Difference between revisions of "Timeline of antibiotics"

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| 1943 || || Penicillin is mass produced and used heavily to treat Allied troops fighting in Europe during {{w|World War II}}.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 
| 1943 || || Penicillin is mass produced and used heavily to treat Allied troops fighting in Europe during {{w|World War II}}.<ref name="A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time"/> ||
 
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| 1943 || Introduction || {{w|Bacitracin}} is discovered.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials">{{cite web|title=The Golden Age of Antibacterials|url=https://amrls.cvm.msu.edu/pharmacology/historical-perspectives/the-golden-age-of-antibacterials|website=amrls.cvm.msu.edu|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref>
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| 1943 || Introduction || {{w|Bacitracin}} is discovered.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials">{{cite web|title=The Golden Age of Antibacterials|url=https://amrls.cvm.msu.edu/pharmacology/historical-perspectives/the-golden-age-of-antibacterials|website=amrls.cvm.msu.edu|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1945 || || The {{w|cephalosporins}} are discovered from a fungus, ''{{w|Cephalosporium acremonium}}'', in seawater samples near a sewage outfall in {{w|Sardinia}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stephanie Watts|last2=Faingold|first2=Carl|last3=Dunaway|first3=George|last4=Crespo|first4=Lynn|title=Brody's Human Pharmacology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=kfsrz_-OrMQC&pg=PA536&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Riviere|first1=Jim E.|last2=Papich|first2=Mark G.|title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC&pg=PA865&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Peter N.|last2=Brown|first2=Morris J.|title=Clinical Pharmacology E-Book: With STUDENTCONSULT Access|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=FaXRAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
 
| 1945 || || The {{w|cephalosporins}} are discovered from a fungus, ''{{w|Cephalosporium acremonium}}'', in seawater samples near a sewage outfall in {{w|Sardinia}}.<ref name="Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stephanie Watts|last2=Faingold|first2=Carl|last3=Dunaway|first3=George|last4=Crespo|first4=Lynn|title=Brody's Human Pharmacology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=kfsrz_-OrMQC&pg=PA536&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Riviere|first1=Jim E.|last2=Papich|first2=Mark G.|title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC&pg=PA865&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Peter N.|last2=Brown|first2=Morris J.|title=Clinical Pharmacology E-Book: With STUDENTCONSULT Access|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=FaXRAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&dq=%22in+1945%22+%22cephalosporins%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjl-6iooPaAhVFoFMKHRjiAWoQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201945%22%20%22cephalosporins%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|Italy}}
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| 1947 || Scientific development || American plant physiologist {{w|Benjamin Minge Duggar}} isolates {{w|chlortetracycline}} from a {{w|Missouri River}} mud sample. It is the first {{w|tetracycline}} introduced.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dougherty|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Pucci|first2=Michael J.|title=Antibiotic Discovery and Development|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=av5SHPiHVcsC&pg=PA152&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kokate|first1=Chandrakant|last2=Jalalpure|first2=SS|last3=Pramod|first3=H.J|title=Textbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=p70UCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MyNwTA-iWvgC&pg=PA163&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=McKenna|first1=John|title=Natural Alternatives to Antibiotics – Revised and Updated: How to treat infections without antibiotics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=T0t_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1947 || Scientific development || American plant physiologist {{w|Benjamin Minge Duggar}} isolates {{w|chlortetracycline}} from a {{w|Missouri River}} mud sample. It is the first {{w|tetracycline}} introduced.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dougherty|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Pucci|first2=Michael J.|title=Antibiotic Discovery and Development|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=av5SHPiHVcsC&pg=PA152&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kokate|first1=Chandrakant|last2=Jalalpure|first2=SS|last3=Pramod|first3=H.J|title=Textbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology - E-Book|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=p70UCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=MyNwTA-iWvgC&pg=PA163&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=McKenna|first1=John|title=Natural Alternatives to Antibiotics – Revised and Updated: How to treat infections without antibiotics|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=T0t_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23&dq=%22in+1947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwisr8DXqIPaAhVOrFMKHa2-DiIQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%22chlortetracycline%22&f=false}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
|-
 
