Comparison of methods of malaria control

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This page is a comparison of methods of malaria control, covering methods of both prevention and treatment.

TODO

Drug Methods

Use of insecticides has two main variables: method of delivery and the insecticide itself. This table covers the former; the latter are numerous and are covered separately in a second table below.

Type := Prevention | Treatment | Both

ACT (artemisinin combinatorial therapy) -- different from artenisinin?

also "comprehensive surveillance" gets mentioned a lot, in the course of using the other things.

Chemoprophylaxis -- which drugs are included?

consider "patient compliance" as a column

include various Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs)

Method Focus Acts against Route of administration First use First resistance Locations where used Advantages Disadvantages Combines with Status
Amodiaquine Treatment "some chloroquine-resistant strains, particularly Plasmodium falciparum"[1] oral[2] 1951[3] 1971[3] Africa Absorption is not influenced by food (compared with partner drug lumefantrine which should be taken with fatty food).[4] "Formation of toxic amodiaquine quinone imine (AQQI) metabolites"[5] Artesunate WHO Essential Medicine
Artemether Treatment[6] "Acute uncomplicated malaria."[6] Oral[7], intramuscular injection[8] 1987 Complementary advantage with lumefantrine. "Artemether has an initial burst effect on Plasmodium schizonts and a variety of drug-resistant malaria strains."[9] Lumefantrine WHO Essential Medicine
Artemisinin Treatment Plasmodium falciparum Oral, intramuscular, rectal[10][11] 1970s[3] 1998[3], 2009[12] Safe antimalarial in pregnancy.[13] More expensive than SP or chloroquine.[14]:165
Artemotil Treatment Plasmodium falciparum[15] "Intramuscular injection only."[16] 2000 [17] "Excellent alternative to quinine, over which it has clear advantages: it causes a swifter decrease in parasite numbers; is simpler to apply; has far fewer undesirable side-effects." "Also has advantages in cases where the patient is not able to retain food (and thus cannot be treated with oral medication)."[17]
Artemether/lumefantrine Treatment Plasmodium falciparum "Artemether-lumefantrine benefits from coformulation, approval in multiple countries in the developing world and Europe, and demonstrated excellent efficacy and safety "[18] "Disadvantages of artemether-lumefantrine therapy include the need for twice-per-day dosing, irregular bioavailability, and recommendation for ingestion with a fatty meal to improve drug levels."[18]
Artesunate Treatment Uncomplicated falciparum malaria (orally), severe falciparum malaria (parenterally)[19] Oral, parenteral[19] 1996[20] Advantages over quinine: Acts rapidly. Causes faster clearance of parasite. It is better tolerated, more effective and more safe.[13]
Artesunate/amodiaquine Treatment[21] "Uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria, especially in paediatric patients"[21] Oral[22] 2007[23] Sub-Saharan Africa
Artesunate suppositories Treatment[24]
Atovaquone-proguanil (Malarone) Both prevention and treatment[25] Blood and liver phases of Plasmodium falciparum[26] Oral 1996[3] 2002[3] Found to be 95% effective in otherwise drug resistant falciparum malaria.[27]
Chloroquine Both prevention and treatment "Intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum stages"[28] Oral ~1940s (during WWII) 1957[29] "The disadvantages of chloroquine are its effects on protein degradation and direct block of other cardiac ion channels"[30] Safer than quinine. Safe antimalarial in pregnancy.[13] "Low toxicity and cost" "high effectiveness".[31] Proguanil
Chlorproguanil-Dapsone Treatment "uncomplicated falciparum malaria"[32] "cheap, rapidly eliminated, more potent than pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine, and could be introduced in the near future to delay the onset of antifolate resistance and as "salvage therapy" for pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine failure."[32]
Clindamycin Treatment[33] Plasmodium falciparum[33] oral, topical, intravenous, intravaginal[34][35] 1960s[33] "Considered safe for use in pregnant women and very young children."[36] "Clindamycin’s disadvantages are its high cost, the common occurrence of rash and the predisposition of patients taking clindamycin to Clostridium difficile-associated colitis. Based on cohort studies, the risk of severe diarrhea in out-patients is as low as one per 1000, but the risk of in-patients acquiring C difficile colonization may be as high as 30%."[37] Used in conjunction with quinine, doxycycline, tetracycline, clindamycin, atovaquone and proguanil[34]
Dihydroartemisinin-Piperaquine (Artekin) Oral (pills)[38] "Excellent antimalarial efficacy in available trials and appears to offer advantages over artemether-lumefantrine, including simpler dosing and the longer half-life of piperaquine, compared with that of lumefantrine."[18]
Doxycycline Treatment
Halofantrine Treatment "Introduced in the 1980s"[27] "A major advantage of halofantrine is it's rapid onset of action."[39] "Due to its short half life of 1 to 2 days, is not suitable for use as a prophylactic."[27] "Resistant forms are increasingly being reported and there is some concern about its side effects. Halofantrin has been associated with neuropsychiatric disturbances. It is contraindicated during pregnancy and is not advised to women who are breastfeeding. Abdominal pain, diarrhea, puritus and skin rash have also been reported."[27]
Intermittent preventive therapy
Lumefantrine (benflumetol) Treatment[16] "Multidrug resistant Plasmodium falciparum".[16] "Oral preparation coformulated with artemether."[16]
Mefloquine Both prevention and treatment Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax 1977[3] 1982[3] "The once-weekly dosing is quite attractive to some people" " Mefloquine is relatively inexpensive"[40] "There can be severe neurological and psychiatric side effects, especially for people with any history of mental illness" "A major drawback is intolerability" "The issues are as minor as unpleasant dreams to issues as major as severe neuropsychiatric adverse events in the range of 1 in 10,000 healthy people."[40]
Piperaquine Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium falciparum[41] 1963[42]
Primaquine Treatment "Plasmodium vivax and plasmodium ovale."[16] "Gametocytocidal against plasmodium falciparum".[16] "The only antimalatial drug that is effective against exo-erythrocytic schizogony and is used for radical cure of Plasmodium vivax malaria."[13] "Hemolysis in patients with Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency."[13]
Proguanil Both prevention and treatment Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine, atovaquone
Quinidine Treatment Plasmodium falciparum
Quinine Treatment "asexual erythrocytic forms of malaria, including Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium falciparum and is gametosidal to Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae."[43] <1700[44] 1910[3]
RTS,S Prevention Plasmodium falciparum
Tafenoquine "Tafenoquine and mefloquine exhibit similar prophylactic efficacy against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax in field studies"[45]
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole Treatment[46]
Vibramycin Prevention
Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (Fansidar) Treatment 1967[3] 1967 (same year it was introduced)[3] "cheap, practicable (only one dose is needed because it eliminates from the body slowly)"[3]

