Difference between revisions of "Timeline of nuclear risk"

Latest revision as of 18:59, 21 January 2024

This is a timeline of nuclear risk, which refers to the potential dangers and uncertainties associated with the possession, development, deployment, and potential use of nuclear weapons and nuclear energy. Nuclear risk encompasses a range of threats, including the accidental or unauthorized detonation of nuclear weapons, the proliferation of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear states or non-state actors, the possibility of intentional nuclear attacks during conflicts, and the risks posed by nuclear accidents or disasters at nuclear power plants or other nuclear facilities.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

What are some adverse consequences related to nuclear activities having occurred throughout history?
- Sort the full timeline by "Dynamics" and look for the rows with value "Adverse consequence".
- You will see a number of notable cases, often differing in their nature, causes, and contexts in which they occurred. Some are the result of intentional actions, such as nuclear attacks or high-profile assassinations, while others are the outcome of non-intentional events, like nuclear accidents.
What are some historical events increasing nuclear risk?
- Sort the full timeline by "Dynamics" and look for the rows with value "Risk".
- You will see all the events increasing nuclear risk, including accidents and terrorist or illicit activities, but also those resulting in proliferation, such as nuclear weapon programs launches by major powers.
What efforts have been made throughout history with the purpose to mitigate nuclear risk?
- Sort the full timeline by "Dynamics" and look for the rows with value "Prevention". You will see a number of multifaceted efforts involving various measures, policies, and international collaborations. Key initiatives include international agreements like the Non-Proliferation Treaty and arms control treaties such as START. Also bilateral agreements, diplomatic initiatives, and nuclear security summits contribute to trust-building and disarmament. National policies focusing on responsible nuclear arsenal management are also included.
Which states have developed nuclear weapons or launched nuclear weapon programs?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Nuclear weapon program".
- You will see the initiation of nuclear weapon programs by states, which heighten nuclear risk as they may lead to proliferation concerns, geopolitical tensions, arms race dynamics, crisis instability, deterrence challenges, increased nuclear terrorism risks, global governance challenges, and environmental/humanitarian concerns.
What are some historical notable nuclear tests?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Nuclear test".
- You will see detonations of nuclear weapons or devices for experimental or military purposes. Nuclear tests are considered nuclear risk cases, as they release large amounts of radiation into the atmosphere, which can contaminate the environment and cause health problems for people who live nearby.
What are some notable collaborations in nuclear technology?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "binational cooperation".
- You will see joint nuclear efforts. While these may aim for peaceful purposes, they can elevate nuclear risks due to concerns about the ultimate intentions of the involved parties.
What are some notable cases of illicit nuclear trafficking?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Illicit nuclear trafficking".
- You will see nuclear smuggling, which heightens nuclear risk by facilitating the unauthorized spread of nuclear materials and technologies.
What are some significant milestones in the context of nuclear diplomacy and efforts to manage nuclear risks?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Diplomacy".
- You will see events highlighting the role of diplomacy in shaping key agreements and treaties related to nuclear non-proliferation, arms control, and disarmament, contributing to global efforts to manage nuclear risks.
What are some events connected to international resolutions related to nuclear weapons and non-proliferation?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "International resolution".
- You will see a list of resolutions taken by the international community to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, ensure disarmament, and manage potential threats.
What are some organizational contributions to the Anti-nuclear movement?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Anti-nuclear movement".
- You will see a number of notable events contributing to the Anti-nuclear movement by fostering awareness, advocating for disarmament, recognizing contributions to peace efforts, addressing environmental concerns, and promoting international cooperation to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
What are some events involving intentional attacks on nuclear power plants and facilities, contributing to nuclear risk?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Attack on nuclear power plant".
- You will see a number of attacks targeting nuclear facilities, increasing the potential for regional instability, escalation of conflicts, and the need for robust security measures to mitigate nuclear risks.
What are some cases involving illicit nuclear trafficking contributing to nuclear risks?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Illicit nuclear trafficking".
- You will see a number of events involving trafficking of nuclear materials, which could be used for nuclear weapons development or other unauthorized nuclear activities. The potential involvement of states in these activities further complicates efforts to maintain global nuclear security and non-proliferation.
What are some notable publications issued by reputable international organizations and scholarly bodies on the topic of nuclear risk?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Notable publication".
- You will see a number of legal and scholarly documents related to international law, nuclear disarmament, and global security.
What are other publications on the topic of nuclear risk written by individual authors?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Literature".
- You will see publications spanning several decades and originating from various authors, each addressing different aspects of nuclear war, survival skills, and the environmental consequences of such events.
Who are some individuals having been recognized for their contributions to peace, disarmament, and international understanding?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Individual recognition".
- You will see a number of notable individuals being recognized with the Albert Einstein Peace Prize and the William and Katherine Estes Award. Both prizes seek to contribute to reducing nuclear risk and promoting peace.
Other events are described under the following types: "Background", "Concept development", "Cyberattack", "High-profile assassination", "Missile defence", "Notable warning", "Nuclear proliferation", "Nuclear weapon program shutdown", and "Statistics".

