Timeline of parasitology
From Timelines
This is a timeline of parasitology, attempting to focus on human parasitology.
Contents
Big picture
Time period | Development summary |
---|---|
Paleolithic | Since the emergence of Homo sapiens in eastern Africa, humans spread throughout the world, possibly in several waves, migrating to and inhabiting virtually the whole of the face of the Earth, bringing some parasites with them and collecting others on the way.[1] |
Ancient history | Many detailed descriptions of various diseases that might or might not be caused by parasites, specifically fevers, are found in the writings of Greek physicians between 800 to 300 BC, such as the Corpus Hippocratorum by Hippocrates, and from physicians from other civilizations including China from 3000 to 300 BC, India from 2500 to 200 BC, Rome from 700 BC to 400 AD, and the Arab Empire in the latter part of the first millennium. The descriptions of infections become more accurate and Arabic physicians, particularly Rhazes (AD 850 to 923) and Avicenna (AD 980 to 1037), write important medical works that contain a great deal of information about diseases clearly caused by parasites.[1] |
10,000 BP | First Agricultural Revolution, from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture. Humans acquire parasites from animals with which they come in contact during agricultural practices.[1] |
Middle Ages | The medical literature is very limited during this time, but there are many references to parasitic worms. In some cases, they are recognized as the possible causes of disease but in general, the writings of the period reflect the culture, beliefs, and ignorance of the time.[1] |
1500< | The slave trade, which would flourish for three and a half centuries from about 1500, bring new parasites to the New World from the Old World.[1] |
16th century | The first definitive reports of lymphatic filariasis begin to appear.[1] |
17th–18th century | The science of helminthology develops, following the reemergence of science and scholarship during the Renaissance period.[1] By the beginning of the 17th century, it becomes apparent that there are two very different kinds of tapeworm (broad and taeniid) in humans. The scientific study of the taeniid tapeworms of humans can be traced to the late 17th century.[1] |
Present time | Known parasites infecting humans has now increased to about 300 species.[1] |
Full timeline
Year | Event type | Details | Country/region |
---|---|---|---|
150,000 BP | Homo sapiens emerge in eastern Africa.[1] | ||
8,000 BC | American biological anthropologist Frank B. Livingstone proposes in 1958 that Plasmodium falciprum, the deadliest of 4 or 5 parasites that cause human malaria, hopped from chimps to humans about this time as human hunter-gatherers begin settling on farms.[2] | ||
3,000–400 BC | The first written records of what are almost certainly parasitic infections come from this period of Egyptian medicine, particularly the Ebers papyrus of 1500 BC discovered at Thebes.[1] | ||
2277 BC | A. lumbricoides eggs are found in human coprolites from Peru dating from that time.[1] | ||
1550 BC | The Ebers papyrus in Egypt refers to intestinal worms. These records can be confirmed by the recent discovery of calcified helminth eggs in mummies dating from 1200 BC.[1] | ||
460 BC–365 BC | Hippocrates describes worms from fishes, domesticated animals, and humans.[1] | ||
25 BC–200 AD | Roman physicians including Celsus (25 BC to AD 50) and Galen (AD 129 to 200) are familiar with the human roundworms Ascaris lumbricoides and Enterobius vermicularis, as wellas tapeworms belonging to the genus Taenia. | ||
625 AD–690 AD | Byzantine Greek physician Paul of Aegina (AD 625 to 690) clearly describes Ascaris, Enterobius, and tapeworms and gives good clinical descriptions of the infections they cause.[1] | ||
980 AD– 1037 AD | Persian polymath Avicenna recognizes Ascaris, Enterobius, tapeworms and the guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis.[1] | ||
1558 | There are accounts of what are possibly cysticerci in humans by Johannes Udalric Rumler.[3] [1][4] | ||
1674 | Georgius Hieronymus Velschius initiates the scientific study of the nematode Dracunculus and the disease it causes.[1] | ||
