Difference between revisions of "Timeline of pneumonia"

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==Full timeline==
 
==Full timeline==
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| 1913 || Medical deveopment || Antipneumococcal serum therapy becomes available, being able to reduce mortality from 25% to 7.5%, if given early in disease progression. However, this treatment method is slow, costly, and time-consuming at the time.<ref name="Pneumonia History"/> ||
 
| 1913 || Medical deveopment || Antipneumococcal serum therapy becomes available, being able to reduce mortality from 25% to 7.5%, if given early in disease progression. However, this treatment method is slow, costly, and time-consuming at the time.<ref name="Pneumonia History"/> ||
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| 1928 || Scientific development || Scottish microbiologist {{w|Alexander Fleming}}, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called {{w|staphylococcus}}, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.<ref name="The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology">{{cite book|last1=Newell-McGloughlin|first1=Martina|last2=Re|first2=Edward|title=The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=U27lbghWOfsC&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=E.+de+Freudenreich&source=bl&ots=69HqimydSe&sig=021aY8DvwKO8_TlY5ZfeEenZ8d4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtvvWs5pTaAhXDGJAKHb5WB5AQ6AEIWTAK#v=onepage&q=E.%20de%20Freudenreich&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery">{{cite web|title=Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery|url=https://correctiv.org/en/investigations/superbugs/article/2017/07/03/ten-important-early-moments-history-antibiotic-discovery/|website=correctiv.org|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 
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| 1929 || Scientific deveopment || Scottish physician {{w|Alexander Fleming}} discovers the antibacterial properties of the  fungus-derived substance that later comes to be called {{w|penicillin}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health |edition=Judith Walzer Leavitt, Ronald L. Numbers |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6eOlhNkjXaAC&pg=PA103&dq=%22in+1929%22+Alexander+Fleming+penicillin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMu4L8h5ngAhW6LLkGHRjOBj0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201929%22%20Alexander%20Fleming%20penicillin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aneja |first1=K. R. |title=Experiments in Microbiology, Plant Pathology and Biotechnology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=QYI4xk9kOIMC&pg=PA16&dq=%22in+1929%22+Alexander+Fleming+penicillin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMu4L8h5ngAhW6LLkGHRjOBj0Q6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201929%22%20Alexander%20Fleming%20penicillin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Waller |first1=John |title=Fabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific DiscoveryFabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific Discovery |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Cay3Wf5nceMC&pg=PA261&dq=%22in+1929%22+Alexander+Fleming+penicillin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMu4L8h5ngAhW6LLkGHRjOBj0Q6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201929%22%20Alexander%20Fleming%20penicillin&f=false}}</ref><ref name="A  Brief  History  of  the  Pneumococcus  in  Biomedical  Research:  A  Panoply  of  Scientific  Discovery"/> || {{w|Unitd Kingdom}}  
 