Big picture

Time period	Development summary	More details
1940s	Dawn of the Nuclear Age	This decade marks the inception of the nuclear age, defined by transformative events and the emergence of a global power dynamic centered around nuclear capabilities. The 1940s witness the unprecedented development of nuclear weapons during World War II, a culmination that underscores their destructive potential through the devastating bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
1950s	Cold War and Arms Race	The 1950s usher in the Cold War, an ideological and political standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union. This era is characterized by an arms race, wherein both superpowers engage in vigorous testing and enhancement of nuclear weaponry. Mushroom clouds from nuclear tests symbolize the intensifying global competition and the dominance of nuclear weapons in shaping geopolitics.
1960s	Tensions and the Cuban Missile Crisis	During the 1960s, the world confronts heightened tensions among nuclear-armed nations, leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962—a seminal episode between the United States and the Soviet Union. This period illustrates the perils of the arms race and potential devastation, spurring global endeavors to mitigate the risk of nuclear warfare.
1970s	Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Arms Control	The 1970s witness pivotal negotiations between superpowers, resulting in significant nuclear arms control agreements. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) enters into force in 1970 as a vital instrument to curb nuclear weapons proliferation. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) encompass SALT I (1972) and the unratified SALT II, aiming to restrict strategic nuclear weapons development. Additionally, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972 aims to prevent the establishment of defensive systems that could undermine deterrence. This period exemplifies a delicate equilibrium among nuclear-armed states, accompanied by concentrated diplomatic endeavors to stave off nuclear conflict.
1980s	Heightened proliferation concerns and technological strides	The 1980s are marked by heightened apprehensions about nuclear proliferation, intensifying arms races^[1], and popular anti-nuclear movements.^[2] Technological strides in nuclear capabilities by diverse nations and pivotal negotiations, such as the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, aim at reducing nuclear armaments.
1990s	Post-Cold War transformations	The 1990s witnesses a transformative event—the conclusion of the Cold War—which prompts substantial reductions in nuclear arsenals. Consequently, attention shifts towards the emergence of "rogue states" and non-state actors as potential nuclear threats, necessitating a recalibration of international efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation.^[3] This period witnesses a pivotal transition from superpower rivalries to more nuanced concerns surrounding unconventional sources of nuclear risk. During this time, notable developments include India and Pakistan conducting nuclear tests in 1998, officially declaring themselves as nuclear-armed states.
2000s	Challenges and counter-proliferation efforts	The period spanning the 2000s is characterized by unique challenges and persistent global efforts in the realm of nuclear risk. Throughout this decade, heightened concerns arise with the nuclear capabilities of North Korea and Iran, adding complexity to the global nuclear landscape. Concerted endeavors persist to curtail nuclear proliferation, encompassing disarmament agreements and initiatives aimed at preventing the unauthorized acquisition of nuclear materials by terrorists.
2010s-present	Ongoing tensions and emerging technologies	The later years witness a strategic refocus on global powers, with particular attention to Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea.^[4] Amidst diverse challenges, a notable event is the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011, triggering humanitarian responses. The latter half of the 2010s sees a significant increase in interest in various emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and quantum technologies, and their relationship to nuclear risk and crisis stability.^[5] More recently, the Russian invasion of Ukraine further increases the global concern about nuclear risk.

Key events summary section

Top historic events in nuclear risk

Time period	Development summary
1945	The United States drops the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending World War II.
1949	The Soviet atomic bomb project conducts its first successful nuclear test. This event marks the beginning of the Cold War arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union.
1962	The Cuban Missile Crisis unfolds, escalating the risk of nuclear conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.
1968	The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is signed as an international treaty aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
1986	The Chernobyl Disaster occurs as the worst nuclear accident in history so far.
1991	The end of the Cold War marks a significant reduction in global nuclear tensions.
1995	The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons is extended.
1998	India and Pakistan nuclear tests escalate tensions in South Asia and have significant implications for regional and global security.
2006	North Korea's nuclear test heightens global concerns about nuclear proliferation and regional stability.
2015	The Iran Nuclear Deal. Iran agrees to limit its nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief, easing international tensions.
2022	Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine becomes a concern after numerous statements by prominent Russian politicians, which are widely perceived as indicating a potential threat of nuclear weapon deployment.

First nuclear tests by country

Time period	Development summary	Test article on Wikipedia	Domestic nuclear weapons article on Wikipedia
1945	First nuclear test by the United States, the first country possessing nuclear weapons.	Trinity	Nuclear weapons of the United States
1949	First nuclear test by the Soviet Union, the second country possessing nuclear weapons.	RDS-1	Russia and weapons of mass destruction
1952	First nuclear test by the United Kingdom, the third country possessing nuclear weapons.	Operation Hurricane	Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom
1960	First nuclear test by France, the fourth country possessing nuclear weapons.	Gerboise Bleue	France and weapons of mass destruction
1964	First nuclear test by China, the fifth country possessing nuclear weapons.	Project 596	China and weapons of mass destruction
1966	Israel is widely thought to be the sixth nuclear weapon state, already possessing "rudimentary, but deliverable" devices in its arsenal.	–	Nuclear weapons and Israel
1974	First nuclear test by India.	Smiling Buddha	India and weapons of mass destruction
1998	First nuclear test by Pakistan.	Chagai-I	Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction
2006	First nuclear test by North Korea.	2006 North Korean nuclear test	North Korea and weapons of mass destruction

Full timeline

Taxonomy

The timeline is composed of 5 columns. In addition to Year and Details columns, we include:

Dynamics: We divide nuclear risk into three main components: the risk case, which involves the factors and scenarios that contribute to the potential dangers; the prevention case, which encompasses the strategies, measures, and initiatives implemented to mitigate and manage nuclear risks; and adverse consequences, which are the actual negative outcomes and impacts that result from nuclear activities, whether intended or unintended.
Risk type: We categorize nuclear risk into three types: Intentional Nuclear Risk, which involves deliberate actions with the intent to use nuclear weapons, such as nuclear attacks or acts of nuclear terrorism; non-intentional, which relates to unintended incidents or accidents involving nuclear activities, leading to the release of radioactive materials; and comprehensive, which encompasses scenarios where both intentional and non-intentional elements are considered.
Event type: A more granular categorization, which allows for sorting into more specific subsets (see sample questions above).