1681 | Giardia duodenalis, also known as Giardia lamblia or Giardia intestinalis, becomes the first parasitic protozoan of humans seen by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.[1] | ||
1688 | Philip Hartmann conducts the first reliable accounts of cystercerci as parasites of some kind.[1] | ||
1707–1778 | Swedish botanist Carl von Linné describes and names six helminth worms, Ascaris lumbricoides, Ascaris vermicularis (= Enterobius vermicularis), Gordius medinensis (= Dracunculus medinensis), Fasciola hepatica, Taenia solium, and Taenia lata (= Diphyllobothrium latum).[1] | ||
1721 | English naval surgeon, John Atkins conducts the first definitive accounts of sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis).[1] | ||
1750 | Swiss biologist Charles Bonnet conducts the first accurate description of the proglottids.[5][6][1] | ||
1766 | German clinician and natural historian Pierre Simon Pallas show a parasitic link to the cysts.[7] | ||
1770 | French surgeon André Mongin describes the worm loiasis (Eye Worm) passing across the eye of a woman in Santa Domingo, in the Caribbean, and recounts how he tried unsuccessfully to remove it. This is the first verified report of a subconjunctival worm.[8][1][9][10] | Dominican Republic | |
1778 | French surgeon François Guyot becomes the first to successfully remove the worm and give the name loa loa from the eye of a male slave from West Africa.[11][8] | ||
1782 | German zoologist Johann August Ephraim Goetze first describes microscopically the scolices of the larva of Echinococcus.[12] | ||
1784 | German zoologist Johann August Ephraim Goeze perceives the similarities between the heads of tapeworms found in human intestinal tract and the invaginated heads of Cysticercus cellulosae in pigs.[13][1] | ||
1786 | Werner and Fischer publish treatise Vermis intestinalis brevis expositio, describing under the name finna humana, a kind of hydatid found in the interior of a muscle of a soldier who has been drowned.[14] | ||
1786 | Echinococcus granulosus is discovered by Batsch.[12] | ||
1790 | An understanding of the life cycle of the parasite Diphyllobothrium latum begins when Danish physician Peter Christian Abildgaard observes that the intestine of sticklebacks contains worms that resemble the tapeworms found in fish-eating birds.[1] | ||
1793 | Treutler speaks of two kinds of hydatids found in the human body, one of which he calls taenia alba punctata, and the other taenia visceralis.[14] | ||
1800 | Zeder describes the echinococcus hominis, which is also observed in monkeys, and which Rudolphi places in the family of entozoa cystica.[14] | ||
1806 | French physician Cullerier, senior surgeon at the civil Parisian Venereal Hospital, is the first to describe a case of hydatid cyst of the bone.[12] | France | |
1807 | French anatomist François Chaussier reports a case of spinal hydatid disease. | France | |
1808 | Swedish naturalist Karl Asmund Rudolphi coins the term echinococcus.[12][15][16] | ||
1818 | Cloquet writes a full description of the different varieties of hydatids, dividing each genus into several species, and minutely detailing their several peculiarities.[14] | ||
1819 | Carl Asmund Rudolphi discovers adult female worms containing larvae of Dracunculus. | ||
1819 | The first patient treated surgically for spinal hydatidosis is reported by Reydellet.[17][18][12] | ||
1827 | Montansey describes the brain of an idiot-epileptic woman containing a large number of cerebellar and cerebral hydatid cysts.[12] | ||
1835 | James Paget, then a medical student at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London, discovers nematode parasite Trichinella spiralis in humans.[1][19][20] | United Kingdom | |
1836 | British army officer D. Forbes, serving in India, finds and describes the larvae of Dracunculus medinensis in water.[1] | ||
1847 | Dairo Fujii records Katayama disease –a severe dermatitis, in the Kwanami district in Japan.[1][21][22] | ||
1848 | The first English account of the removal of worms from the eye is that by William Loney.[1][23] | ||