Herbal methods

The table below lists mostly traditional herbal medicine methods of treatment of malaria. It also may include researched non-traditional herbal species.

Species Family Focus Acts against Locations where used Comments/support quote
Abutilon grandifolium Malvaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] Tanzania[47]
Acacia nilotica Fabaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] South Africa[47] It has moderate antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Acacia polyacantha Fabaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] Tanzania[47] It has moderate antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Acacia tortilis Fabaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] Tanzania[47] It has moderate antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Acacia xanthoploea Fabaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] South Africa[47] It has moderate antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Acampe pachyglossa Orchidaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] Kenya[47] It has moderate antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Acanthospermum hispidum Compositae Plasmodium falciparum[47] Burkina Faso[47] It has good antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] South Africa[47] It has good antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Ageratum conyzoides Compositae Treatment[48] Two continents "Study indicated that aqueous extract of A. conyzoides had the ability to potentiate the antimalarial activity of chloroquine and artesunate against induced plasmodiasis in mice. It contributes a lot in the malaria endemic and poverty stricken tropics."[49]
Ageratum conyzoides
Albizia lebbek Leguminosae Treatment[50] Plasmodium falciparum[50], Plasmodium berghei[50] Two continents "Significant antiplasmodial activity of A. lebbeck should be exploited as a potential source of useful antimalarial drug in the future."[50]
A. lebeek
Aloe weloensis Aloaceae Treatment[51] Plasmodium falciparum[51], Plasmodium berghei?[51] Ethiopia[51] "The leaf latex of Aloe weloensis was endowed with the antimalarial activity at various doses, corroborating the plant's claimed traditional use."[51]
Alstonia boonei Treatment[52] Cameroon[52], Nigeria[53] "Results presented in study suggest that the extract of A. boonei is safe and possesses potent anti-malarial activity which justifies its continuous use in folk medicine as an anti-malarial remedy. Further works are on-going to isolate, identify and characterize the active ingredients from this plant."[54]
Amorpha fruticosa Euphorbiaceae Plasmodium falciparum[47] Kenya[47] It has moderate antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Anisopappus chinensis Treatment[55] Democratic Republic of the Congo "Three plants showed a very interesting antiplasmodial activity (Anisopappus chinensis, Physalis angulata and Strychnos icaja) and one of them showed a good selectivity index (>10, Anisopappus chinensis). Anisopappus chinensis and Physalis angulata were also active in vivo."[55]
Annickia chlorantha Annonaceae Treatment[52] Plasmodium falciparum[56] Cameroon[52], Nigeria[57] "The aqueous extract of the plant Enantia chlorantha was found effective in suppressing Plasmodium yoelii infection in mice"[58]
Annona ambotay Annonaceae Treatment[57] French Guiana[57], Wayampi region[57]
Annona cherimola Treatment[57] Latin America[57]
Annona coriacea Treatment "Fischer et al. (2004) reported the in vitro antimalarial activity of crude extracts and alkaloid-containing fractions from six species of Annonaceae (Annona coriacea, Duguetia lanceolata, Duguetia furfuracea, Guatteria australis, Xylopia brasiliensis and Xylopia emarginata)"[59]
Annona crassiflora Annonaceae Treatment[57] Brazil (Brasilia)[57]
Annona foetida Treatment[57] Brazil (Bahia)[57]
Annona glabra Treatment[57] Caribbean[57]
Annona haematantha Treatment[57] French Guiana[57], Wayampi region[57]
Annona muricata Annonaceae Treatment[60] Plasmodium falciparum[60][56] Three continents "The importance of A. muricata leaves to treat malaria is very crucial in tropical countries such as Cameroon, Togo, and Vietnam."[61]
A. muricata
Annona purpurea Treatment[57] Mexico[57], Colombia[57], Caribean[57]
Annona reticulata Annonaceae Treatment[60] Plasmodium falciparum[60] Brazil[57], Guatemala[57]
Annona senegalensis Annonaceae Treatment[57] Cameroon[57], Nigeria[57]
Annona squamosa Annonaceae Treatment[57] Africa[57], India[57] "The fresh leaves of this plant are used together with Ocimum americanum and Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae) for the treatment of malaria in different communities found in Africa."[57]
Anonidium mannii Annonaceae Treatment (fever)[57] Plasmodium falciparum[56][47] Cameroon[57][47] It has very good antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Artemisia annua Treatment[62] "The malaria drugs quinine and artemisinin are both plant derivatives and are obtained from Cinchona species and Artemisia annua respectively."[63]
Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Treatment[64] Plasmodium berghei[64] " Azadirachta indica plants from the Meliaceae family are extensively used as traditional remedies against malaria in the tropics"[63]
Biophytum sensitivum Oxalidaceae
Bixa orellana Bixaceae
Caesalpinia bonducella Leguminosae
Calotropis gigantea Apocynaceae Treatment[65] Plasmodium berghei[65] "The methanolic leaf extract of C. gigantea may act as potent alternative source for development of new medicines or drugs for the treatment of drug-resistant malaria."[65]
Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae
Cananga latifolia Annonaceae Treatment (fever)[57] Cambodia[57] "Cananga latifolia, a Thai medical plant, is used for the treatment of dizziness and fever."[66]
Cananga odorata Annonaceae Treatment[57]
Capsicum annuum Solanaceae
Carica papaya Caricaceae
Cassia fistula Leguminosae
Cedrela odorata Meliaceae
Chenopodium ambrosioides Chenopodiaceae
Cinchona officinalis Rubiaceae
Cissampelos pareira Menispermaceae Three continents
Citrus aurantiifolia Rutaceae
Cleistopholis glauca Treatment (fever)[57] Cameroon[57]
Cleistopholis patens Treatment[57] Cameroon[57], Ghana[57]
Cleistopholis staudtii Treatment (fever)[57] Cameroon[57]
Cuminum cyminum Umbelliferae
Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae
Cymbopetalum brasiliense Treatment (fever)[57] Colombia[57]
Dennettia tripetala Treatment[57] Nigeria[57]
Desmos teysmannii Treatment[57] Malaysia[57]
Dicoma anomala subsp. gerrardii Compositae Plasmodium falciparum[47] South Africa[47] It has very good antiplasmodial activity.[47]
Duguetia duckei Treatment (fever)[57] Brazil[57]
Duguetia furfuracea Treatment[57] Brazil[57] "Fischer et al. (2004) reported the in vitro antimalarial activity of crude extracts and alkaloid-containing fractions from six species of Annonaceae (Annona coriacea, Duguetia lanceolata, Duguetia furfuracea, Guatteria australis, Xylopia brasiliensis and Xylopia emarginata)"[59]