Inclusion criteria

We include:

Major international organizations playing various roles in researching, advocating, and implementing measures to address nuclear risks, promoting disarmament, and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Publications by major entities serving as authoritative sources on nuclear policy, arms control, and legal perspectives, contributing to public awareness and informed discourse on matters of global importance.
Nuclear accidents rated level 5 and above in the International Nuclear Event Scale.

We do not include:

Most national-level agencies.
Nuclear accidents rated level 4 and below in the International Nuclear Event Scale.
Anti-nuclear protests.

Timeline

Year	Dynamics	Risk type	Event type	Details	Involved country
1898	Risk	Comprehensive	Background	Marie and Pierre Curie discover the existence of the elements radium and polonium in their research of pitchblende.^[6] As the understanding of radioactivity deepens, it eventually leads to the development of nuclear technologies, including nuclear weapons and nuclear energy. Marie Curie would eventually die of aplastic anaemia, a blood disease that often results from exposure to large amounts of radiation.^[7]	France
1900	Risk	Intentional	Background	Ernest Rutherford identifies two types of radiation, alpha (α) and beta (β), during the study of ionization of gases by uranium.^[8]	United Kingdom
1939 (April)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	The German nuclear weapons program begins with a secret conference in Berlin, which results in the Ministry of Education initiating a formal uranium research program and banning the export of uranium to other nations. The program launches five months before U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt reads Einstein's letter warning of the potential for nuclear weapons. However, the German atomic weapons program during World War II would not come close to developing a usable weapon. Despite early efforts, various challenges, including scientific miscalculations, bureaucratic inefficiency, doubts among German scientists, and disruptions caused by Allied actions, would hinder its progress. By around 1942, German researchers would become pessimistic about the feasibility of nuclear weapons. The Alsos Mission would be conducted by the Allies towards the end of the war confirming that the German program have not advanced beyond research and development stages. The German uranium would be captured only weeks before Germany's surrender, alleviating any remaining fears of a Nazi atomic bomb.^[9]^[10]	Germany
1939 (September 1)	Risk	Intentional	Background	World War II begins.^[11] This war not only would witness the destructive power of nuclear weapons but also set the stage for the geopolitical and technological dynamics that define the nuclear age, bringing both the risks and challenges associated with nuclear weapons to the forefront of global consciousness.
1939	Risk	Intentional	Organization	American scientists, including refugees from fascist regimes in Europe, initiate steps to organize a project for military use of the fission process.^[12]	United States
1939 (August 2)	Prevention	Intentional	Notable warning	As World War II nears, German-born theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, despite being a pacifist, signs a letter to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, expressing concern that the Nazis might develop nuclear weapons. The letter, not written by Einstein but by Hungarian émigré Leó Szilárd, urges the U.S. to accumulate uranium and initiate atomic weapon research. Szilárd, along with physicists Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, approached Einstein to obtain signature on the letter, marking the beginning of the Manhattan Project and the Atomic Age.^[13]^[14]	United States
1941 (December 6)	Risk	Intentional	Organization	The Manhattan Project is launched as a top-secret research and development project undertaken by the United States to develop the first nuclear weapons. The project would lead to the successful development and testing of the world's first atomic bombs, which would be later dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The Manhattan Project is a pivotal chapter in history, marking the beginning of the nuclear age and influencing global geopolitics.^[12]	United States
1943 (August 19)	Risk	Intentional	Binational cooperation	The Quebec Agreement is signed between the United Kingdom and the United States, with the purpose to expedite the Tube Alloys project during World War II, which aims to research and develop nuclear weapons. The Quebec Agreement is based on the recognition that pooling British and American resources would accelerate progress while avoiding unnecessary duplication of facilities. The agreement includes provisions to prevent the use of Tube Alloys against each other or third parties without consent. It also addresses the division of post-war industrial and commercial advantages and establishes a Combined Policy Committee to oversee collaboration, allocate resources, and ensure information sharing across various aspects of the project.^[15]	United Kingdom, United States
1945 (July 16)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	In the New Mexico desert, American scientists conduct "Trinity," the first nuclear weapons test, marking the beginning of the atomic age.^[16] A plutonium implosion device named "Gadget" is detonated atop a 100-foot tower, releasing 18.6 kilotons of power. The explosion vaporizes the tower and turns the surrounding area into green glass, known as "trinitite." Witnesses from as far as 200 miles away report seeing the flash and feeling the heat.^[17]	United States
1945 (August)	Adverse consequence	Intentional	Nuclear attack on civilians	The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, during World War II, mark the first use of atomic weapons against people. Tens of thousands are killed instantly, with many more succumbing to radiation poisoning. Historical estimates would range from a "low" of around 110,000 total dead (70,000 at Hiroshima and 40,000 at Nagasaki) to a "high" of around 210,000 total dead (140,000 at Hiroshima and 70,000 at Nagasaki).^[18] The long-term health effects of the atomic bombings would lead survivors facing increased risks of leukemia and other cancers. Studies on children born to survivors would also show impacts like small head size and mental disability.^[19] The bombings demonstrate the devastating power of nuclear weapons and the potential for widespread destruction and loss of life. They also highlight the risks of nuclear accidents and the possibility of nuclear war.	Japan (Empire of Japan), United States