| 1929 || Scientific deveopment || Scottish physician {{w|Alexander Fleming}} discovers the antibacterial properties of the  fungus-derived substance that later comes to be called {{w|penicillin}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health |edition=Judith Walzer Leavitt, Ronald L. Numbers |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=6eOlhNkjXaAC&pg=PA103&dq=%22in+1929%22+Alexander+Fleming+penicillin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMu4L8h5ngAhW6LLkGHRjOBj0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201929%22%20Alexander%20Fleming%20penicillin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aneja |first1=K. R. |title=Experiments in Microbiology, Plant Pathology and Biotechnology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=QYI4xk9kOIMC&pg=PA16&dq=%22in+1929%22+Alexander+Fleming+penicillin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMu4L8h5ngAhW6LLkGHRjOBj0Q6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201929%22%20Alexander%20Fleming%20penicillin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Waller |first1=John |title=Fabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific DiscoveryFabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific Discovery |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Cay3Wf5nceMC&pg=PA261&dq=%22in+1929%22+Alexander+Fleming+penicillin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMu4L8h5ngAhW6LLkGHRjOBj0Q6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201929%22%20Alexander%20Fleming%20penicillin&f=false}}</ref><ref name="A  Brief  History  of  the  Pneumococcus  in  Biomedical  Research:  A  Panoply  of  Scientific  Discovery"/> || {{w|Unitd Kingdom}}  
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| 1920s || Medical deveopment || Type I specific antipneumococcal serotherapy proves efficacious in large hospitals of the United States.<ref name="The Changing Fate of Pneumonia as a Public Health Concern in 20th-Century America and Beyond"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1920s || Medical deveopment || Type I specific antipneumococcal serotherapy proves efficacious in large hospitals of the United States.<ref name="The Changing Fate of Pneumonia as a Public Health Concern in 20th-Century America and Beyond"/> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1928 || Scientific development || Scottish microbiologist {{w|Alexander Fleming}}, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called {{w|staphylococcus}}, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.<ref name="The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology">{{cite book|last1=Newell-McGloughlin|first1=Martina|last2=Re|first2=Edward|title=The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=U27lbghWOfsC&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=E.+de+Freudenreich&source=bl&ots=69HqimydSe&sig=021aY8DvwKO8_TlY5ZfeEenZ8d4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtvvWs5pTaAhXDGJAKHb5WB5AQ6AEIWTAK#v=onepage&q=E.%20de%20Freudenreich&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery">{{cite web|title=Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery|url=https://correctiv.org/en/investigations/superbugs/article/2017/07/03/ten-important-early-moments-history-antibiotic-discovery/|website=correctiv.org|accessdate=29 March 2018}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
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| 1930 || Scientific development || {{w|William S. Tillett}} and Thomas Francis discover that purified pneumococcal polysaccharides could induce specific anti-capsular antibodies in humans.<ref name="Effectiveness and p">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yang |last2=Li |first2=Jingxin |last3=Wang |first3=Yuxiao |last4=Gu |first4=Wei |last5=Zhu |first5=Fengcai |title=Effectiveness and practical uses of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in healthy and special populations |journal=Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics |date=2018-04-03 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=1003–1012 |doi=10.1080/21645515.2017.1409316}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1939 || Medical deveopment || Antibacterial agent, {{w|sulfapyridine}}, the first effective antipneumococcal sulfonamide, is introduced in the United States, representing the emerging chemotherapeutic revolution as applied to pneumonia.<ref name="The Changing Fate of Pneumonia as a Public Health Concern in 20th-Century America and Beyond"/><ref name="Pneumonia History"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Mrinal K. |title=Chemistry of Antibiotics and Related Drugs |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=vgXWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=1939+Ren%C3%A9+Dubos++gramicidin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi96dD-4JjgAhXZLLkGHQwMBAkQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=1939%20Ren%C3%A9%20Dubos%20%20gramicidin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=John W. |last2=Warren |first2=Christian |title=Silent Victories: The History and Practice of Public Health in Twentieth-Century America |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YPYRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58&dq=1939+Ren%C3%A9+Dubos++gramicidin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi96dD-4JjgAhXZLLkGHQwMBAkQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=1939%20Ren%C3%A9%20Dubos%20%20gramicidin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Saxena |first1=Sanjai |title=Applied Microbiology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Wdp9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91&dq=1939+Ren%C3%A9+Dubos++gramicidin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi96dD-4JjgAhXZLLkGHQwMBAkQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=1939%20Ren%C3%A9%20Dubos%20%20gramicidin&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1939 || Medical deveopment || Antibacterial agent, {{w|sulfapyridine}}, the first effective antipneumococcal sulfonamide, is introduced in the United States, representing the emerging chemotherapeutic revolution as applied to pneumonia.<ref name="The Changing Fate of Pneumonia as a Public Health Concern in 20th-Century America and Beyond"/><ref name="Pneumonia History"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Mrinal K. |title=Chemistry of Antibiotics and Related Drugs |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=vgXWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=1939+Ren%C3%A9+Dubos++gramicidin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi96dD-4JjgAhXZLLkGHQwMBAkQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=1939%20Ren%C3%A9%20Dubos%20%20gramicidin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=John W. |last2=Warren |first2=Christian |title=Silent Victories: The History and Practice of Public Health in Twentieth-Century America |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=YPYRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58&dq=1939+Ren%C3%A9+Dubos++gramicidin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi96dD-4JjgAhXZLLkGHQwMBAkQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=1939%20Ren%C3%A9%20Dubos%20%20gramicidin&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Saxena |first1=Sanjai |title=Applied Microbiology |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Wdp9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91&dq=1939+Ren%C3%A9+Dubos++gramicidin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi96dD-4JjgAhXZLLkGHQwMBAkQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=1939%20Ren%C3%A9%20Dubos%20%20gramicidin&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1942 || Medical deveopment || Antibiotic {{w|penicillin}} begins to be used to treat infections.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology|year=2009|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-103962-1|page=56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5W-WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT56}}</ref><ref name="Pneumonia History"/> ||
 