1849 | English chemist William Prout records the condition of chyluria in his book On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Renal Diseases.[24][25][1] | ||
1853 | German physiologist Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold demonstrates that Echinococcus cysts from sheep give rise to adult tapeworms when fed to dogs.[1][26][27] | ||
1855 | Rudolf Virchow first suggests the helminthic nature of alveolar hydatid disease caused by Echinococcus multilocularis.[12][28] | ||
1855 | German physician Friedrich Küchenmeister discovers that tapeworms develop from cysticeri after feeding convicts with cysticerci excised from pork meat, and finding adult tapeworms in the intestine after autopsy.[3] | ||
1859 | Publication | German cellular pathologist Rudolf Virchow writes his book Cellular Pathology, which would become the foundation for all microscopic study of disease.[29][30][1] | |
1860 | Friedrich Zenker provides the first clear evidence of transmission of Trichinella spiralis from animal to human.[31][32][33] | ||
1863 | French surgeon Jean Nicolas Demarquay first identifies tissue worms when studying samples of a Cuban patient affected by hydrocele.[34][35][11] | ||
1863 | Parasite | German zoologist Rudolf Leuckart discovers small cyclophyllid tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis.[12][36][37] | |
1863 | Parasite | Austrian zoologist Karl Moritz Diesing discovers parasitic tapeworms Echinococcus oligarthus.[12][38][39] | |
1863 | German pathologist Bernhard Naunyn finds adult tapeworms in dogs fed with hydatid cysts from a human.[1][7][40] | ||
1866 | Otto H. Wucherer discovers microfilariae in the urine of a patient in Brazil.[41][1][42] | ||
1873 | Friedrich Lösch in Russia discovers the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica, a serious protozoan pathogen which is considered to be the third cause of parasitic death in the world.[43][44][45] | ||
1868 | J. H. Oliver observed that Taenia saginata tapeworm infections occur in individuals who have eaten “measly” beef.[1] | ||
1870 | Russian naturalist Alexei Fedchenko describes the life cycle of nematode parasite Dracunculus, including the stages in a crustacean intermediate host.[46][47][48] | ||
1872 | British physician Timothy Lewis detects microfilaria in blood samples for the first time while working in Calcutta, India.[11] | ||
1875 | "The human liver fluke, C. sinensis, was first recognized by James McConnell in 1875 "[1] | ||
1875 | Irish naval surgeon John O'Neill first observes the microfilariae of onchocerciasis when examining skin samples from patients in Ghana.[11] | ||
1875 | Clonorchis sinensis is first discovered in the bile ducts of a Chinese man in India.[49] | ||
1876 | Strongyloides stercoralis and the disease strongyloidiasis are both discovered by Louis Alexis Normand, a physician to the French naval hospital at Toulon.[1] | ||
1876 | "The adult worm was described by Joseph Bancroft in 1876 (14, 136) and named Filaria bancrofti in his honour by the British helminthologist Thomas Spencer Cobbold"[1] | ||
1877 | Scottish physician Patrick Manson describes the life cycle of elephantiasis, which is caused by nematode Wuchereria bancrofti.[1][11] | ||
1879 | B.S. Ringer discovers discovers the first case of paragonimiasis when he finds the fluke Paragonimus westermani in the lungs of a Portuguese patient while performing an autopsy in Formosa (Taiwan).[50][51][1] | ||
1880 | Eggs in the sputum are recognized independently by Scottish physician Patrick Manson and German physician Erwin Von Baelz.[1][51][52] | ||
1883 | German parasitologist Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf Leuckart discovers the alternation of generations involving parasitic and free-living phases.[1] | ||
1885 | Greek physician Stephanos Kartulis finds amoebae in intestinal ulcers in patients suffering from dysentery in Egypt.[53][54][55] | ||
1889 | Irish surgeon Henry Widenham Maunsell operates successfully on a case of probable subtentorial hydatid cyst in an 18-year-old boy in New Zealand.[12] | New Zealand | |
1890 | British ophtalmologist Stephen McKenzie identifies microfilaria in cases of loiasis.[11][1] | ||