1945 (August 18)	Prevention	Intentional	Literature (article)	British mathematician, philosopher, logician, and public intellectual Bertrand Russell publishes The Bomb and Civilization, a work he began writing on the day Nagasaki was bombed. In this piece, Russell reflects on the grave outlook for humanity in the aftermath of the atomic bombings. He presents a stark choice for the human race: either face total annihilation or develop some level of common sense. Russell emphasizes the urgent need for new political thinking to avert complete disaster, highlighting the critical importance of global cooperation and rational decision-making in the face of the unprecedented threat posed by nuclear weapons.^[20]^[21]	United Kingdom
1945 (September)	Prevention	Intentional	Notable publication	The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists is founded by Albert Einstein and former Manhattan Project scientists as a response to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It aims to educate the public about the dangers of nuclear arms and the potential destruction of atomic warfare. The Bulletin would introduce the symbolic Doomsday Clock in 1947 to represent threats to humanity from nuclear weapons, climate change, and disruptive technologies. Over the years, the clock's setting would be adjusted to reflect changing global circumstances. The organization also would contribute to the formation of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs and would continue to inform people about global security issues and nuclear weapons.^[22]	United States
1945 (October 18)	Risk	Comprehensive	Nuclear weapon program	The French Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique; CEA) is establishes by General Charles de Gaulle with the goal of exploiting the scientific, industrial, and military potential of atomic energy.^[23]	France
1946 (March)	Prevention	Intentional	Notable publication	The Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy (generally known as the Acheson–Lilienthal Report) is created during the early Cold War, proposing a plan to prevent a nuclear arms race by advocating the sharing of nuclear energy knowledge and implementing inspections for peaceful use. The report recommends international cooperation with an agency possessing affirmative powers and inspection capabilities. It also suggests a progressive disclosure of nuclear information. The report emphasizes the importance of maintaining U.S. security during international discussions and the gradual transfer of authority over nuclear-related activities. However, American statesman Bernard Baruch, an advisor of U.S. president Roosevelt during World War II^[24], later modifies the plan into what would be known as Baruch Plan.^[25]	United States, Soviet Union
1946 (June)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States government proposes the Baruch Plan to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission.^[26] The plan aims to achieve global cooperation on nuclear control by decommissioning all US atomic weapons and sharing nuclear technology with other countries, on the condition that they pledge not to produce atomic weapons and accept strict inspections and sanctions. The plan also proposes creating an International Atomic Development Authority under the United Nations to control nuclear energy. However, the Soviet Union rejects the plan, fearing it would maintain the US nuclear monopoly, and the Cold War nuclear arms race ensues. The Baruch Plan would remain significant in discussions about international nuclear cooperation and arms control.^[27]	United States
1946	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (national)	The Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) is established as the federal regulator of nuclear power and materials in Canada, replacing the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB). Today, its mandate, under the Nuclear Safety and Control Act of 1997, is to regulate nuclear energy, substances, and equipment to reduce safety, environmental, and national security risks, and to comply with international obligations such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The CNSC reports to the Parliament of Canada through the Minister of Natural Resources.^[28]	Canada
1946	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (nonprofit)	Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd establish the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists (ECAS) with the goal of warning the public about the dangers of nuclear weapons and promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy.^[29] The committee, consisting of eight members, including prominent scientists like Linus Pauling and Hans Bethe, advocates for world peace to prevent the use of nuclear weapons.^[30] ECAS would oppose the development of the hydrogen bomb and would conduct lecture tours and produce materials to support their message.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] Despite initial fundraising success, the committee would be disbanded in 1950, likely due to political and financial issues as well as the burden placed on Einstein.^[35] However, members would continue to campaign against nuclear war, participating in the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.^[36]	United States
1947	Risk	Intentional	Notable warning	The Doomsday Clock is introduced, and set seven minutes to midnight.^[37] It is a symbol that represents the likelihood of a man-made global catastrophe, in the opinion of the members of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.^[38]
1949 (August 29)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	The Soviet Union conducts its first nuclear weapon test using the RDS-1, also known as Izdeliye 501 or First Lightning.^[39] The bomb has a yield of 22 kilotons TNT equivalent and is an implosion-type weapon with a solid plutonium core.^[40] The test's effects are more destructive than anticipated.^[41] Western powers become surprised by the test, as they had underestimated the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities.^[42] The United States, in response, begins tracking nuclear fallout debris to confirm the test. President Harry S. Truman publicly acknowledges the Soviet test on September 23, 1949, marking a pivotal moment in the early stages of the Cold War and leading to increased pressure to develop hydrogen bombs.^[43]	Soviet Union
1950	Prevention	Intentional	Notable warning	Leo Szilard alarms the world with the announcement of a potential doomsday bomb, a massive cobalt-clad H-bomb capable of ending all life on Earth. This revelation, made on American radio, marks the realization of mankind's godlike power to destroy life. The shockwave from Szilard's statement would reverberate throughout the following decades. Although no superpower would admit to creating the cobalt bomb, it would remain a possibility.^[44]	United States