| 1942 || Medical deveopment || Antibiotic {{w|penicillin}} begins to be used to treat infections.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology|year=2009|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-103962-1|page=56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5W-WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT56}}</ref><ref name="Pneumonia History"/> ||
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| 1945 || Medical development || Macleod, Heidelberger and colleagues show that a 4-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV4) containing serotypes 1, 2, 5 and 7 is protective against pneumococcal disease caused by the same serotypes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yang |last2=Li |first2=Jingxin |last3=Wang |first3=Yuxiao |last4=Gu |first4=Wei |last5=Zhu |first5=Fengcai |title=Effectiveness and practical uses of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in healthy and special populations |journal=Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics |date=3 April 2018 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=1003–1012 |doi=10.1080/21645515.2017.1409316}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1947 || Medical deveopment || Kaufman demonstrates the safety and efficacy of 2-valent and 3-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines.<ref name="A review of selected Federal vaccine and immunization policies : based on case studies of pneumococcal vaccine.">{{cite book |title=A review of selected Federal vaccine and immunization policies : based on case studies of pneumococcal vaccine. |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=9V6FbkkltrcC&pg=PA148&lpg=PA148&dq=%22in+1943..1969%22+%22pneumococcal%22&source=bl&ots=du6DjxcQRh&sig=ACfU3U0Jf7nTijDXXDnLPyBGaiPsAvsGGg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR16ON_ZjgAhXrEbkGHZkaCU4Q6AEwAHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943..1969%22%20%22pneumococcal%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
| 1947 || Medical deveopment || Kaufman demonstrates the safety and efficacy of 2-valent and 3-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines.<ref name="A review of selected Federal vaccine and immunization policies : based on case studies of pneumococcal vaccine.">{{cite book |title=A review of selected Federal vaccine and immunization policies : based on case studies of pneumococcal vaccine. |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=9V6FbkkltrcC&pg=PA148&lpg=PA148&dq=%22in+1943..1969%22+%22pneumococcal%22&source=bl&ots=du6DjxcQRh&sig=ACfU3U0Jf7nTijDXXDnLPyBGaiPsAvsGGg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR16ON_ZjgAhXrEbkGHZkaCU4Q6AEwAHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22in%201943..1969%22%20%22pneumococcal%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1977 || Medical deveopment || The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV), a vaccine to protect against bacterial pneumonia, is first developed. However, this vaccine only protects against a limited number of Streptococcal serotypes.<ref name="Pneumonia History"/><ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Acute Respiratory Infections |edition=Wei Shen Lim |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Cu2uPxnvm00C&pg=PT101&dq=1977+The+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine+(PPV&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic5v_zkZjgAhUtErkGHcFdCSQQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=1977%20The%20pneumococcal%20polysaccharide%20vaccine%20(PPV&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Infections of the Central Nervous System">{{cite book |title=Infections of the Central Nervous System |edition=Michael W. Scheld, Richard J. Whitley, Christina M. Marra |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=CmAGBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA885&dq=1977+The+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine+(PPV&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic5v_zkZjgAhUtErkGHcFdCSQQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=1977%20The%20pneumococcal%20polysaccharide%20vaccine%20(PPV&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Health Promotion and Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice |edition=Steven H. Woolf, Steven Jonas, Evonne Kaplan-Liss |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=rDEa3YLDfwwC&pg=PA392&dq=1977+The+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine+(PPV&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic5v_zkZjgAhUtErkGHcFdCSQQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=1977%20The%20pneumococcal%20polysaccharide%20vaccine%20(PPV&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Partha's Immunization Digest">{{cite book |last1=Parthasarathy |first1=A. |title=Partha's Immunization Digest |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=0vEzRVdf_igC&pg=PA49&dq=in+1983+23-valent+polysaccharide+vaccine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcjLv-6JjgAhXeK7kGHbuFBB4Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=in%201983%2023-valent%20polysaccharide%20vaccine&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1977 || Medical deveopment || The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV), a vaccine to protect against bacterial pneumonia, is first developed. However, this vaccine only protects against a limited number of Streptococcal serotypes.<ref name="Pneumonia History"/><ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Acute Respiratory Infections |edition=Wei Shen Lim |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=Cu2uPxnvm00C&pg=PT101&dq=1977+The+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine+(PPV&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic5v_zkZjgAhUtErkGHcFdCSQQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=1977%20The%20pneumococcal%20polysaccharide%20vaccine%20(PPV&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Infections of the Central Nervous System">{{cite book |title=Infections of the Central Nervous System |edition=Michael W. Scheld, Richard J. Whitley, Christina M. Marra |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=CmAGBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA885&dq=1977+The+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine+(PPV&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic5v_zkZjgAhUtErkGHcFdCSQQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=1977%20The%20pneumococcal%20polysaccharide%20vaccine%20(PPV&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Health Promotion and Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice |edition=Steven H. Woolf, Steven Jonas, Evonne Kaplan-Liss |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=rDEa3YLDfwwC&pg=PA392&dq=1977+The+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine+(PPV&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwic5v_zkZjgAhUtErkGHcFdCSQQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=1977%20The%20pneumococcal%20polysaccharide%20vaccine%20(PPV&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Partha's Immunization Digest">{{cite book |last1=Parthasarathy |first1=A. |title=Partha's Immunization Digest |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=0vEzRVdf_igC&pg=PA49&dq=in+1983+23-valent+polysaccharide+vaccine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcjLv-6JjgAhXeK7kGHbuFBB4Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=in%201983%2023-valent%20polysaccharide%20vaccine&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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| 1977 || ||  Vaccination against ''{{w|Streptococcus pneumoniae}}'' in adults begins.<ref name=whit>{{cite journal | vauthors = Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J, Harrison LH, Bennett NM, Lynfield R, Reingold A, Cieslak PR, Pilishvili T, Jackson D, Facklam RR, Jorgensen JH, Schuchat A | title = Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 348 | issue = 18 | pages = 1737–46 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12724479 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa022823 | displayauthors = 2 | author14 = Active Bacterial Core Surveillance of the Emerging Infections Program Network }}</ref>
 
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| 1980s || Scientific development || The classification of pneumonia based on lists of different pathogens is abandoned in favour of a more practical classification that helps to guide investigation, management and therapy: CAP, 9 hospital-acquired (or nosocomial) pneumonia, and pneumonia in the immuno- compromised host.<ref name="100 years of respiratory medicine: Pneumonia">{{cite journal |last1=Blasi |first1=Francesco |last2=Aliberti |first2=Stefano |last3=Pappalettera |first3=Maria |last4=Tarsia |first4=Paolo |title=100 years of respiratory medicine: Pneumonia |doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2007.02.016}}</ref> ||
 