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| 1947 || Introduction || {{w|Chlortetracycline}} is discovered.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/>
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| 1947 || Introduction || {{w|Chlortetracycline}} is discovered.<ref name="The Golden Age of Antibacterials"/> ||
 
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| 1947 || Introduction || Antibiotic {{w|polymyxin}} family of antibiotics is discovered, with {{w|polymyxin B}} being the first isolated from bavterium {{w|paenibacillus polymyxa}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=NKsalcHkxmAC&pg=PA74&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22polymyxin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixxNmOoZfaAhVLipAKHR6QCwsQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22polymyxin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 46|publisher=Academic Press, Oct 12, 2011 - Science|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=_PWJ3dJWG7oC&pg=PA254&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22polymyxin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixxNmOoZfaAhVLipAKHR6QCwsQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22polymyxin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||
 
| 1947 || Introduction || Antibiotic {{w|polymyxin}} family of antibiotics is discovered, with {{w|polymyxin B}} being the first isolated from bavterium {{w|paenibacillus polymyxa}}.<ref name="Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=NKsalcHkxmAC&pg=PA74&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22polymyxin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixxNmOoZfaAhVLipAKHR6QCwsQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22polymyxin%22&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 46|publisher=Academic Press, Oct 12, 2011 - Science|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=_PWJ3dJWG7oC&pg=PA254&dq=%22in+1947%22+%22polymyxin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixxNmOoZfaAhVLipAKHR6QCwsQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=%22in%201947%22%20%22polymyxin%22&f=false}}</ref> ||

Revision as of 12:40, 31 March 2018

This is a timeline of antibiotics, also known as antibacterials and antimicrobials.

Big picture

Time period Development summary
<19th century although people did not know infections were caused by bacteria, antibiotics have been used for millennia to treat infections. Some of the earliest civilizations used various moulds and plant extracts to treat infections. The ancient Egyptians, for example, applied mouldy bread to infected wounds.[1]
19th century Scientists begin to observe antibacterial chemicals in action.[1] By the late century, a few notable breakthroughs occur.
20th century Antibiotics revolutionized medicine during the later half of the 20th century.[2] The major event in the history of antibiotics is the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. The first antibiotics are prescribed in the late 1930s.[3] The period between the 1950s and 1970s is considered the golden era of discovery of novel antibiotics classes, with no new classes discovered since then.[4] In fact, between 1944 and 1972 human life expectancy jumped by eight years, largely due to the introduction of antibiotics.[3] In the 1970s and 1980s synthetic versions of erythromycin, including clarithromycin and azithromycin, are developed.[5] After the 1970s, with the decline of the discovery rate, the mainstream approach for the development of new drugs to combat emerging and re-emerging resistance of pathogens to antibiotics would be the modification of existing antibiotics.[4] In the 1980s and 1990s, scientists only manage to make improvements within classes.[6]