1952 (June 13)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Israel Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC) is established as the primary nuclear regulatory authority of Israel. Concealed from the public until 1954, the IAEC oversees two research centers and advises the government on nuclear policy, representing Israel internationally. Key units include the Department for Nuclear Engineering (promoting reactor and nuclear power infrastructure, including desalination research), the Licensing and Safety Department (formulating safety policies, managing nuclear power stations and waste, and overseeing radiation dangers), and the Unit for Diplomatic Relations. Since 1966, the IAEC Chairman would be the Prime Minister.^[45]^[46]	Israel
1952 (October 3)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	Operation Hurricane is conducted in the Montebello Islands, Western Australia, as the first British nuclear test, driven by the desire to maintain its status as a global power and not rely solely on the United States for atomic capabilities. The decision to develop the bomb is initially kept secret, with only a few officials aware of it. The test takes place off the coast of Australia to avoid mainland contamination. The bomb is detonated on the anchored frigate HMS Plym, resulting in a massive explosion that vaporizes the ship and sends debris into the air. The operation is deemed successful, and no casualties are reported.^[47]	United Kingdom, Australia
1953 (December 8)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Atoms for Peace speech is delivered by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to the United Nations General Assembly. In the speech, Eisenhower discusses the language of atomic warfare and proposes an international program called "Atoms for Peace." The program aims to share nuclear technology, equipment, and information for peaceful purposes like research, medicine, and energy production. It seeks to assure the world that the United States intends to use nuclear energy for constructive purposes and not for war.^[48]^[49] However, the program would also face criticism for being a propaganda component of the Cold War strategy of containment and for contributing to the nuclear arms race.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]
1954 (March 1)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	The United States tests its largest thermonuclear weapon test in Bikini Atoll; the detonation being code-named “Castle Bravo”.^[54]	United States
1954 (December 26)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	The French cabinet discusses proceeding with a French atomic bomb, leading Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France to launch a secret program for atomic bomb development.^[23]	France
1955 (January 15)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	The Chinese nuclear weapons program is officially initiated. The Soviet Union agrees to provide significant assistance.^[55]^[56]	China
1955	Prevention	Intentional (terrorist)	Organization (national)	The UK Atomic Energy Authority Constabulary is established as the armed security police force of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority with the purpose to counter potential terrorist threats. It would operate until 1 April 2005.^[57]^[58]	United Kingdom
1955	Prevention	Intentional	Notable warning	A group of prominent scientists, including Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein, write what would come to be known as the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, according to which: “No one knows how widely such lethal radioactive particles might be diffused, but the best authorities are unanimous in saying that a war with H-bombs might possibly put an end to the human race… sudden only for a minority, but for the majority a slow torture of disease and disintegration.”^[59]
1955	Prevention	Intentional	Anti-nuclear movement	The Mainau Declaration emerges from a meeting of Nobel laureates in response to the growing nuclear threat. Inspired by Albert Schweitzer and Werner Heisenberg, the laureates from various countries and backgrounds urge political leaders in both East and West to reject the use of force as a means of politics. They specifically warn against the catastrophic consequences of atomic weapons, highlighting the potential for global devastation and the peril of even small conflicts escalating. The declaration emphasizes that nations must renounce force as a last resort, or they risk their own existence. Initially signed by eighteen laureates, the declaration calls for a commitment to peace amid the nuclear age.^[60]	Germany
1956	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Brazilian National Commission for Nuclear Energy (CNEN) is established to oversee all nuclear activities in Brazil. Undergoing reorganization with its responsibilities defined by new laws and amendments, CNEN would subsequently evolve into the regulatory authority responsible for regulating, licensing, and monitoring nuclear energy, while nuclear electricity generation would be transferred to the electricity sector.^[61]	Brazil
1957	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs commence, initiated by Bertrand Russell and Joseph Rotblat. These international gatherings, addressing nuclear weapons and global security, begin at the estate of philanthropist Cyrus Eaton in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. The conferences, spanning various countries, would facilitate discussions on arms reduction during the Cold War, providing a crucial channel of communication between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Pugwash would also explore scientists' societal responsibilities regarding economic development, population growth, and environmental concerns.^[62]^[63] In 1995, Pugwash and Rotblat would jointly receive the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts in reducing the role of nuclear arms in international politics.^[64]^[65]
1957 (July 29)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is established as an autonomous intergovernmental organization, following US President Dwight D. Eisenhower's proposal for an international body to oversee nuclear resources. The IAEA aims to promote peaceful uses of atomic energy, ensure its assistance isn't militarized, and prevent nuclear weapon proliferation. It provides technical aid, conducts research, and facilitates conferences. Under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, non-nuclear states must negotiate safeguards with the IAEA, granting the agency authority to monitor and inspect nuclear programs and facilities. The organization's governance involves a General Conference, Board of Governors, and a Secretariat, all headquartered in Vienna. In 2005, the IAEA and its director general, Mohamed ElBaradei, would receive the Nobel Peace Prize.^[66]^[67]^[68]	178 member states