Duguetia lanceolata Treatment[57] "Fischer et al. (2004) reported the in vitro antimalarial activity of crude extracts and alkaloid-containing fractions from six species of Annonaceae (Annona coriacea, Duguetia lanceolata, Duguetia furfuracea, Guatteria australis, Xylopia brasiliensis and Xylopia emarginata)"[59]
Duguetia spixiana Treatment (fever)[57] Bolivia[57]
Duguetia staudtii Annonaceae Treatment[57] Cameroon[56], Democratic Republic of Congo[56]
Elephantopus scaber Compositae
Enantia chlorantha Treatment[67] "Enantia chlorantha stem bark has been scientifically studied for its several pharmacological activities. These include antimalarial".[67]
Erythrina indica Leguminosae
Eucalyptus citriodora Myrtaceae
Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae
Fissistigma rigidum Treatment Asia
Gossypium barbadense Malvaceae
Greenwayodendron Treatment[57] Ghana[57]
Guatteria australis Treatment "Fischer et al. (2004) reported the in vitro antimalarial activity of crude extracts and alkaloid-containing fractions from six species of Annonaceae (Annona coriacea, Duguetia lanceolata, Duguetia furfuracea, Guatteria australis, Xylopia brasiliensis and Xylopia emarginata)"[59]
Guatteria discolor Treatment (fever)[57] French Guyana, Guayapi Indians (Colombia)[57]
Guatteria megalophylla Treatment[57] Witoto indians[57]
Guatteria schunkevigoi Treatment (fever)[57] Ecuador "Schultes and Raffauf (1994) reported the use of the bark of Guatteria schunkevigoi among the local populations in the Napo region of Ecuador. In the procedure described, the bark is ground and mixed with water and rubbed on the body to combat fevers."[68]
Hexalobus crispiflorus Treatment (fever)[57] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Isolona hexaloba Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae Three continents
Kalanchoe pinnata Crassulaceae Three continents
Lantana camara Labiatae Vector[69]
Leonotis nepetaefolia Labiatae
Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Three continents
Melia azedarach Meliaceae
Monodora brevipes Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Monodora tenuifolia Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Moringa oleifera Moraceae
Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Three continents
Monodora myristica Treatment[56] Plasmodium falciparum[56] Cameroon[56], Democratic Republic of the Congo[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Monodora myristica
Nigella sativa Ranunculaceae
Ocimum americanum Labiatae
Ocimum basilicum Labiatae
Ocimum canum Labiatae
Ocimum gratissimum Labiatae
Pachypodanthium mannii Treatment[57] Cameroon[57]
Phyllanthus amarus Euphorbiaceae Treatment[70]
Phyllanthus niruri Euphorbiaceae Treatment[71]
Physalis angulata Solanaceae Treatment[55] Democratic Republic of the Congo "Three plants showed a very interesting antiplasmodial activity (Anisopappus chinensis, Physalis angulata and Strychnos icaja) and one of them showed a good selectivity index (>10, Anisopappus chinensis). Anisopappus chinensis and Physalis angulata were also active in vivo."[55]
Plantago major Plantaginaceae
Plumbago zeylanica Plumbaginaceae
Polyalthia debilis Annonaceae Treatment[57] Plasmodium falciparum[57][56] Thailand[72] "The ethanol extracts of Polyalthia debilis (...) proved to be quite active against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro."[57] "Antimalarial activity of the extracts and fractions was tested against chloroquine resistant P. falciparum."[72]
Polyalthia suaveolens Treatment[56] Plasmodium falciparum[56] Democratic Republic of Congo[56], other parts of Africa[56] A study result supports the traditional use of P. suaveolens to treat malaria and relative symptoms."[73]
Polyceratocarpus (genus) Annonaceae Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Prosopis juliflora Leguminosae "This[2] study reports for the first time the in vivo antimalarial activity of julifloridine, juliprosopine and alkaloid-enriched extracts from P. juliflora (Fabaceae)."[74]
Prosopis juliflora
Psidium guajava Myrtaceae
Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Treatment[75] Three continents
Scoparia dulcis Scrophulariaceae
Senna alata Leguminosae
Senna obtusifolia Leguminosae
Senna occidentalis Leguminosae Three continents
Senna tora Leguminosae Three continents
Sida rhombifolia Malvaceae Three continents
Solanum nigrum Solanaceae
Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae
Strychnos icaja Treatment[55] Democratic Republic of the Congo "Three plants showed a very interesting antiplasmodial activity (Anisopappus chinensis, Physalis angulata and Strychnos icaja) and one of them showed a good selectivity index (>10, Anisopappus chinensis). Anisopappus chinensis and Physalis angulata were also active in vivo."[55]
Tagetes erecta Compositae
Tamarindus indica Leguminosae Treatment[76]
Tinthonia diversifolia Compositae Treatment[77]
Uvaria Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Uvaria banmanni Annonaceae Plasmodium falciparum[56] "Non-volatile extracts from Annickia chlorantha, Annona muricata, Anonidium mannii, Monodora myristica, Polyalthia suaveolens, Uvaria banmanni, Xylopia aethiopica, and Xylopia parviflora also showed potency against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro."[56]
Xylopia aethiopica Treatment[68] Plasmodium falciparum[56] Cameroon[68] "In Cameroon Xylopia aethiopica, commonly named Ethiopian Pepper is the only species of this genus claimed to be useful for the treatment of malaria and other diseases."[68]
Xylopia aromatica Annonaceae Treatment[57] Plasmodium falciparum[57] Brazil[57] "Xylopia aromatica is reported to be useful for the treatment of malaria by local populations in the region around the Brazilian Federal Capital, Brasília"[57]
Xylopia brasiliensis Treatment "Fischer et al. (2004) reported the in vitro antimalarial activity of crude extracts and alkaloid-containing fractions from six species of Annonaceae (Annona coriacea, Duguetia lanceolata, Duguetia furfuracea, Guatteria australis, Xylopia brasiliensis and Xylopia emarginata)"[59]
Xylopia emarginata Treatment "Fischer et al. (2004) reported the in vitro antimalarial activity of crude extracts and alkaloid-containing fractions from six species of Annonaceae (Annona coriacea, Duguetia lanceolata, Duguetia furfuracea, Guatteria australis, Xylopia brasiliensis and Xylopia emarginata)"[59]
Xylopia hypolampra Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Xylopia parviflora Treatment[56] Plasmodium falciparum[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Xylopia staudtii Treatment[56] Cameroon[56] "Annonaceae plants to treat malaria and/or symptoms in Cameroon, including but not limited to Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Annona squamosa, Annonidium mannii, Hexalobus crispiflorus, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora myristica, Monodora brevipes, Monodora tenuifolia, Polyceratocarpus sp., Xylopia aethiopica, Xylopia hypolampra, Xylopia parviflora, Xylopia staudtii, Uvaria sp."[56]
Zanthoxylum macrophylla Treatment Cameroon[52]
Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Three continents
Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae

Other Methods

Method Focus Acts against First use Locations where used Advantages Disadvantages Status
Chicken scent Prevention Mosquito
Sulfonamide compounds
Environmental management ("encompasses draining and filling of breeding habitats, clearance of vegetation, and eliminating pools of stagnant water.")[78] Prevention Mosquito "
  • Prevent mosquito maturation by eliminating breeding sites
  • Community-wide protective effect
  • Useful in peri-urban and urban areas where transmission is focal77
  • Useful in economic development sites where nonimmune populations may be concentrated
  • Sustainable reductions in transmission, morbidity, and mortality observed when integrated with other interventions

"[78]

"
  • Difficult to implement and maintain because of operational complexity (e.g., periodic maintenance, labor intensive)
  • Programs require technical capacity for implementation and vector surveillance
  • High initial costs
  • Intersectoral action is required
  • Impact difficult to quantify when integrated wth other interventions
  • Some undesirable environmental impact if activities target wetlands

"[78]

Exchange transfusion (ET) Treatment[79] Severe malaria[79]
Swamp draining Prevention Mosquito
Fogging
Indoor residual spraying Prevention Mosquito "Large-scale IRS with DDT for malaria control started in 1946."[80] "A single spraying can protect a home for up to 9 months."[81] "Spraying requires no behavourial change – after spraying teams have treated a dwelling, the occupiers can continue as before."[81] "
  • Mosquitoes killed and repelled
  • Community-wide protective effect
  • Once sprayed, *no additional commitment from community
  • Residual activity: 3–12 months, depending on the insecticide
  • Proven effectiveness in a variety of epidemiological settings
  • No documented serious adverse effects on human health and the environment.

"[78] "

"

  • Insecticide resistance monitoring and management
  • Ineffective against exophilic malaria vectors
  • Difficult to implement and maintain because of operational complexity (e.g., transportation into remote communities are difficult, labor intensive) and resource requirements
  • Programs require technical capacity for implementation and vector surveillance
  • Acceptability among community members
  • Required removal of all belongings, except large pieces of furniture, from the home
  • Health and safety of sprayers and communities[78]

" "homes must be regularly resprayed for the treatment to remain effective over longer periods."[81]

Insecticide–treated nets Prevention Mosquito "
  • Mosquitoes killed and repelled
  • Community-wide protective effect, if coverage rate is high, extended to neighboring communities15
  • Rebound effect not observed75
  • Individual and community decisions to use
  • Effectively treated nets with sizeable holes remain effective76
  • Proven effectiveness in a variety of epidemiological settings
  • No documented serious adverse effects on human health and the environment

"[78]