1890 | Medical development | Australians Graham and Clubb are the first to report the successful removal of an undoubted hydatid cyst of the brain.[12] | |
1891 | William Thomas Councilman and Henri Lafleur, at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, establish a definitive statement of what is known about the pathology of amoebiasis, much of which is still valid today.[1] | ||
1891 | Trypanosomes are seen in human blood by French physician Gustave Nepveu.[1] | ||
1892 | "The first records of Opisthorchis infections in humans were made by Konstantin Wingradoff in 1892"[1] | ||
1895 | Scottish ophtalmologist Douglas Argyll-Robertson describes the clinical presentation of loiasis.[11] Argyll-Robertson records the swellings (now known as Calabar swellings) in Old Calabar in Nigeria.[1] | ||
1899 | American zoologist Charles Wardell Stiles identifies progressive pernicious anemia seen in the southern United States as being caused by the hookworm A. duodenale. | ||
1902 | British parasitologist Joseph Everett Dutton identifies the trypanosome that causes Gambian or chronic sleeping sickness (T. b. gambiense) in humans.[1] Dutton describes the first case of human trypanosomiasis.[56] | ||
1903 | The first cases of human polycystic echinococcosis, a disease resembling alveolar echinococcosis, emerge in Argentina.[38] | Argentina | |
1904 | Japanese parasitologist Fujiro Katsurada discovers and describes the worm Schistosoma japonicum.[1][57][21] | ||
1905 | E. Franke is credited with the first suggestion that trypanosomes of the subgenus trypanozoon could change immunologically during the course of an infection, and thus survive the onslaught of their host's antibodies.[58] | ||
1909 | The Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease is organized in the United States, as a result of a gift of US$1 million from John D. Rockefeller.[59] | ||
1909 | Friedrich Kleine (a colleague of Robert Koch) demonstrates the essential role of the tsetse fly in the life cycle of trypanosomes.[1][60][61] | ||
1910 | Scottish physician Patrick Manson confirms that loiasis is caused by roundworms.[11] | ||
1910 | British parasitologists John William Watson Stephens and Harold Fantham describe Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the cause of Rhodesian or acute sleeping sickness.[1][62][63] | ||
1912 | British parasitologist Robert Thompson Leiper confirms biting flies, Chrysops spp. as the transmission vector in loiasis.[11][1] | ||
1912 | Kinghorn and Yorke show that Trypanosoma rhodesiense transmission is due to bites of tsetse flies of the genus Glossina.[62][64] | ||
1915 | Guatemaltecan physician Rodolfo Robles describes the so-called "American onchocerciasis", which is caused by a filarial parasite.[11] | ||
1915 | The uncommon intestinal parasite Isospora belli is discovered by Woodcock.[65][66][67][68] | ||
1915 | "but it was the discovery in 1915 by Kobayashi of a second intermediate host, an important food fish from which human infections are acquired, that had the greatest impact on our knowledge and control of this infection "[1] | ||
1921 | Edouard and Etienne Sergent demonstrate the experimental proof of transmission to humans by sandflies belonging to the genus Phlebotomus.[1][69][70][71] | ||
1928 | Australian professor of surgery, Sir Harold Robert Dew, publishes the first classic book on hydatid disease.[12][72][73][74] | ||
1933 | Yoshino describes with great histologic detail the early development of cysticerci in pigs.[3] | ||
1947 | American chemist Redginal I. Hewitt develops an effective antifilarial treatment with diethylcarbamazine.[11][75][76] | ||
1954 | American physician Robert Rendtorff produces unambiguous evidence linking the parasite Giardia duodenalis with Giardiasis.[1] | ||
1956 | Clonorchis sinensis eggs are detected in desiccated fecal remains from a mummy of the Ming dynasty, in the Guangdong province of China.[49] | ||
1962 | Rockefeller Institute scientist Norman Stoll describes hookworm infection as an extremely dangerous one because its damage is “silent and insidious.”[77][78][79][80] | ||
1969 | Keith Vickerman elaborates antigenic variation, the mechanism of how the parasite evades the immune response.[81][82][83] | ||