1957 (September 29)	Risk	Non-intentional	Nuclear accident	The Kyshtym disaster occurs when buried nuclear waste explodes at a plutonium-processing plant near Kyshtym, Chelyabinsk oblast, Russia (then in the U.S.S.R.). The Soviet government initially denies the event, which contaminates about 9,000 square miles of land, leading to over 10,000 evacuations, and likely causing hundreds of deaths due to radioactivity. It would be classified as a Level 6 accident on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale. The disaster results from a malfunctioning cooling system in a waste tank, leading to a nonnuclear explosion equivalent to 70 tons of TNT. Fallout contains cesium-137 and strontium-90, impacting hundreds of thousands of people. It would remain largely unknown until 1976.^[69]	Russia
1957 (October 10)	Risk	Non-intentional	Nuclear accident	The Windscale fire occurrs at the Windscale nuclear reactor facility in Cumbria, England, making it UK's most severe nuclear accident. During a routine heating procedure in the No. 1 reactor, the graphite control blocks overheated, causing nearby uranium cartridges to rupture. This leads to a fire burning for 16 hours, releasing radioactive materials. Approximately 10 tons of radioactive fuel melts in the reactor core, and significant amounts of radioactive iodine are released into the atmosphere. The incident prompts a ban on milk sales in a 500-square-km area around the reactor site. The contaminated reactor is sealed until the late 1980s when cleanup efforts begin, expected to conclude in 2015.^[70]	United Kingdom
1957 (November)	Prevention	Intentional	Anti-nuclear movement	The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) is launched in Britain as a program dedicated to advocating for nuclear disarmament. CND would become a prominent movement and play a crucial role in raising awareness about the dangers of nuclear weapons and pushing for global nuclear disarmament efforts. The campaign's focus is on promoting peace and eliminating the threat posed by nuclear arms, aiming to create a world free from the devastating impact of nuclear weapons.^[71]^[72]	United Kingdom
1958 (May 17)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (international)	The Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM) is founded, with its first meeting held in 1959, jointly sponsored by INMM and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Originally formed due to discussions on the need for an independent organization providing expertise in nuclear materials management, INMM would grow to serve as a global resource for scientific, technical, and policy expertise in nuclear materials management, with over 1,200 members, 16 Professional Chapters (10 international), and 24 Student Chapters (10 international). INMM's activities include workshops, an Annual Meeting, the Journal of Nuclear Materials Management, collaboration agreements, support for national standards, and educational programs. INMM collaborates with global entities like the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the European Safeguards Research and Development Association (ESARDA).^[73]^[74]	United States
1958 (October 17)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	Ireland proposes the first resolution at the United Nations to prohibit the “further dissemination of nuclear weapons.”^[67]	Ireland
1960 (February 13)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	France conducts its first nuclear test explosion, becoming the world’s fourth nuclear state, after the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom.^[67]^[23]	France, Algeria
1960 (June 1)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Diplomacy	During its Forty-fourth Session, the General Conference of the International Labour Organization convenes in Geneva and adopts the Radiation Protection Convention. This convention applies to all activities involving worker exposure to ionising radiations and outlines measures to protect workers' health and safety. It sets maximum permissible doses and amounts for radiation exposure, prohibits the employment of workers under 16 in radiation work, and mandates medical examinations for workers involved in radiation work. Member countries ratifying the convention are obligated to provide appropriate inspection services to supervise its application. The convention becomes binding upon registration of ratifications and allows for periodic revision.^[75]
1960 (October 5)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	The world goes at the brink of nuclear war when a radar alert from Thule, Greenland is sent to the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), announcing the detection of dozens of Soviet missiles launched for the United States.^[76] NORAD headquarter in Colorado goes into a panic, but the latter is put to rest when it is realized that Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev is visiting New York at the time. It would be later determined that the radar had mistaken the moon rising over Norway as Soviet missiles.^[77]	Greenland, United States
1960	Prevention	Intentional	Concept development	American nuclear physicist Herman Kahn develops the concept "doomsday machine" in his book On Thermonuclear War. It refers to a hypothetical device designed to automatically trigger the nuclear destruction of an aggressor country or global extinction in response to a nuclear attack. Kahn's idea involves either launching intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or detonating large thermonuclear bombs with long-lasting radioactive fallout. Although the U.S. would never build such a machine, the idea would influence the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). In 1993, claims would surface about a Soviet doomsday device called the Dead Hand, designed to launch missiles in response to a detected nuclear attack.^[78]^[79]	United States
1961 (November 20)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	The United States faces a potential nuclear crisis when contact with the Thule Air Base's Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) radar is lost, triggering alarm at Strategic Air Command (SAC) headquarters. The loss of communication with key sites prompts SAC to prepare for a decapitation strike against a perceived Soviet attack. However, the crisis is averted when the "Thule monitor," a B-52 flying over Thule, reestablishes contact, proving it was a false alarm. An further investigation reveals that AT&T's skimping on promised redundant circuits causes the failure, emphasizing the critical role of reliable communication systems in preventing catastrophic misunderstandings.^[80]^[81]	United States
1961 (December 4)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	The United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopts Resolution 1665, which is built upon an earlier draft resolution from Ireland. The resolution urges for negotiations to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons to additional states. Its key provisions require countries already possessing nuclear weapons to commit to retaining control over them and refraining from sharing information for their production with non-nuclear states. Simultaneously, countries without nuclear weapons agree not to acquire or develop such weapons. These fundamental principles lay the groundwork for the creation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), a landmark international agreement aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting disarmament.^[67]^[82]	United Nations General Assembly members