| 1980s || Scientific development || The classification of pneumonia based on lists of different pathogens is abandoned in favour of a more practical classification that helps to guide investigation, management and therapy: CAP, 9 hospital-acquired (or nosocomial) pneumonia, and pneumonia in the immuno- compromised host.<ref name="100 years of respiratory medicine: Pneumonia">{{cite journal |last1=Blasi |first1=Francesco |last2=Aliberti |first2=Stefano |last3=Pappalettera |first3=Maria |last4=Tarsia |first4=Paolo |title=100 years of respiratory medicine: Pneumonia |doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2007.02.016}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1983 || Medical deveopment || 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine is licensed.<ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/><ref name="Partha's Immunization Digest"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Bacterial Polysaccharides: Current Innovations and Future Trends |edition=Matthias Ullrich |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=SBhvdj9jPIQC&pg=PA121&dq=in+1983+23-valent+polysaccharide+vaccine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcjLv-6JjgAhXeK7kGHbuFBB4Q6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=in%201983%2023-valent%20polysaccharide%20vaccine&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jong |first1=Elaine C. |last2=Stevens |first2=Dennis L. |title=Netter's Infectious Diseases E-Book |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=eS8juEBAxQMC&pg=PA22&dq=in+1983+23-valent+polysaccharide+vaccine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcjLv-6JjgAhXeK7kGHbuFBB4Q6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=in%201983%2023-valent%20polysaccharide%20vaccine&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
| 1983 || Medical deveopment || 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine is licensed.<ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/><ref name="Partha's Immunization Digest"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Bacterial Polysaccharides: Current Innovations and Future Trends |edition=Matthias Ullrich |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=SBhvdj9jPIQC&pg=PA121&dq=in+1983+23-valent+polysaccharide+vaccine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcjLv-6JjgAhXeK7kGHbuFBB4Q6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=in%201983%2023-valent%20polysaccharide%20vaccine&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jong |first1=Elaine C. |last2=Stevens |first2=Dennis L. |title=Netter's Infectious Diseases E-Book |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=eS8juEBAxQMC&pg=PA22&dq=in+1983+23-valent+polysaccharide+vaccine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcjLv-6JjgAhXeK7kGHbuFBB4Q6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=in%201983%2023-valent%20polysaccharide%20vaccine&f=false}}</ref> ||
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| 1988 || Medical deveopment || Vaccination of infants against ''{{w|Haemophilus influenzae}}'' type B begins, leading to a dramatic decline in cases shortlythereafter.<ref name=adams>{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams WG, Deaver KA, Cochi SL, Plikaytis BD, Zell ER, Broome CV, Wenger JD | title = Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era | journal = JAMA | volume = 269 | issue = 2 | pages = 221–26 | date = January 1993 | pmid = 8417239 | doi = 10.1001/jama.1993.03500020055031 | displayauthors = 2 }}</ref> ||
 
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| 2000 || Medical deveopment || The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), is introduced, offering protection against many more serotypes, including several strains that were resistant to antibiotics.<ref name="Pneumonia History"/><ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/><ref name="Partha's Immunization Digest"/> ||
 
| 2000 || Medical deveopment || The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), is introduced, offering protection against many more serotypes, including several strains that were resistant to antibiotics.<ref name="Pneumonia History"/><ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/><ref name="Partha's Immunization Digest"/> ||
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| 2000 || Medical deveopment || Vaccination against ''{{w|Streptococcus pneumoniae}}'' in children begins.<ref name=whit/> ||
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| 2007 || Program launch || Five countries ({{w|Canada}}, {{w|Italy}}, {{w|Norway}}, {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}), and the {{w|Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation}} commit US$1.5 billion to launch the first {{w|Advance Market Commitment}} (AMC) with the purpose of accelerating access to vaccines against pneumococcal disease.<ref>{{cite web |title=GAVI partners fulfill promise to fight pneumococcal disease |url=https://www.gavi.org/library/news/press-releases/2009/gavi-partners-fulfill-promise-to-fight-pneumococcal-disease/ |website=gavi.org |accessdate=1 June 2018}}</ref> || {{w|Canada}}, {{w|Italy}}, {{w|Norway}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United Kingdom}} 
 
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| 2008 || Scientific development || The definition of penicillin resistance is modified such that a much larger proportion of pneumococci are now considered susceptible to {{w|penicillin}}.<ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/> ||
 