"
  • Ineffective against exophagic malaria Vectors
  • Decreased susceptibility and increasing resistance to pyrethroids, but nets may still be a practical means of personal protection65
  • Periodic net retreatment is required (as long-lasting nets become available, retreatment will cease to be a problem)
  • Distribution and sustainability problems, particularly in impoverished areas when nets are not distributed free of charge
  • Low coverage rates, particularly in high-risk groups such as children and pregnant women, when nets are not distributed free of charge
  • Difficult to promote in areas of unstable transmission
  • Individual attitudes and practices (e.g., ineffective for persons sleeping outside)"[81]

Mosquitoes are becoming highly resistant to insecticides on nets. "Insecticides are designed to kill mosquitoes immediately on contact, so when more than 10% of them are still alive in the day following exposure we know they are getting resistant to insecticides."[82]

Larviciding (application of insecticides to mosquito breeding sites)
Genetic blood disorders
Selective eradication of certain mosquito species
Use of decoys[83]
Personal protection (like long-sleeved clothing?)
Other forms of larval control?
Pyrethroid nets Prevention It has promoted resistance among malaria vectors in specific geographic areas.[84]
Mosquito coil Prevention Mosquito
Mosquito mat Prevention Mosquito
Mosquito net Prevention Mosquito 484–?425 BC[85]
Immunity from repeated infection Prevention Malaria (just P. falciparum?)

Insecticides

All insecticides act against mosquitoes and are used for prevention. (?)

Surface := Bednet | Wall | Swamp

Also consider the length the insecticide lasts (in different contexts)? For IRS, DCP2 p423 gives 6+ months for DDT, 3–6 months for lambda-cyhalothrin, and 2–3 months for malathion and deltamethrin.

Name Surface First use First resistance Locations where used Advantages Disadvantages Duration of effective action (months) Usage status
Alpha-cypermethrin 4–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Bifenthrin circa 1984[87] "There is a low risk of groundwater contamination based on its chemical properties and it is not persistent in soil."[87] "There are some concerns about bioaccumulation and the pesticide shows a high oral toxicity to mammals as well as being an endocrine distupter and a neurotoxicant. It is toxic to birds, most aquatic organisms, honeybees and earthworms."[87] 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Cyfluthrin Field corn, Sweetcorn, Popcorn, Silage corn, Citrus, Public health situations[88] 1983[89] 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Deltamethrin 1974, first described[90] "It has a low aqueous solubility, is semi-volatile and has a low potential to leach to groundwater. It is not persistent in soil and is non-mobile."[90] "Highly toxic to humans and other mammals and is a neurotoxin. It is relatively non-toxic to birds and earthworms although it presents a high risk to most aquatic organisms and honeybees."[90] 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) 1943[91]:7 1946[91]:9 Cheap, chemically stable, lipophilic (so not easily washed off)[91]:7 Persists in environment, accumulates along food chain[91]:7
Dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLD)
Etofenprox Fruit, Vegetables, Paddy fields[92] 1987[92] 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Bendiocarb 2–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
BHC (Lindane?)
Dieldrin
Fenitrothion 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
HCH
Lambda-cyhalothrin 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Malathion 2–3[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Deltamethrin
Paris green
Pirimiphosmethyl 2–3[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Propoxur 3–6[86] "Recommended by the World Health Organization for indoor residual spraying."[86]
Pyrethrin

Carbamate insecticides http://files.givewell.org/files/conversations/Abraham%20Mnzava10-%2018-13%20(public).pdf

Vaccine developments

See also

Funding information for this timeline is available.