1961 (December 20)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The McCloy–Zorin Accords are agreed upon by the United States and the USSR, as a basis for future multilateral negotiations on disarmament. The goal is to achieve general and complete disarmament, with war no longer being an instrument for settling international problems. The program proposes a phased approach to disarmament, including the disbanding of armed forces, elimination of weapons stockpiles, and cessation of military expenditures. Strict and effective international control would ensure all parties' compliance, and measures to strengthen institutions for maintaining peace were to accompany disarmament. The goal is to achieve the widest possible agreement on the total disarmament program at the earliest possible date.^[83]	Soviet Union, United States
1962	Prevention	Intentional	Concept development	The concept of Mutual assured destruction (MAD) emerges as a strategic doctrine. MAD is based on the belief that if two nuclear-armed adversaries possess enough weapons to guarantee mutual destruction in the event of a nuclear war, it would deter both sides from initiating such an attack. The idea is that the fear of catastrophic retaliation would prevent any rational actor from launching a nuclear strike. This concept would play a significant role in shaping nuclear policies and arms control efforts during the tense period of the Cold War.^[84]
1962 (October)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	The Cuban Missile Crisis marks a critical moment in the Cold War when the United States and the Soviet Union come perilously close to nuclear conflict. Following the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion and Soviet-Cuban secret agreements, the U.S. discovers evidence of Soviet nuclear missile installations in Cuba. President Kennedy orders a naval "quarantine" of Cuba and communicates directly with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, emphasizing that any nuclear attack from Cuba would be considered an attack by the USSR. As tensions escalate, Khrushchev offers to remove the missiles in exchange for a pledge not to invade Cuba. Despite some setbacks and miscommunications, the crisis ends peacefully, leading to improved U.S.-Soviet communication and progress towards a nuclear Test Ban Treaty.^[85]	Cuba, United States, Soviet Union
1962 (October 27)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	During the Cuban Missile Crisis, after a Soviet submarine B-59 loses contact with Moscow for days, the captain orders the use of a nuclear torpedo when a US ship begins dropping practice depth charges to make the submarine surface, with the Russian captain mistaking them for real depth charges, and concluding that war has begun. Aboard commander Vasili Arkhipov countermands the order to fire, thus preventing the nuclear strike and potentially an all-out nuclear war.^[86]^[87] During the crisis, United States President John F. Kennedy would estimate the probability of escalation to nuclear conflict as between 33% and 50%.^[88]^[89]	Cuba, United States, Russia (Soviet Union)
1963–1964	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	Israel clandestinely procures 80-100 tons of Argentine uranium oxide ("yellowcake") for its nuclear weapons initiative.^[90]	Israel, Argentina
1963 (March 21)	Prevention	Intentional	Notable comment	United States President John F. Kennedy highlights the looming threat of a world where numerous nations, possibly 15 to 25, could possess nuclear weapons by the 1970s. This concern arise following a confidential Department of Defense memo that projects Canada, China, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and West Germany as potential nuclear-capable countries within a decade. Kennedy's warning underscores the severe danger and potential hazards associated with nuclear proliferation, emphasizing the urgent need to address the proliferation issue and prevent the widespread access to nuclear weapons.^[67]
1963 (August 5)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) is signed in Moscow by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States before it is opened for signature by other countries.^[91]^[92] The treaty aims to curb the proliferation of nuclear weapons by prohibiting atmospheric, outer space, and underwater nuclear test detonations, except for those conducted underground.^[93] Its inception is driven by rising public concerns over the environmental and health impacts of nuclear tests, particularly those involving hydrogen bombs. The PTBT lays the foundation for arms control efforts and paves the way for subsequent agreements, including the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in 1968.^[94]	Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States
1964 (October 16)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	Project 596 marks China's inaugural nuclear weapons test. It is conducted at the Lop Nur test site. Utilizing a uranium-235 implosion fission device constructed from enriched weapons-grade uranium, it yields 22 kilotons. This event establishes China as the fifth nuclear power globally and the first in Asia, further launching a series of 45 successful nuclear tests at Lop Nur between 1964 and 1996. China's nuclear program began in response to Cold War conflicts with the United States, reflecting Mao Zedong's belief that nuclear capabilities would bolster national security. Despite initial Soviet support, the Soviet Union withdrew aid in 1959, prompting China's self-reliance in nuclear development.^[95]^[96]^[67]	China
1965 (August 17)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States submits to the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee its first draft proposal to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union submits its first draft a month later.^[67]	United States, Soviet Union
1966	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapons program	Israel, widely presumed to be the world's sixth nuclear power, is believed by this time to possess operational nuclear weapons, described as "rudimentary but deliverable." Despite international suspicions, Israel would never officially acknowledge its nuclear capabilities, maintaining a policy of ambiguity regarding its nuclear forces.^[97]^[98]^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102]^[103]	Israel