| 2008 || Scientific development || The definition of penicillin resistance is modified such that a much larger proportion of pneumococci are now considered susceptible to {{w|penicillin}}.<ref name="Pneumococcal Disease"/> ||
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| 2011 || Epidemiology || Pneumonia reveals to be the most common reason for admission to the hospital after an emergency department visit in the {{w|United States}} for infants and children.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Weiss AJ, Wier LM, Stocks C, Blanchard J | title = Overview of Emergency Department Visits in the United States, 2011 | work = HCUP Statistical Brief #174 | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality | location = Rockville, MD | date = June 2014 | url = https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb174-Emergency-Department-Visits-Overview.jsp | deadurl = no | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140803154735/http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb174-Emergency-Department-Visits-Overview.jsp | archive-date = 3 August 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 2011 || Epidemiology || Pneumonia reveals to be the most common reason for admission to the hospital after an emergency department visit in the {{w|United States}} for infants and children.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Weiss AJ, Wier LM, Stocks C, Blanchard J | title = Overview of Emergency Department Visits in the United States, 2011 | work = HCUP Statistical Brief #174 | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality | location = Rockville, MD | date = June 2014 | url = https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb174-Emergency-Department-Visits-Overview.jsp | deadurl = no | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140803154735/http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb174-Emergency-Department-Visits-Overview.jsp | archive-date = 3 August 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 +
|-
 +
| 2013 || Medical development || United States {{w|FDA}} approves use of Prevnar 13 vaccine in older children and teens (6-17 years).<ref>{{cite web |title=PFIZER RECEIVES FDA APPROVAL FOR THE USE OF PREVNAR 13 IN VACCINE-NAIVE CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS AGED 6 YEARS THROUGH 17 YEARS FOR THE PREVENTION OF INVASIVE PNEUMOCOCCAL DISEASE |url=https://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer_receives_fda_approval_for_the_use_of_prevnar_13_in_vaccine_naive_children_and_adolescents_aged_6_years_through_17_years_for_the_prevention_of_invasive_pneumococcal_disease |website=pfizer.com |accessdate=3 June 2020}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 2016 || Study || A large trial studying the use of {{w|vitamin D}} to prevent pneumonia in children, finds no effect.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yakoob MY, Salam RA, Khan FR, Bhutta ZA | title = Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 11 | page= CD008824 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27826955 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008824.pub2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309799297_Vitamin_D_supplementation_for_preventing_infections_in_children_under_five_years_of_age |website=researchgate.net |accessdate=31 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yakoob |first1=Mohammad Y |last2=Salam |first2=Rehana A |last3=Khan |first3=Farhan R |last4=Bhutta |first4=Zulfiqar A |title=Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008824.pub2 |pmid=27826955 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5450876/}}</ref> ||  
 
| 2016 || Study || A large trial studying the use of {{w|vitamin D}} to prevent pneumonia in children, finds no effect.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yakoob MY, Salam RA, Khan FR, Bhutta ZA | title = Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 11 | page= CD008824 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27826955 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008824.pub2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309799297_Vitamin_D_supplementation_for_preventing_infections_in_children_under_five_years_of_age |website=researchgate.net |accessdate=31 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yakoob |first1=Mohammad Y |last2=Salam |first2=Rehana A |last3=Khan |first3=Farhan R |last4=Bhutta |first4=Zulfiqar A |title=Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008824.pub2 |pmid=27826955 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5450876/}}</ref> ||  
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
== Numerical and visual data  ==
 +
 +
=== Google Scholar ===
 +
 +
The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of October 20, 2021.
 +
 +
{| class="sortable wikitable"
 +
! Year
 +
! pneumonia
 +
|-
 +
| 1900 || 1,390
 +
|-
 +
| 1910 || 1,550
 +
|-
 +
| 1920 || 2,020
 +
|-
 +
| 1930 || 1,940
 +
|-
 +
| 1940 || 2,490
 +
|-
 +
| 1950 || 2,770
 +
|-
 +
| 1960 || 3,030
 +
|-
 +
| 1970 || 4,530
 +
|-
 +
| 1980 || 7,500
 +
|-
 +
| 1990 || 14,000
 +
|-
 +
| 2000 || 37,300
 +
|-
 +
| 2010 || 94,800
 +
|-
 +
| 2020 || 148,000
 +
|-
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
[[File:Pneumonia gscho.png|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
=== Google Trends ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows {{w|Google Trends}} data for Pneumonia (Disease), from January 2004 to April 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pneumonia |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=%2Fm%2F0dq9p |website=Google Trends |access-date=11 April 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Pneumonia gt.png|thumb|center|600px]]
 +
 +
=== Google Ngram Viewer ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows {{w|Google Ngram Viewer}} data for Pneumonia, from 1750 to 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pneumonia |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Pneumonia&year_start=1750&year_end=2019&corpus=26&smoothing=3&case_insensitive=true |website=books.google.com |access-date=11 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Pneumonia ngram.png|thumb|center|700px]]
 +
 +
=== Wikipedia Views ===
 +
 +
The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article {{w|Pneumonia}}, on desktop from December 2007, and on mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015; to March 2021. A data gap observed from October 2014 to June 2015 is the result of Wikipedia Views failure to retrieve data.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pneumonia |url=https://wikipediaviews.org/displayviewsformultiplemonths.php?page=Pneumonia&allmonths=allmonths&language=en&drilldown=all |website=wikipediaviews.org |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref>
 +
 +
[[File:Pneumonia wv.png|thumb|center|450px]]
 +
  
 
==Meta information on the timeline==
 
==Meta information on the timeline==

Latest revision as of 21:58, 25 March 2024

This is a timeline of pneumonia, attempting to describe important events in the history of the disease.

Big picture

Time period Development summary
19th century The 1870s and early 1880s mark the onset of the discovery of infectious agents of disease, whereas the late 1880s and early 1890s witness the beginning of the medical attack on such pathogens through applied humoral immunology.[1] During the late 1800s through the early 1900s, pneumonia stands as the leading cause of death due to infectious disease and the third leading cause of death overall.[2]
20th century Throughout the century, the use of antibiotics as a treatment strategy continues. However, widespread overuse of antibiotics would lead to the creation of penicillin-resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae.[2] From 1915 to 1945, the chemical structure and antigenicity of the pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide, its association with virulence, and the role of bacterial polysaccharides in human disease are explained.[3] Up until the early 1940s, textbooks of medicine recognize that pneumonia could present only as lobar pneumonia or bronchopneumonia, with the small residuum dubbed as ‘‘unresolved’’.[4] The first vaccine is introduced in 1977. In the 1980s, the classification of pneumonia based on lists of different pathogens is abandoned in favour of a more practical classification that helps to guide investigation, management and therapy.[4]
21st century Today, pneumonia affects approximately 450 million people globally (7% of the population) and results in about 4 million deaths per year.[5][6] The World Health Organization estimates that one in three newborn infant deaths is due to pneumonia.[7]