Full timeline

Year Event type Details Geographical location
350 CE–550 CE Traces of tetracycline are found in human skeletal remains from ancient Sudanese Nubia.[4][2]
1877 French microbiologist Louis Pasteur shows that the bacterial disease anthrax, can be rendered harmless in animals with the injection of soil bacteria.
1887 German bacteriologist Rudolf Emmerich shows that the intestinal infection cholera is prevented in animals that have been previously infected with the streptococcus bacterium and then injected with the cholera bacillus.
1888 German scientist E. de Freudenreich manages to isolate an actual product from a bacterium that had antibacterial properties.[7]
1896 French medical student Ernest Duchesne originally discovers the antibiotic properties of Penicillium.[8][9][10]
1907 German chemist Alfred Bertheim and Paul Ehrlich discover arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics. This marks the beginning of the era of antibacterial treatment.[11]
1909 German physician Paul Ehrlich discovers that a chemical called arsphenamine is an effective treatment for syphilis.[1]
1928 Introduction Scottish microbiologist Alexander Fleming, a Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary’s Hospital in London, discovers penicillin after sorting through some petri dishes containing a bacteria called staphylococcus, which causes boils, sore throats and abscesses. Flemming discovers killed baceria in one dish contaning a blob of mold on it.[7][5] United Kingdom
1930 French-born American microbiologist René Dubos isolates from a soil microorganism an enzyme that can decompose part of the bacillum that causes lobar pneumonia in humans.[12]
1932 German pathologist Gerhard Domagk develops prontosil, the first sulphonamide microbial.[13][14][15] Germany
1937 The first effective antimicrobials (sulfonamides) are introduced.[16]
1939 Microbiologist René Dubos manages to isolate an antibacterial substance and names it tyrothricin.[12]
1939 Introduction Gramicidin is discovered.
1939 "1939, that Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and Norman Heatley"
1941 Penicillin is introduced for medical use.[17][15] Just before the introduction of penicillin, the mortality rate from Staphylococcus aureus infections that had reached the blood stream was reported to be 80%.[17]
1942 Ernst Chain, Howard Florey and Edward Abraham succeed in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G.
1942 Resistance Penicillin resistant bacteria are first detected, about one year after the introduction of penicillin.[17]
1943 Introduction American biochemists Selman Waksman, Albert Schatz, and Elizabeth Bugie discover antibiotic streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside. It is the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis.[5][18][19][20][15] United States
1943 Penicillin is mass produced and used heavily to treat Allied troops fighting in Europe during World War II.[2]
1943 Introduction Bacitracin is discovered.[21]
1945 The cephalosporins are discovered from a fungus, Cephalosporium acremonium, in seawater samples near a sewage outfall in Sardinia.[15][22][23][24] Italy
1947 Chloramphenicol is isolated from the soil organism Streptomyces venezuelae. Merketed in 1949, its use would quickly become widespread due to its broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity.[25][26][27][28]
1947 Scientific development American plant physiologist Benjamin Minge Duggar isolates chlortetracycline from a Missouri River mud sample. It is the first tetracycline introduced.[29][30][31][32] United States
1947 Introduction Chlortetracycline is discovered.[21]
1947 Introduction Antibiotic polymyxin family of antibiotics is discovered, with polymyxin B being the first isolated from bavterium paenibacillus polymyxa.[5][33][34]
1949 Jewish-American biochemist Selman Waksman and Hubert A. Lechevalier first isolate neomycin, as aminoglycoside antibiotic found in many topical medications such as creams, ointments, and eyedrops.[35][36][37] United States
1949 British chemist Dorothy Hodgkin reveals the complete structure of molecular penicillin, using the X-ray crystallography.[16] United Kingdom
1950 Introduction Oxytetracycline is discovered.[21]
1950 Resistance against chloramphenicol is observed.[38]
1952 Introduction Eli Lilly and Company introduces erythromycin, an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin infections, chlamydia infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, and syphilis.[39][40][41] United States
1953 Oxford University scientists discover antibiotic cephalosporin C.[5] United Kingdom
1956 Research team at the Lilly Biological Laboratories in Indiana first isolates vancomycin from bacterium streplomyces orienlalis. Vancomycin is used as a treatment for complicated skin infections, bloodstream infections, endocarditis, bone and joint infections, and meningitis caused by methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus.[15][42][43][44] United States