1972 | Rausch and Bernstein discover echinococcus vogeli. This is the last discovery concerning the Echinococcus species.[12] | ||
1976 | Nime and Meisel independently record Cryptosporidium parvum in humans.[1][84][85] | ||
1977 | Japanese physician Satoshi Omura develops a new, highly effective drug called ivermectin.[11][86][87] | ||
1980 | Cryptosporidium parvum is recognized to be a common, serious primary cause of outbreaks as well as sporadic cases of diarrhea in certain mammals.[84] | ||
1983 | Cryptosporidium parvum emerges with AIDS, as a life-threatening disease within this sub-population.[84] | ||
1987 | American physicians Pindaros Roy Vagelos and William Campbell persuade Merck&Co. to donate the drug ivermectin to establish the first filarial eradication programs in the world.[11][11] | ||
1993 | Cryptosporidium parvum reaches the public domain when it becomes widely recognized as the most serious, and difficult to control, cause of water-borne-related diarrhea.[84] | ||
2001 | The 54th World Health Assembly passes a resolution demanding member states to attain a minimum target of regular deworming of at least 75% of all at-risk school children by the year 2010.[88] | ||
2008 | United States President Bill Clinton announces a mega-commitment at the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) 2008 Annual Meeting to de-worm 10 million children.[89] | ||
2009 | Schistosoma haematobium–Schistosoma bovis hybrids are described in northern Senegalese children.[90] | Senegal | |
2015 | Hookworm infected about 428 million people in the year.[91] |
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See also
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References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 Cox, F. E. G. "History of Human Parasitology". doi:10.1128/CMR.15.4.595-612.2002. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
- ↑ "Timeline of Microbiology". timelines.ws. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Sun, Tsieh. Progress in Clinical Parasitology, Volume 4.
- ↑ Tropical Dermatology (Roberto Arenas, Roberto Estrada ed.).
- ↑ "History of Human Parasitology". studfiles.net. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
- ↑ Ridley, John W. Parasitology for Medical and Clinical Laboratory Professionals.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ridley, John W. Parasitology for Medical and Clinical Laboratory Professionals.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Foster, C Stephen; Vitale, Albert T. Diagnosis & Treatment of Uveitis.
- ↑ Brisola Marcondes, Carlos. Arthropod Borne Diseases.
- ↑ Magill, Alan J. Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Disease,Expert Consult - Online and Print,9: Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Disease.
- ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 Sangüeza, Omar P; Bravo, Francisco. Dermatopathology of Tropical Diseases: Pathology and Clinical Correlations.
- ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 Turgut, Mehmet. Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment.
- ↑ "AFIP index". Afip.org. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Medical and Surgical Reporter, Volume 9.
- ↑ Control of Human Parasitic Diseases.
- ↑ Abuladze, Konstantin Ivanovich. Taeniata of animals and man and diseases caused by them.
- ↑ Sridharan, Srihari; Narayana, Jagan; Chidambaram, Kalyanasundarabharathi; Jayachandiran, Anand Prasath. "Primary paraspinal hydatidosis causing acute paraplegia". Retrieved 14 June 2018.
- ↑ Turgut, Mehmet. Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment.
- ↑ Campbell, William. Trichinella and Trichinosis.
- ↑ Parasites of the Colder Climates (Hannah Akuffo, Inger Ljungstr”m, Ewert Linder, Mats Wahlgren ed.).
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Dobson, Mary. Murderous Contagion: A Human History of Disease.
- ↑ Mostofi, F. K. Bilharziasis: International Academy of Pathology · Special Monograph.
- ↑ "LOIASIS IN UNANI MEDICINE" (PDF). journalagent.com. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ↑ Cobo, Fernando. Imported Infectious Diseases: The Impact in Developed Countries.