Full timeline

Year Event type Details Location
1875 Scientific deveopment German-Swiss pathologist Edwin Klebs is the first to observe bacteria in the airways of persons having died of pneumonia.[8] Germany
1881 Scientific deveopment Bacterium Streptococcus pneumonia, one of the most common causes of pneumonia throughout the world, is discovered independently by French microbiologist Louis Pasteur, and American microbiologist George Miller Sternberg, after both identified lancet-shaped bacteria in saliva. It is named Microbe septicemique du salive by Pasteur and Micrococcus pasteuri by Sternberg.[9][10][11] France, United States
1883 Scientific deveopment Friedlander and Talamon first dscribe the association between the pneumococcus and lobar pneumonia.[3][12][13][14]
1884 Scientific development The gram stain is developed, putting an end to confusion between pneumococcal pneumonia with other types of pneumonia.[3]
1886 Scientific development The organism previously named by Pasteur and Sternberg is referred to as pneumococcus by German physician Albert Fraenkel because of its propensity to cause pulmonary disease.[9][15][9]
1892 Scientific development Canadian physician William Osler writes of pneumonia, "It is a self-limited disease, and has its course uninfluenced in any way by medicine".
1893 Scientific deveopment The first attempt to treat pneumococcal pneumonia with rabbit serum (generated through inoculating rabbits with pneumococci) takes place in Germany.[1] Germany
1911 Medical deveopment Efforts to develop effective pneumococcal vaccines begin.[3] Whole-cell pneumococcal vaccines are tested among gold miners of South Africa.[16][12] South Africa
1911 Scientific development Morganroth and Levy show that a quinine derivative, ethylhydrocupreine (also known as optochin), inhibits the growth of pneumococci but not of clinically related organisms.[9]
1913 Medical deveopment Antipneumococcal serum therapy becomes available, being able to reduce mortality from 25% to 7.5%, if given early in disease progression. However, this treatment method is slow, costly, and time-consuming at the time.[2]
1928 Scientific development Scottish microbiologist Alexander Fleming, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called staphylococcus, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.[17][18] United Kingdom
1929 Scientific deveopment Scottish physician Alexander Fleming discovers the antibacterial properties of the fungus-derived substance that later comes to be called penicillin.[19][20][21][9] Unitd Kingdom
1920s Medical deveopment Type I specific antipneumococcal serotherapy proves efficacious in large hospitals of the United States.[1] United States
1930 Scientific development William S. Tillett and Thomas Francis discover that purified pneumococcal polysaccharides could induce specific anti-capsular antibodies in humans.[22] United States
1939 Medical deveopment Antibacterial agent, sulfapyridine, the first effective antipneumococcal sulfonamide, is introduced in the United States, representing the emerging chemotherapeutic revolution as applied to pneumonia.[1][2][23][24][25] United States
1939 Scientific deveopment French-born American microbiologist René Dubos discovers the first naturally occurring antimicrobial compound with demonstrable activity in vitro against a bacterial pathogen. This compound is named gramicidin, with demonstrated activity against streptococcus pneumoniae.[9] United States
1940 Scientific development More than 80 serotypes of pneumococci are described by the time.[3][26][27][12]
1942 Medical deveopment Antibiotic penicillin begins to be used to treat infections.[28][2]
1945 Medical development Macleod, Heidelberger and colleagues show that a 4-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV4) containing serotypes 1, 2, 5 and 7 is protective against pneumococcal disease caused by the same serotypes.[29]
1947 Medical deveopment Kaufman demonstrates the safety and efficacy of 2-valent and 3-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines.[30]
Late 1960s Medical deveopment Efforts are again made to develop a polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine.[3]
1974 Scientific development Pneumococcus is given its present name, Streptococcus pneumoniae, primarily on the basis of its characteristic growth as chains of cocci in liquid media.[9][15]
1977 Medical deveopment The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV), a vaccine to protect against bacterial pneumonia, is first developed. However, this vaccine only protects against a limited number of Streptococcal serotypes.[2][3][31][16][32][33] United States
1977 Vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae in adults begins.[34]
1980s Scientific development The classification of pneumonia based on lists of different pathogens is abandoned in favour of a more practical classification that helps to guide investigation, management and therapy: CAP, 9 hospital-acquired (or nosocomial) pneumonia, and pneumonia in the immuno- compromised host.[4]
1983 Medical deveopment 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine is licensed.[3][33][35][36]
1988 Medical deveopment Vaccination of infants against Haemophilus influenzae type B begins, leading to a dramatic decline in cases shortlythereafter.[37]
2000 Medical deveopment The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), is introduced, offering protection against many more serotypes, including several strains that were resistant to antibiotics.[2][3][33]
2000 Medical deveopment Vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae in children begins.[34]
2007 Program launch Five countries (Canada, Italy, Norway, Russia, the United Kingdom), and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation commit US$1.5 billion to launch the first Advance Market Commitment (AMC) with the purpose of accelerating access to vaccines against pneumococcal disease.[38] Canada, Italy, Norway, Russia, United Kingdom
2008 Scientific development The definition of penicillin resistance is modified such that a much larger proportion of pneumococci are now considered susceptible to penicillin.[3]
2008 Epidemiology Pneumonia occurred in approximately 156 million children (151 million in the developing world and 5 million in the developed world) in the year.[5]
2009 Medical deveopment A 10-valent Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is licensed for the vaccination of children.[39]
2009 The first World Pneumonia Day is held on November 2.[40][41][42]
2010 Medical deveopment A 13-valent Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is licensed.[3][39]
2010 Medical development Pfizer, the manfacturer of PVC7, replaces it with an extended version, PCV13.[39][43][44] United States
2010 Epidemiology Worldwide, pneumonia resulted in 1.3 million deaths, or 18% of all deaths in those under five years, of which 95% occurred in the developing world during the year.[5][45][46]
2011 Scientific development 92 serotypes of streptococcus pneumoniae are documented by the time.[3][47][48]
2011 Epidemiology Pneumonia reveals to be the most common reason for admission to the hospital after an emergency department visit in the United States for infants and children.[49] United States
2013 Medical development United States FDA approves use of Prevnar 13 vaccine in older children and teens (6-17 years).[50] United States
2016 Study A large trial studying the use of vitamin D to prevent pneumonia in children, finds no effect.[51][52][53]