What the table is missing

External links

References

  1. ↑ "amodiaquine". nih.gov. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  2. ↑ "ARTESUNATE AMODIAQUINE WINTHROP 25 mg/67.5 mg, tablet" (PDF). wipo.int. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 "Simpli fied R eversed C hloroquines t o Overcome M alaria Resistance to Quinoline-b ased D rugs". Portland State Universit y. 
  4. ↑ Turner, Arthur. Logan Turner's Diseases of the Nose, Throat and Ear, 10Ed. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  5. ↑ "Medicinal Chemistry of Antimalarial Drugs - PharmaFactz". pharmafactz.com. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Artemether". OPEN CHEMISTRY DATABASE. 
  7. ↑ Pharmaceutical Product Development: Insights Into Pharmaceutical Processes, Management and Regulatory Affairs (Vandana B. Patravale, John I. Disouza, Maharukh Rustomjee ed.). Retrieved 25 April 2017. 
  8. ↑ "Essential Medicines and Health Products Information Portal". World Health Organization. 
  9. ↑ "Enhanced Antimalarial Activity by a Novel Artemether-Lumefantrine Lipid Emulsion for Parenteral Administration". doi:10.1128/AAC.01428-13. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  10. ↑ "The pharmacokinetics of artemisinin after oral, intramuscular and rectal administration to volunteers.". PMID 1982311. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  11. ↑ "Rectal administration of artemisinin derivatives for the treatment of malaria". Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  12. ↑ "San Antonio scientist awarded $4.6 million for malaria research". 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Mondal, Sudeb. "Basic Undergraduate Pharmacology". 
  14. ↑ Dowling, John Malcolm; Yap, Chin-Fang (2014). Communicable Diseases in Developing Countries: Stopping the global epidemics of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria and Diarrhoea. Palgrave and Macmillan. 
  15. ↑ "Artemotil". sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 24 April 2017. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. World Health Organization. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "MALARIA: Artemotil treatment". Retrieved 26 April 2017. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Randomized Comparison of Amodiaquine plus Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine, Artemether-Lumefantrine, and Dihydroartemisinin-Piperaquine for the Treatment of Uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Burkina Faso". doi:10.1086/522985. Retrieved 16 June 2017. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Artesunate". who.int. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
  20. ↑ "THE NEW LANDSCAPE OF NEGLECTED DISEASE DRUG DEVELOPMENT" (PDF). lse.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2017. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "APPLICATION FOR INCLUSION OF ARTESUNATE/AMODIAQUINE FIXED DOSE COMBINATION TABLETS IN THE WHO MODEL LISTS OF ESSENTIAL MEDICINES" (PDF). WHO. 
  22. ↑ Artesunate + Amodiaquine. msh.org. 
  23. ↑ "New, Once-a-Day Fixed-Dose Combination Against Malaria Now Available". dndi.org. Retrieved 27 April 2017. 
  24. ↑ "Rectal Artesunate Suppository". Severe Malaria Observatory. Retrieved 1 January 2022. 
  25. ↑ "Malarone". 
  26. ↑ "Malaria" (PDF). reispassie.nl. Retrieved 26 April 2017. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 "Malaria: Past and Present History of Treatment and Prophylaxis". 
  28. ↑ "dentification of a Chloroquine Importer in Plasmodium falciparum" (PDF). THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL C HEMISTRY. 
  29. ↑ "Chloroquine resistance". 
  30. ↑ "The anti-protozoal drug pentamidine blocks KIR2.x-mediated inward rectifier current by entering the cytoplasmic pore region of the channel". British Journal of Pharmacology. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00658.x. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
  31. ↑ Semba, Richard David; Bloem, Martin W. Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Chlorproguanil-dapsone: effective treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria.". PMC 164103Freely accessible. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 "Clindamycin as an Antimalarial Drug: Review of Clinical Trials". Members of the AAC Editorial Board >> ASM Journal Press Releases Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. doi:10.1128/AAC.46.8.2315-2320.2002. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Clindamycin Hydrochloride". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved June 25, 2017. 
  35. ↑ Leyden, James J. (2006). Hidradenitis suppurativa. Berlin: Springer. p. 152. ISBN 9783540331018. 
  36. ↑ "Antimalarial Drugs and Drug Resistance". nap.edu. Retrieved 5 June 2017. 
  37. ↑ Smieja, Marek. "Current indications for the use of clindamycin: A critical review". PMC 3250868Freely accessible. Retrieved 16 June 2017. 
  38. ↑ "Dihydroartemisinin + piperaquine (Inclusion) -- Adults and Children". WHO. 
  39. ↑ "The Use of Halofantrine Hydrochloride in Acute Malaria" (PDF). proceedings-szh.com. Retrieved 26 June 2017. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "What you need to know about antimalarial drug mefloquine". theglobeandmail.com. Retrieved 26 June 2017. 
  41. ↑ "Journal of Tropical Diseases & Public Health". esciencecentral.org. Retrieved 26 April 2017. 
  42. ↑ "Randomized Trial of Piperaquine with Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine or Dihydroartemisinin for Malaria Intermittent Preventive Treatment in Children". plos.org. Retrieved 26 April 2017. 
  43. ↑ "QUININE". 
  44. ↑ "Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria". doi:10.1186/1475-2875-10-144. 
  45. ↑ "The blood schizonticidal activity of tafenoquine makes an essential contribution to its prophylactic efficacy in nonimmune subjects at the intended dose (200 mg)". biomedcentral.com. Retrieved 5 June 2017. 
  46. ↑ "Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of malaria, toxoplasmosis, and pediculosis.". PMID 7051240. 