- ↑ "Chylothorax, Chyluria, Elephantiasis, Pallor". symptoma.com. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
- ↑ Ridley, John W. Parasitology for Medical and Clinical Laboratory Professionals.
- ↑ Turgut, Mehmet. Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment.
- ↑ Cheng, Thomas C. General Parasitology.
- ↑ Peart, Olive. Mammography and Breast Imaging PREP: Program Review and Exam Prep.
- ↑ Dittmar, Thomas; Zaenker, Kurt S.; Schmidt, Axel. Infection and Inflammation: Impacts on Oncogenesis.
- ↑ Public Health and Infectious Diseases (Jeffrey Griffiths, James H. Maguire, Kristian Heggenhougen, Stella R. Quah ed.).
- ↑ Advances in Parasitology, Volume 63.
- ↑ Cockerham, William C. International Encyclopedia of Public Health.
- ↑ BARAN MANDAL, FATIK. HUMAN PARASITOLOGY.
- ↑ Bernhard, Carl Gustaf; Crawford, E.; Sörbom, P. Science, Technology & Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel: Nobel Symposium 52 Held at Björkborn, Karlskoga, Sweden, 17-22 August 1981.
- ↑ The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, Volumes 32-33. Government Printer, South Africa, 1965.
- ↑ Materialy 3-i Nauchnoi Konferentsii Po Infektssionnym i Invazionnym Zabolevaniyam Sel'skokhozyaistvennykh Zhivotnykh. National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. and the Department of Agriculture, U.S.A., 1962.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 "Emergence of Polycystic Neotropical Echinococcosis". doi:10.3201/eid1402.070742.
- ↑ Turgut, Mehmet. Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment.
- ↑ Katz, M.; Despommier, D.D.; Gwadz, R.W. Parasitic Diseases.
- ↑ Cobo, Fernando. Imported Infectious Diseases: The Impact in Developed Countries.
- ↑ Franco-Paredes, Carlos; Santos-Preciado, José Ignacio. Neglected Tropical Diseases - Latin America and the Caribbean.
- ↑ BARAN MANDAL, FATIK. BIOLOGY OF NON-CHORDATES.
- ↑ Haubrich, William S.; Schaffner, Fenton; Bockus, Henry L. Bockus Gastroenterology, Volume 4.
- ↑ Bruschi, Fabrizio. Frontiers in Parasitology, Volume 2.
- ↑ "Dracunculus". tititudorancea.com. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
- ↑ Wilkinson, Lise; Hardy, Anne. Prevention and Cure: The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine : a 20th Century Quest for Global Public Health.
- ↑ Gleick, Peter H. The World's Water 1998-1999: The Biennial Report On Freshwater Resources.
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Bruschi, Fabrizio. Helminth Infections and their Impact on Global Public Health.
- ↑ Palmer, Philip E.S.; Reeder, Maurice M. The Imaging of Tropical Diseases: With Epidemiological, Pathological and Clinical Correlation, Volume 2.
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 Ridley, John W. Parasitology for Medical and Clinical Laboratory Professionals.
- ↑ Diaz, James H. "Paragonimiasis Acquired in the United States: Native and Nonnative Species". PMC 3719489. PMID 23824370. doi:10.1128/CMR.00103-12.
- ↑ Water and Health (Prati Pal Singh, Vinod Sharma ed.).
- ↑ Bulletin, Volumes 11-15. Vermont. State Board of Health.
- ↑ Vaughan, Victor Clarence; Vaughan, Henry Frieze; Palmer, George Truman. Epidemiology and public health, a text and reference book for physicians, medical students and health workers...
- ↑ Sebastian, Anton. A Dictionary of the History of Medicine.
- ↑ Esch, Gerald. Parasites and Infectious Disease: Discovery by Serendipity and Otherwise.
- ↑ Baker, J. R.; Muller, R.; Rollinson, D. Advances in Parasitology.