1956 Resistance Resistance against erythromycin is observed.[38]
1957 Introduction Kanamycin is discovered.[21]
1959 Colistin becomes available for treating infections caused by gram-negative bacteria.[5]
1960 In an attempt to defeat penicillin-resistant strains, scientists develop methicillin, a different antibiotic in the penicillin class.[2][38]
1961 Resistance Methicillin resistance is first reported.[17][38]
1961 Introduction Antibiotic ampicillin is introduced. Within a short time it would become the drug of choice for treatment of Hemophilus influenzae meningitis.[45][46][47][15]
1961 Resistance Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus is first reported in the United Kingdom, just a year after the antibiotic methicillin was introduced in the country.[5]
1961 Spectinomycin is first reported.[21]
1962 Introduction Quinolones are discovered accidentally, as a byproduct of some research on the antimalarial drug chloroquine.[5]
1963 Scientific development Weinstein and his colleagues from the Schering Corporation describe the first isolation of the gentamicin complex.[15][48][49][50] United States
1963 Introduction Gentmicin is discovered.[21]
1963 Resistance Gram-negative bacterium acinetobacter baumannii becomes an antibiotic resistant pathogen.[17]
1965 Dicloxacillin is synthesized by Bayer.[51][52][53]
1966 Introduction Antibiotic doxycycline is introduced.[54][55][56][15]
1966 Resistance Resistance against cephalotin is observed.[38]
1967 Clindamycin is first reported.[21]
1968 Introduction Antibiotic rifampicin is introduced for clinical use.[57][58][59] Italy
1970 Introduction Non-toxic semi-synthetic acid-resistant isoxazolyl penicillin flucloxacillin is introduced into clinical practice.[53][60]
1971 Introduction Tobramycin is discovered.[21]
1972 Introduction Cephamycins are discovered.[21]
1972 Introduction Antibiotic minocycline is discovered.[54][55][56]
1974 Introduction Antibiotic trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is commercially released.[61][15]
1974 Cotrimoxazole is introduced.[21]
1976 Introduction Antibiotic amikacin is introduced.[15]
1976 Resistance Tufts University researcher Stuart B. Levy becomes one of the first to identify antibiotic resistance due to their use in animals.[2]
1976 Introduction Amikacin is introduced.[21]
1984 Introduction Antibiotic ampicillin/clavulanate is introduced.[15]
1984 Introduction amoxicillin clavulanate is introduced.[21]
1985 Introduction Researchers at Eli Lilly and Company discover antibiotic daptomycin.[62][63][64] United States
1985 Introduction Carbapenems are introduced.[38]
1986 Resistance Resistance against vancomycin is observed.[38]
1987 Introduction Antibiotic imipenem/cilastin is introduced.[15]
1987 Introduction Highly potent fluoroquinolones are introduced.[16]
1987 Introduction Antibiotic ciprofloxacin is introduced.[15][65][66]
1987 Resistance Resistance against cephalosporins is observed.[38]
1987 Resistance Resistance against carbapenems is observed.[38]
1993 Introduction Antibiotics azithromycin and clarithromycin are introduced.[15]
1999 Introduction Antibiotic quinupristin/dalfopristin is introduced.[15]
2000 Introduction Antibiotic linezolid is introduced.[15][38]
2001 Introduction Antibiotic telithromycin is introduced in the European Union.[67][68][69]
2002 Resistance Resistance against linezolid is observed.[38]
2002 Introduction Cefditoren is introduced.[21]
2003 Introduction Antibiotic daptomycin is introduced.[15]
2004 Introduction Telythromicin is introduced.[21]
2005 Introduction Antibiotic tigecycline is introduced for the treatment of skin and skin structure infections and intraabdominal infections.[70][71][72]
2010 Publication Authors of a report on the evolution of resistance note that microbes have “extraordinary genetic capabilities” that benefit “from man’s overuse of antibiotics to exploit every source of resistance genes... to develop [resistance] for each and every antibiotic introduced into practice clinically, agriculturally, or otherwise.”[2]
2012 Study A team of scientists propose adding the terms extensively drug-resistant (XDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) to multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria to better help them classify and potentially defeat superbugs.[2]
2014 The World Health Organization (WHO) releases a statement in response to major superbug outbreaks like lebsiella pneumoniae (which causes pneumonia and bloodstream infections in the hospital) and gonorrhea strains all over the world, noting that “this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country.”[2]
2015 Policy American fast food company McDonald's announces that it would phase out all meat sources that contain antibiotics.[2]