Numerical and visual data

Google Scholar

The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of October 20, 2021.

Year pneumonia
1900 1,390
1910 1,550
1920 2,020
1930 1,940
1940 2,490
1950 2,770
1960 3,030
1970 4,530
1980 7,500
1990 14,000
2000 37,300
2010 94,800
2020 148,000


Pneumonia gscho.png

Google Trends

The chart below shows Google Trends data for Pneumonia (Disease), from January 2004 to April 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[54]

Pneumonia gt.png

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Pneumonia, from 1750 to 2019.[55]

Pneumonia ngram.png

Wikipedia Views

The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article Pneumonia, on desktop from December 2007, and on mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015; to March 2021. A data gap observed from October 2014 to June 2015 is the result of Wikipedia Views failure to retrieve data.[56]

Pneumonia wv.png


Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

  • FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

[1]

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Podolsky, Scott H. "The Changing Fate of Pneumonia as a Public Health Concern in 20th-Century America and Beyond". PMC 1449499Freely accessible. PMID 16257952. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.048397. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 "Pneumonia History". news-medical.net. Retrieved 9 January 2019. 
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 "Pneumococcal Disease" (PDF). cdc.gov. Retrieved 9 January 2019. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Blasi, Francesco; Aliberti, Stefano; Pappalettera, Maria; Tarsia, Paolo. "100 years of respiratory medicine: Pneumonia". doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2007.02.016. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Ruuskanen O, Lahti E, Jennings LC, Murdoch DR (April 2011). "Viral pneumonia". Lancet. 377 (9773): 1264–75. PMID 21435708. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61459-6. 
  6. ↑ Lodha R, Kabra SK, Pandey RM (June 2013). "Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD004874. PMID 23733365. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004874.pub4. 
  7. ↑ Garenne M, Ronsmans C, Campbell H (1992). "The magnitude of mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years in developing countries". World Health Statistics Quarterly. Rapport Trimestriel De Statistiques Sanitaires Mondiales. 45 (2–3): 180–91. PMID 1462653. 
  8. ↑ Klebs E (1875-12-10). "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der pathogenen Schistomyceten. VII Die Monadinen" [Signs for Recognition of the Pathogen Schistomyceten]. Arch. Exp. Pathol. Pharmakol. 4 (5/6): 40–88. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Wqatson, David A.; Musher, Daniel M.; Jacobson, James W.; Verhoef, Jan. "A Brief History of the Pneumococcus in Biomedical Research: A Panoply of Scientific Discovery" (PDF). nih.gov. Retrieved 9 January 2019. 
  10. ↑ Fry, Michael. Landmark Experiments in Molecular Biology. 
  11. ↑ Marble, Sanders. Builders of Trust. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Gupta, Piyush; Menon, PSN; Ramji, Siddarth; Lodha, Rakesh. PG Textbook of Pediatrics: Volume 2: Infections and Systemic Disorders. 
  13. ↑ A system of medicine, Volume 5. 
  14. ↑ Miller Sternberg, George. A Text-book of Bacteriology. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Plotkin, Stanley A.; Orenstein, Walter; Offit, Paul A. Vaccines E-Book: Expert Consult - Online and Print. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Infections of the Central Nervous System (Michael W. Scheld, Richard J. Whitley, Christina M. Marra ed.). 
  17. ↑ Newell-McGloughlin, Martina; Re, Edward. The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology. 
  18. ↑ "Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery". correctiv.org. Retrieved 29 March 2018. 
  19. ↑ Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health (Judith Walzer Leavitt, Ronald L. Numbers ed.). 
  20. ↑ Aneja, K. R. Experiments in Microbiology, Plant Pathology and Biotechnology. 
  21. ↑ Waller, John. Fabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific DiscoveryFabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific Discovery. 
  22. ↑ Wang, Yang; Li, Jingxin; Wang, Yuxiao; Gu, Wei; Zhu, Fengcai (2018-04-03). "Effectiveness and practical uses of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in healthy and special populations". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 14 (4): 1003–1012. doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.1409316. 
  23. ↑ Bhattacharjee, Mrinal K. Chemistry of Antibiotics and Related Drugs. 
  24. ↑ Ward, John W.; Warren, Christian. Silent Victories: The History and Practice of Public Health in Twentieth-Century America. 
  25. ↑ Saxena, Sanjai. Applied Microbiology. 
  26. ↑ Gupta, Piyush; Menon, PSN; Ramji, Siddarth; Lodha, Rakesh. PG Textbook of Pediatrics: Volume 2: Infections and Systemic Disorders. 