- ↑ Page, Walter H. (September 1912). "The Hookworm And Civilization: The Work Of The Rockefeller Sanitary Commission In The Souther States". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. Vol. XXIV. pp. 504–518. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
- ↑ Grove, David. Tapeworms, Lice, and Prions: A Compendium of Unpleasant Infections.
- ↑ Cox, F E G. "History of Human Parasitology".
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 Tyring, Steven K; Lupi, Omar; Hengge, Ulrich R. Tropical Dermatology E-Book.
- ↑ Ghosh, Sougata. Paniker's Textbook of Medical Parasitology.
- ↑ Tyring, Steven K; Lupi, Omar; Hengge, Ulrich R. Tropical Dermatology E-Book.
- ↑ MANDAL, FATIK BARAN. HUMAN PARASITOLOGY.
- ↑ Gillespie, Stephen; Pearson, Richard D. Principles and Practice of Clinical Parasitology.
- ↑ Rubin, Robert H.; Young, Lowell S. Clinical Approach to Infection in the Compromised Host.
- ↑ Farrar, Jeremy; Hotez, Peter J; Junghanss, Thomas; Kang, Gagandeep; Lalloo, David; White, Nicholas J. Manson's Tropical Diseases E-Book.
- ↑ Kassirsky, I. A.; Plotnikov, N. N. Diseases of Warm Lands: A Clinical Manual.
- ↑ Brisola Marcondes, Carlos. Arthropod Borne Diseases.
- ↑ Grove, David. Tapeworms, Lice, and Prions: A Compendium of Unpleasant Infections.
- ↑ Turgut, Mehmet. Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment.
- ↑ "DEW, HAROLD ROBERT". sydney.edu.au. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ↑ "Dew, Sir Harold Robert (1891–1962)". adb.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ↑ Sangüeza, Omar P; Bravo, Francisco. Dermatopathology of Tropical Diseases: Pathology and Clinical Correlations.
- ↑ Helminthological Abstracts, Volume 25. Institute of Agricultural Parasitology.
- ↑ Stoll NR (August 1962). "On endemic hookworm, where do we stand today?". Exp. Parasitol. 12 (4): 241–52. PMID 13917420. doi:10.1016/0014-4894(62)90072-3.
- ↑ Esch, Gerald. Parasites and Infectious Disease: Discovery by Serendipity and Otherwise.
- ↑ The Laboratory Digest, Volumes 28-29.
- ↑ Hotez, Peter J; Bethony, Jeff; Bottazzi, Maria Elena; Brooker, Simon; Buss, Paulo. "Hookworm: "The Great Infection of Mankind"". PMC 1069663. PMID 15783256. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020067.
- ↑ Vickerman, K. "Antigenic variation in trypanosomes.". PMID 661969.
- ↑ Advances in Parasitology, Volume 17.
- ↑ Advances in Parasitology (J. R. Baker, R. Muller, D. Rollinson ed.).
- ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 84.3 parvum&f=false Opportunistic Protozoa in Humans.
- ↑ parvum&f=false Cryptosporidium: From Molecules to Disease (R.C.A. Thompson, A. Armson, U.M. Ryan ed.).
- ↑ Sangüeza, Omar P; Bravo, Francisco. Dermatopathology of Tropical Diseases: Pathology and Clinical Correlations.
- ↑ "Nobel Prize for medicine for drugs that have benefited billions". newscientist.com. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ↑ "School Deworming". Public Health at a Glance. World Bank. 2003.
- ↑ Hawdon JM, Hotez PJ (October 1996). "Hookworm: developmental biology of the infectious process". Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 6 (5): 618–23. PMID 8939719. doi:10.1016/S0959-437X(96)80092-X.
- ↑ Webster, Bonnie L.; Diaw, Oumar T.; Seye, Mohmoudane M.; Webster, Joanne P.; Rollinson, David. "Introgressive Hybridization of Schistosoma haematobium Group Species in Senegal: Species Barrier Break Down between Ruminant and Human Schistosomes". Retrieved 13 June 2018.
- ↑ GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6.