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

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What the timeline is still missing

[1], [2]

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "THE HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS". microbiologysociety.org. Retrieved 29 March 2018. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 "A Brief History Of Antibiotic Resistance: How A Medical Miracle Turned Into The Biggest Public Health Danger Of Our Time". medicaldaily.com. Retrieved 29 March 2018. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "antibiotics 1928-2000". abc.net.au. Retrieved 31 March 2018. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Aminov, Rustam I. "A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era: Lessons Learned and Challenges for the Future". PMC 3109405Freely accessible. PMID 21687759. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 "Ten important moments in the history of antibiotic discovery". correctiv.org. Retrieved 29 March 2018. 
  6. ↑ "A brief history of antibiotics". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 30 March 2018. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Newell-McGloughlin, Martina; Re, Edward. The Evolution of Biotechnology: From Natufians to Nanotechnology. 
  8. ↑ Zhang, Yawei. Encyclopedia of Global Health, Volume 1. 
  9. ↑ Myers, Richard L. The 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide. 
  10. ↑ Manning, Shannon D.; Alcamo, I. Edward; Heymann, David L. Escherichia Coli Infections. 
  11. ↑ SWATHY, S; ARYA, US. "ANTIBIOTIC USAGE IN PEDIATRICS" (PDF). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN MULTIDISCIPLINARY FIELD. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "René Dubos". britannica.com. Retrieved 30 March 2018. 
  13. ↑ Ravina, Enrique. The Evolution of Drug Discovery: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Drugs. 
  14. ↑ Savona-Ventura, Charles. Contemporary Medicine in Malta [1798-1979]. 
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 Torok, Estee; Moran, Ed; Cooke, Fiona. Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Davies, Julian; Davies, Dorothy. "Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance" (PDF). doi:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Landecker, Hannah. "Antibiotic Resistance and the Biology of History". 
  18. ↑ Lorian, Victor. Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine. 
  19. ↑ Morabia, Alfredo. Enigmas of Health and Disease: How Epidemiology Helps Unravel Scientific Mysteries. 
  20. ↑ Cumo, Christopher Martin. The Ongoing Columbian Exchange: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History. 
  21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 "The Golden Age of Antibacterials". amrls.cvm.msu.edu. Retrieved 31 March 2018. 
  22. ↑ Stephanie Watts; Faingold, Carl; Dunaway, George; Crespo, Lynn. Brody's Human Pharmacology - E-Book. 
  23. ↑ Riviere, Jim E.; Papich, Mark G. Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 
  24. ↑ Bennett, Peter N.; Brown, Morris J. Clinical Pharmacology E-Book: With STUDENTCONSULT Access. 
  25. ↑ Kacew, Sam. Drug Toxicity and Metabolism in Pediatrics. 
  26. ↑ Riviere, Jim E.; Papich, Mark G. Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 
  27. ↑ Shapiro, Stuart. Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in Actinomycetes. 
  28. ↑ Aschenbrenner, Diane S.; Venable, Samantha J. Drug Therapy in Nursing. 
  29. ↑ Dougherty, Thomas J.; Pucci, Michael J. Antibiotic Discovery and Development. 
  30. ↑ Kokate, Chandrakant; Jalalpure, SS; Pramod, H.J. Textbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology - E-Book. 
  31. ↑ Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy. 
  32. ↑ McKenna, John. Natural Alternatives to Antibiotics – Revised and Updated: How to treat infections without antibiotics. 
  33. ↑ Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief. 
  34. ↑ Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 46. Academic Press, Oct 12, 2011 - Science. 
  35. ↑ Schindel, Leo. Unexpected Reactions to Modern Therapeutics: Antibiotics. 
  36. ↑ Grayson, M Lindsay; Crowe, Suzanne M; McCarthy, James S; Mills, John; Mouton, Johan W; Norrby, S Ragnar; Paterson, David L; Pfaller, Michael A. Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics Sixth Edition: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Drugs. 