  27. ↑ "Pneumococcal Disease". cdc.gov. Retrieved 31 January 2019. 
  28. ↑ Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology. OUP Oxford. 2009. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-19-103962-1. 
  29. ↑ Wang, Yang; Li, Jingxin; Wang, Yuxiao; Gu, Wei; Zhu, Fengcai (3 April 2018). "Effectiveness and practical uses of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in healthy and special populations". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 14 (4): 1003–1012. doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.1409316. 
  30. ↑ A review of selected Federal vaccine and immunization policies : based on case studies of pneumococcal vaccine. 
  31. ↑ Acute Respiratory Infections (Wei Shen Lim ed.). 
  32. ↑ Health Promotion and Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (Steven H. Woolf, Steven Jonas, Evonne Kaplan-Liss ed.). 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Parthasarathy, A. Partha's Immunization Digest. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Whitney CG, Farley MM, et al. (May 2003). "Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine". The New England Journal of Medicine. 348 (18): 1737–46. PMID 12724479. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022823. 
  35. ↑ Bacterial Polysaccharides: Current Innovations and Future Trends (Matthias Ullrich ed.). 
  36. ↑ Jong, Elaine C.; Stevens, Dennis L. Netter's Infectious Diseases E-Book. 
  37. ↑ Adams WG, Deaver KA, et al. (January 1993). "Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era". JAMA. 269 (2): 221–26. PMID 8417239. doi:10.1001/jama.1993.03500020055031. 
  38. ↑ "GAVI partners fulfill promise to fight pneumococcal disease". gavi.org. Retrieved 1 June 2018. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Community-Acquired Pneumonia: European Respiratory Monograph (Stefano Aliberti, James D. Chalmers, Mathias W. Pletz ed.). 
  40. ↑ Chase's Calendar of Events 2019: The Ultimate Go-to Guide for Special Days, Weeks and Months. 
  41. ↑ "PNEUMONIA" (PDF). stoppneumonia.org. Retrieved 31 January 2019. 
  42. ↑ "World Pneumonia Day". who.int. Retrieved 31 January 2019. 
  43. ↑ "The Newly Licensed Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine: Questions—and Answers: Page 2 of 2". pediatricsconsultantlive.com. Retrieved 31 January 2019. 
  44. ↑ Community-Acquired Pneumonia: European Respiratory Monograph (Stefano Aliberti, James D. Chalmers, Mathias W. Pletz ed.). 
  45. ↑ Singh V, Aneja S (March 2011). "Pneumonia – management in the developing world". Paediatric Respiratory Reviews. 12 (1): 52–59. PMID 21172676. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2010.09.011. 
  46. ↑ Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S, Perin J, Scott S, Lawn JE, Rudan I, Campbell H, Cibulskis R, Li M, Mathers C, Black RE (June 2012). "Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000". Lancet. 379 (9832): 2151–61. PMID 22579125. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60560-1. 
  47. ↑ Weinberger, Daniel M.; Malley, Richard; Lipsitch, Marc. "Serotype replacement in disease following pneumococcal vaccination: A discussion of the evidence". PMID 21492929. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62225-8. 
  48. ↑ Leung, Marcus H.; Bryson, Kevin; Freystatter, Kathrin; Pichon, Bruno; Edwards, Giles; Charalambous, Bambos M.; Gillespiea, Stephen H. "Sequetyping: Serotyping Streptococcus pneumoniae by a Single PCR Sequencing Strategy". PMID 22553238. doi:10.1128/JCM.06384-11. 
  49. ↑ Weiss AJ, Wier LM, Stocks C, Blanchard J (June 2014). "Overview of Emergency Department Visits in the United States, 2011". HCUP Statistical Brief #174. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Archived from the original on 3 August 2014. 
  50. ↑ "PFIZER RECEIVES FDA APPROVAL FOR THE USE OF PREVNAR 13 IN VACCINE-NAIVE CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS AGED 6 YEARS THROUGH 17 YEARS FOR THE PREVENTION OF INVASIVE PNEUMOCOCCAL DISEASE". pfizer.com. Retrieved 3 June 2020. 
  51. ↑ Yakoob MY, Salam RA, Khan FR, Bhutta ZA (November 2016). "Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11: CD008824. PMID 27826955. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008824.pub2. 
  52. ↑ "Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age". researchgate.net. Retrieved 31 January 2019. 
  53. ↑ Yakoob, Mohammad Y; Salam, Rehana A; Khan, Farhan R; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A. "Vitamin D supplementation for preventing infections in children under five years of age". PMID 27826955. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008824.pub2. 
  54. ↑ "Pneumonia". Google Trends. Retrieved 11 April 2021. 
  55. ↑ "Pneumonia". books.google.com. Retrieved 11 April 2021. 
  56. ↑ "Pneumonia". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 12 April 2021. 
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