp. 16–19. Retrieved 24 July 2018. 
  7. ↑ Lütjering, Gerd; Williams, James C. Titanium. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Aerospace Materials and Material Technologies: Volume 1: Aerospace Materials (N. Eswara Prasad, R. J. H. Wanhill ed.). 
  9. ↑ Review of Extraction, Processing, Properties, and Applications of Reactive Metals: 1999 TMS Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, February 28 - March 15, 1999 (Brajendra Mishra ed.). 
  10. ↑ Froes, F.H. Titanium: Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications. 
  11. ↑ DK. 1000 Inventions and Discoveries. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Lütjering, Gerd; Williams, James Case. Titanium. 
  13. ↑ Oshida, Yoshiki. Bioscience and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials. 
  14. ↑ Roza, Greg. Titanium. 
  15. ↑ Encyclopedia of Interfacial Chemistry: Surface Science and Electrochemistry. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Direct Reduction Processes for the Production of Titanium Metal: Report of the Ad Hoc Panel on Direct Reduction Processes for the Production of Titanium Metal of the Committee on Technical Aspects of Critical and Strategic Materials. National Research Council (U.S.). Materials Advisory Board. Division of Engineering. 
  17. ↑ van Arkel, A. E.; de Boer, J. H. (1925). "Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie. 148: 345–50. doi:10.1002/zaac.19251480133. 
  18. ↑ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. Template:ISBN.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Luckey, Hugh A. Titanium Alloys in Surgical Implants. 
  20. ↑ "Prosthetic Alloys". cobaltinstitute.org. Retrieved 25 July 2018. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Titanium Powder Metallurgy: Science, Technology and Applications (Ma Qian, Francis H. Froes ed.). 
  22. ↑ Hiles, Dillon. "58 Milestones from Bicycle History You Must Know". icebike.org. Retrieved 20 June 2019. 
  23. ↑ "World Firsts | British Pobjoy Mint". www.pobjoy.com. Retrieved 24 July 2018. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 "Roskill Information Services: Global Supply of Titanium is Forecast to Increase". prnewswire.com. Retrieved 24 July 2018. 
  25. ↑ Bush, Jason (15 February 2006). "Boeing's Plan to Land Aeroflot". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 9 April 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2006. 
  26. ↑ "ISRO's titanium sponge plant in Kerala fully commissioned". economictimes.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 24 July 2018. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Future of Titanium Powder Market in Global Industry 2018 -2028". theaerospacenews.com. Retrieved 24 July 2018. 
  28. ↑ "Global Titanium Aluminide Alloy market is reach 640$ M by the end of 2025, growing at a CAGR of 21.0%". kxxv.com. Retrieved 25 July 2018. 
  29. ↑ "Titanium". Google Trends. Retrieved 22 April 2021. 
  30. ↑ "Titanium". books.google.com. Retrieved 22 April 2021. 
  31. ↑ "Titanium". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 1 May 2021. 
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