  47. ↑ 47.00 47.01 47.02 47.03 47.04 47.05 47.06 47.07 47.08 47.09 47.10 47.11 47.12 47.13 47.14 47.15 47.16 47.17 47.18 47.19 47.20 47.21 47.22 47.23 47.24 47.25 47.26 47.27 47.28 47.29 47.30 47.31 47.32 Tajbakhsh, Elahe; Kwenti, Tebit Emmanuel; Kheyri, Parya; Nezaratizade, Saeed; Lindsay, David S.; Khamesipour, Faham (December 2021). "Antiplasmodial, antimalarial activities and toxicity of African medicinal plants: a systematic review of literature". Malaria Journal. 20 (1): 349. doi:10.1186/s12936-021-03866-0. 
  48. ↑ "Antimalarial activity of aqueous extract and fractions of leaves of Ageratum conyzoides in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei". researchgate.net. Retrieved 4 January 2022. 
  49. ↑ V, Ukwe Chinwe; I, Ekwunife Obinna; A, Epueke Ebele; M, Ubaka Chukwuemeka (December 2010). "Antimalarial activity of Ageratum conyzoides in combination with chloroquine and artesunate". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 3 (12): 943–947. doi:10.1016/S1995-7645(11)60005-9. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Kalia, Shagun; Walter, Neha Sylvia; Bagai, Upma (December 2015). "Antimalarial efficacy of Albizia lebbeck (Leguminosae) against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro & P. berghei in vivo". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 142 Suppl: S101–107. ISSN 0971-5916. doi:10.4103/0971-5916.176635. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 51.4 Amare, Gedefaw Getnet; Degu, Amsalu; Njogu, Peter; Kifle, Zemene Demelash (2021). "Evaluation of the Antimalarial Activity of the Leaf Latex of Aloe weloensis (Aloaceae) against Plasmodium Parasites". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM. 2021: 6664711. doi:10.1155/2021/6664711. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 Tsabang, Nolé; Fokou, Patrick Valère Tsouh; Tchokouaha, Lauve Rachel Yamthe; Noguem, Béatrice; Bakarnga-Via, Issakou; Nguepi, Mireille Sylviane Dongmo; Nkongmeneck, Bernard Aloys; Boyom, Fabrice Fekam (6 January 2012). "Ethnopharmacological survey of Annonaceae medicinal plants used to treat malaria in four areas of Cameroon". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 139 (1): 171–180. ISSN 1872-7573. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.10.035. 
  53. ↑ Otuu, Chidiebere A.; Obiezue, Rose N. N.; Okoye, Chris I.; Omalu, Innocent C. J.; Otuu, Ada Q. A.; Eke, Samuel S.; Udeh, Emmanuel. O.; Ekuma, Innocent C.; Yamman, Hadijah U.; Okafor, Fabian C. (16 December 2020). "Antimalarial Activity, Phytochemical Composition and Acute Toxicity Tests of Ethanolic Stem Bark Extract of Alstonia boonei De Wild". International Journal of Pathogen Research: 55–63. doi:10.9734/ijpr/2020/v5i430144. 
  54. ↑ Iyiola, O.A.; Tijani, A.Y.; Lateef, K.M. (15 March 2011). "Antimalarial Activity of Ethanolic Stem Bark Extract of Alstonia boonei in Mice". Asian Journal of Biological Sciences. 4 (3): 235–243. doi:10.3923/ajbs.2011.235.243. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 55.5 Lusakibanza, M.; Mesia, G.; Tona, G.; Karemere, S.; Lukuka, A.; Tits, M.; Angenot, L.; Frédérich, M. (June 2010). [10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.007. "In vitro and in vivo antimalarial and cytotoxic activity of five plants used in congolese traditional medicine"] Check |url= value (help). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. pp. 398–402. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.04.007. 
  56. ↑ 56.00 56.01 56.02 56.03 56.04 56.05 56.06 56.07 56.08 56.09 56.10 56.11 56.12 56.13 56.14 56.15 56.16 56.17 56.18 56.19 56.20 56.21 56.22 56.23 56.24 56.25 56.26 56.27 56.28 56.29 56.30 56.31 56.32 56.33 56.34 56.35 56.36 56.37 56.38 56.39 56.40 56.41 56.42 56.43 56.44 Tsabang, Nolé; Fokou, Patrick Valère Tsouh; Tchokouaha, Lauve Rachel Yamthe; Noguem, Béatrice; Bakarnga-Via, Issakou; Nguepi, Mireille Sylviane Dongmo; Nkongmeneck, Bernard Aloys; Boyom, Fabrice Fekam (January 2012). "Ethnopharmacological survey of Annonaceae medicinal plants used to treat malaria in four areas of Cameroon". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 139 (1): 171–180. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.10.035. 
  57. ↑ 57.00 57.01 57.02 57.03 57.04 57.05 57.06 57.07 57.08 57.09 57.10 57.11 57.12 57.13 57.14 57.15 57.16 57.17 57.18 57.19 57.20 57.21 57.22 57.23 57.24 57.25 57.26 57.27 57.28 57.29 57.30 57.31 57.32 57.33 57.34 57.35 57.36 57.37 57.38 57.39 57.40 57.41 57.42 57.43 57.44 57.45 57.46 57.47 57.48 57.49 57.50 57.51 57.52 57.53 57.54 57.55 57.56 57.57 57.58 57.59 57.60 57.61 57.62 57.63 57.64 57.65 57.66 57.67 57.68 57.69 57.70 Frausin, Gina; Lima, Renata Braga Souza; Hidalgo, Ari de Freitas; Maas, Paul; Pohlit, Adrian Martin (2014). "Plants of the Annonaceae traditionally used as antimalarials: a review". Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura. 36 (spe1): 315–337. doi:10.1590/S0100-29452014000500038. 
  58. ↑ Agbaje, E. O.; Onabanjo, A. O. (January 1991). "The effects of extracts of Enantia chlorantha in malaria". Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology. 85 (6): 585–590. doi:10.1080/00034983.1991.11812613. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 59.4 59.5 Frausin, Gina; Lima, Renata Braga Souza; Hidalgo, Ari de Freitas; Maas, Paul; Pohlit, Adrian Martin (2014). "Plants of the Annonaceae traditionally used as antimalarials: a review". Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura. 36 (spe1): 315–337. doi:10.1590/S0100-29452014000500038. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Yamthe, Lauve; Fokou, Patrick; Mbouna, Cedric; Keumoe, Rodrigue; Ndjakou, Bruno; Djouonzo, Paul; Mfopa, Alvine; Legac, Jennifer; Tsabang, Nole; Gut, Jiri; Rosenthal, Philip; Boyom, Fabrice (30 April 2015). "Extracts from Annona Muricata L. and Annona Reticulata L. (Annonaceae) Potently and Selectively Inhibit Plasmodium Falciparum". Medicines. 2 (2): 55–66. doi:10.3390/medicines2020055. 
  61. ↑ Abdul Wahab, Siti Mariam; Jantan, Ibrahim; Haque, Md. Areeful; Arshad, Laiba (2018). "Exploring the Leaves of Annona muricata L. as a Source of Potential Anti-inflammatory and Anticancer Agents". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 9: 661. ISSN 1663-9812. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00661. 