  37. ↑ Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry, Volume 18. 
  38. ↑ 38.00 38.01 38.02 38.03 38.04 38.05 38.06 38.07 38.08 38.09 38.10 Stearns, Stephen C.; Koella, Jacob C. Evolution in Health and Disease. Evolution in Health and Disease. 
  39. ↑ Rubin, Bruce K.; Tamaoki, Jun. Antibiotics as Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Agents. 
  40. ↑ Piscitelli, Stephen C.; Rodvold, Keith A.; Pai, Manjunath P. Drug Interactions in Infectious Diseases. 
  41. ↑ Nightingale; Mur. Antimicrobial Pharmacodynamics in Theory and Clinical Practice, Second Edition. 
  42. ↑ Staphylococci in Human Disease (Kent B. Crossley, Kimberly K. Jefferson, Gordon L. Archer, Vance G. Fowler ed.). 
  43. ↑ Antibiotics Annual. 
  44. ↑ Hejzlar, Miroslav. Advances in Antimicrobial and Antineoplastic Chemotherapy: Progress in Research and Clinical Application: pt. 1-2. Antimicrobial chemotherapy. 
  45. ↑ Atta-ur-Rahman. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, Volume 56. 
  46. ↑ Thompson, R.A.; Green, John R. Infectious Diseases of the Central Nervous System. 
  47. ↑ Fifty Years of Antimicrobials: Past Perspectives and Future Trends. Society for General Microbiology. Symposium. 
  48. ↑ Advances in Applied Microbiology, Volume 18. 
  49. ↑ Eardley, Ian; Whelan, Peter; Kirby, Roger; Schaeffer, Anthony. Drug Treatment in Urology. 
  50. ↑ Antimicrobials: Synthetic and Natural Compounds (Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran, Nooruddin Thajuddin, A. Panneerselvam ed.). 
  51. ↑ McGuire, John L. Pharmaceuticals, 4 Volume Set. 
  52. ↑ Kuemmerle, Helmut Paul. Clinical Chemotherapy: Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Harper, N. J.; Simmonds, Alma B. Advances in Drug Research, Volume 7. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Yaffe, Sumner J.; Aranda, Jacob V. Neonatal and Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles in Practice. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Denyer, Stephen P.; Hodges, Norman A.; Gorman, Sean P.; Gilmore, Brendan F. Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Dirnagl, Ulrich; Elger, Bernd. Neuroinflammation in Stroke. 
  57. ↑ Rahman, Atta -ur-; Choudhary, M. Iqbal. Frontiers in Anti-Infective Drug Discovery, Volume 6. 
  58. ↑ Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set (y M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson ed.). 
  59. ↑ Mann, R.D. Modern Drug use: An Enquiry on Historical Principles. 
  60. ↑ Neonatal Formulary. BMJ Books, 2000. 
  61. ↑ "Pharmaceutical Marketing in India". books.google.com.ar. Retrieved 28 March 2018. 
  62. ↑ Current Medical Research and Opinion, Volume 22, Issues 9-12. Clayton-Wray Publications Limited, 2006. 
  63. ↑ Rybak, M. J. "The efficacy and safety of daptomycin: first in a new class of antibiotics for Gram‐positive bacteria". 
  64. ↑ Beiras-Fernandez, Andres; Ferdinand Vogt, Ferdinand Vogt; Sodian, Ralf; Weis, Florian. "Daptomycin: a novel lipopeptide antibiotic against Gram-positive pathogens". PMC 3108743Freely accessible. PMID 21694898. doi:10.2147/IDR.S6961. 
  65. ↑ Andriole, Vincent T. The Quinolones. 
  66. ↑ Aronson, Jeffrey K. Meyler's Side Effects of Drugs: The International Encyclopedia of Adverse Drug Reactions and Interactions. 
  67. ↑ Kucers' The Use of Antibiotics: A Clinical Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Antiviral Drugs, Seventh Edition - Three Volume Set (M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne Crowe, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson ed.). 
  68. ↑ Alex, Alexander; Harris, C. John; Smith, Dennis A. Attrition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: Reasons, Implications, and Pathways Forward. 
  69. ↑ Hugo and Russell's Pharmaceutical Microbiology (Stephen P. Denyer, Norman A. Hodges, Sean P. Gorman, Brendan F. Gilmore ed.). 
  70. ↑ Low-dose antibiotics: current status and outlook for the future (Robert Paul Hunter, Carlos F Amábile-Cuevas, Jun Lin, Joshua D Nosanchuk, Rustam Aminov ed.). 
  71. ↑ Vincent, Jean-Louis; Abraham, Edward; Kochanek, Patrick; Moore, Frederick A.; Fink, Mitchell P. Textbook of Critical Care E-Book. 
  72. ↑ Trauma: Critical Care (William C. Wilson, Christopher M. Grande, David B. Hoyt ed.). 
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