  62. ↑ "Sweet Wormwood Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com Herbal Database". Drugs.com. Retrieved 21 January 2022. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Farahna, Mohammed; Bedri, Selma; Khalid, Sami; Idris, Mustafa; Pillai, C. Radhakrishna; Khalil, Eltahir A. (November 2010). "Anti-plasmodial effects of Azadirachta indica in experimental cerebral malaria: Apoptosis of cerebellar Purkinje cells of mice as a marker". North American Journal of Medical Sciences. 2 (11): 518–525. ISSN 2250-1541. doi:10.4297/najms.2010.2518. 
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Oj, Afolabi; Oj, Afolabi. "Antiplasmodial Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Neem Leaf (Azadirachta indica) in Albino Mice Infected with Plasmodium berghei". ISSN 2572-3987. doi:10.23937/2572-3987.1510024. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 Satish, P.V.V.; Kumari, DSantha; Sunita, K (2017). "Antiplasmodial efficacy of Calotropis gigantea (L.) against Plasmodium falciparum (3D7 strain) and Plasmodium berghei (ANKA)". Journal of Vector Borne Diseases. 54 (3): 215. doi:10.4103/0972-9062.217612. 
  66. ↑ Phatchana, Ratchanee; Thongsri, Yordhathai; Somwaeng, Ratree; Piboonpol, Kewalin; Yenjai, Chavi (September 2015). "Canangalias A and B from the stem bark of Cananga latifolia". Phytochemistry Letters. 13: 147–151. doi:10.1016/j.phytol.2015.05.025. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 "(PDF) Traditional uses, phytochemical and pharmacological profiles, and toxicity of Enantia chlorantha (Oliver): An overview". ResearchGate. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 Frausin, Gina; Lima, Renata Braga Souza; Hidalgo, Ari de Freitas; Maas, Paul; Pohlit, Adrian Martin (2014). "Plants of the Annonaceae traditionally used as antimalarials: a review". Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura. 36 (spe1): 315–337. doi:10.1590/S0100-29452014000500038. 
  69. ↑ "The Promise of a Plant in the Fight against Malaria - United Republic of Tanzania". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 3 January 2022. 
  70. ↑ Oronsaye, F. E. (0000). "Treatment of malaria using a new plant Phyllantus amarus". Journal of Bacteriology & Parasitology. doi:10.4172/2155-9597-C1-032. Retrieved 3 January 2022.  Check date values in: |date= (help)
  71. ↑ Olawale, Jeje Temitope; Bando, Hironori; Fukuda, Yasuhiro; Oluwafemi, Ibukun Emmanuel; Kato, Kentaro (10 July 2021). "Aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri protects against severe malaria by blocking erythrocyte invasion and modulating the host immune response": 2021.07.09.451735. doi:10.1101/2021.07.09.451735v1.full. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Prachayasittikul, Supaluk; Manam, Patumporn; Chinworrungsee, Maneekarn; Isarankura-Na-Ayudhya, Chartchalerm; Ruchirawat, Somsak; Prachayasittikul, Virapong (3 November 2009). "Bioactive Azafluorenone Alkaloids from Polyalthia debilis (Pierre) Finet & Gagnep.". Molecules. 14 (11): 4414–4424. doi:10.3390/molecules14114414. 
  73. ↑ Mfopa, Alvine Ngoutane (2014). "Antiplasmodial activity and acute toxicity of fractions from Cameroonian plant Polyalthia suaveolens". doi:10.13140/2.1.1753.1848. 
  74. ↑ Batista, Ronan; Santana, Clarissa Cunha; Azevedo-Santos, Alene Vanessa; Suarez-Fontes, Ana Márcia; Ferraz, José Lucas de Almeida Antunes; Silva, Luiz Alberto Mattos; Vannier-Santos, Marcos André (May 2018). "In vivo antimalarial extracts and constituents of Prosopis juliflora (Fabaceae)". Journal of Functional Foods. 44: 74–78. doi:10.1016/j.jff.2018.02.032. 
  75. ↑ Ubulom, Peace ME.; Ettebong, Ette O.; Udofia, Edidiong J.; Inyang Etuk, Rachel S (25 February 2019). "In vivo antiplasmodial potential of aqueous seed extract of Ricinus communis". Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology. 8 (2): 133–138. ISSN 2345-5004. doi:10.15171/jhp.2019.21. 
  76. ↑ Bhadoriya, Santosh Singh; Ganeshpurkar, Aditya; Narwaria, Jitendra; Rai, Gopal; Jain, Alok Pal (January 2011). "Tamarindus indica: Extent of explored potential". Pharmacognosy Reviews. 5 (9): 73–81. ISSN 0976-2787. doi:10.4103/0973-7847.79102. 
  77. ↑ Elufioye, T. O.; Agbedahunsi, J. M. (August 2004). "Antimalarial activities of Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae) and Crossopteryx febrifuga (Rubiaceae) on mice in vivo". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 93 (2-3): 167–171. ISSN 0378-8741. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.01.009. 
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 78.4 78.5 "Advantages and disadvantages of key malaria vector control strategies". nih.gov. Retrieved 16 June 2017. 
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 "Exchange Transfusion for Severe Malaria: Evidence Base and Literature Review". Oxford Academic. 
  80. ↑ "Indoor Residual Spraying". 
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 81.3 "Malaria and Vector Control Question and Answers - IVCC". UNITAID. 
  82. ↑ "Malaria—should we abandon insecticide-treated bednets?". medicalxpress.com. Retrieved 16 June 2017. 
  83. ↑ "Malaria Site: History of Malaria Control". Retrieved December 20, 2016. 
  84. ↑ "ITNs: Challenges - Insecticide Resistance". 
  85. ↑ "Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance.". Institute of Medicine (US). Retrieved 16 June 2017. 
  86. ↑ 86.00 86.01 86.02 86.03 86.04 86.05 86.06 86.07 86.08 86.09 86.10 86.11 86.12 86.13 86.14 86.15 86.16 86.17 86.18 86.19 86.20 86.21 Sadasivaiah, Shobha; Tozan, Yeim; Breman, Joel G. "Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for Indoor Residual Spraying in Africa: How Can It Be Used for Malaria Control?". Retrieved 21 June 2017. 
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 "bifenthrin". herts.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
  88. ↑ "cyfluthrin". herts.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
  89. ↑ "cyfluthrin". herts.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 "deltamethrin". herts.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 91.3 Palmer, Michael (March 26, 2016). "The ban of DDT did not cause millions to die from malaria" (PDF). Retrieved December 22, 2016. 
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 "etofenprox". herts.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2017. 
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