1967 (January 27)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Outer Space Treaty is ratified by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Rooted in the 1962 Declaration of Legal Principles for Outer Space, it outlines fundamental principles of international space law, including that space activities must benefit all nations, space is open to exploration by all states, space cannot be claimed as national territory, weapons of mass destruction are prohibited in space, celestial bodies like the Moon must be used for peaceful purposes, astronauts represent all of humanity, states are responsible for their space activities, they are liable for space object damage, and they must prevent space and celestial body contamination. It would become effective in October 1967.^[104]	Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States
1967 (February 14)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Treaty of Tlatelolco is opened for signature, establishing Latin America and the Caribbean as a nuclear-weapon-free zone. It is the first of five such regional zones to be negotiated. The other zones cover Africa, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and Central Asia.^[67]	Latin America and the Caribbean
1967 (May 23)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	A powerful solar storm triggers a potential nuclear war scare during the Cold War. The U.S. Air Force, suspecting Soviet jamming of American surveillance radars, prepares for war. However, timely intervention by military space-weather forecasters reveal a solar eruption as the cause. The investment in early solar observations and forecasting prove crucial. Solar forecasters at NORAD determine that a solar flare, not Soviet actions, disrupted radar sites, preventing the launch of nuclear-armed aircraft. The subsequent solar event causes a geomagnetic storm, disrupting American radio communications for nearly a week. This incident highlights the importance of preparedness in the face of solar threats.^[105] ^[106]	United States
1967	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	Israel secretly acquires the capability to build a nuclear explosive device.^[67]	Israel
1967	Prevention	Intentional	Notable warning	Hungarian-British essayist Arthur Koestler writes: [B]efore the thermonuclear bomb, man had to live with the idea of his death as an individual; from now onward, mankind has to live with the idea of its death as a species. The bomb has given us the power to commit genosuicide; and within a few years we should even have the power to turn our planet into a nova, an exploding star. Every age has had its Cassandras [and] mankind has managed to survive regardless of their sinister prophecies. But this comforting argument is no longer valid, as no past age, however convulsed by war and pestilence, has possessed our newly acquired power over life on the planet as a whole.^[107]	United Kingdom
1967 (August 24)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States and Soviet Union separately introduce identical draft treaties to the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee on preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.^[67]	United States, Soviet Union
1968 (June 12)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	The UN General Assembly approves Resolution 2373, endorsing the preliminary text of the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). The resolution passes with a majority vote of 95 in favor, while 4 countries—Albania, Cuba, Tanzania, and Zambia—vote against it. Additionally, 21 countries chose to abstain from the vote. The NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and promote disarmament efforts among nations. This endorsement marks a significant step towards establishing a framework for nuclear nonproliferation and cooperation.^[67]
1968 (June 19)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United Nations Security Council Resolution 255 is adopted, addressing measures to protect non-nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). The resolution aims to safeguard these non-nuclear-armed nations by providing security assurances against the threat or use of nuclear weapons. It was adopted with a vote of 10 in favor, 0 against, and 5 abstentions during the 1433rd meeting. The resolution reflects the international community's commitment to promoting disarmament and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons among states.^[108]
1968 (July 1)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Diplomacy	The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is signed. It is an international agreement aiming to curb the spread of nuclear weapons and technology, encourage peaceful nuclear energy cooperation, and promote disarmament. Negotiated between 1965 and 1968, it would enter into force on March 5, 1970, with 190 parties. The treaty recognizes five nuclear-weapon states (United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, China), and seeks to prevent non-nuclear-weapon states from acquiring nuclear weapons, while obliging nuclear-weapon states to work towards disarmament. Despite criticisms, the NPT remains a significant tool in global efforts to control nuclear proliferation and promote peaceful nuclear cooperation.^[109]^[67]^[110]
1968	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	Operation Plumbat: Israel intelligence agency orchestrates a bold operation using front companies to purchase uranium oxide, or yellowcake, in Antwerp. The yellowcake is concealed in drums labeled "plumbat" and loaded onto a freighter named Scheersberg A, leased by a fictitious Liberian company. The Israelis, with the help of German officials, disguise the transaction as a deal between German and Italian firms. When the ship docks in Rotterdam, the entire crew is dismissed under the guise of a sale, and an Israeli crew takes over. Under Israeli naval guard, the cargo is transferred to another vessel in the Mediterranean, effectively disappearing an entire freighter of uranium ore.^[111]	Israel
1969 (November)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomatic conference	The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) begins as bilateral conferences between the United States and the Soviet Union. SALT I, initiated in Helsinki, leads to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement. SALT II, launched in 1972, aims to reduce strategic nuclear weapons. Although an agreement would be reached in 1979, the US Senate wouldn't ratify it due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The talks would lay groundwork for the START treaties, particularly START I in 1991 and START II in 1993, focusing on arms reduction. SALT I and SALT II would pave the way for arms control efforts during the Cold War.^[112]
1971 (February 11)	Prevention	Itentional	International resolution	The Seabed Arms Control Treaty is signed, with the purpose to ban stationing of weapons of mass destruction on the ocean floor. It would enter into force on May 18, 1972.^[113]
1971	Prevention	Itentional	Organization (international)	The Zangger Committee is founded, consisting in major nuclear suppliers aiming to clarify the implementation of Article III.23 of the NPT. In 1974, they would release a "Trigger List" that identifies items requiring safeguards and guidelines for their export to non-nuclear-weapon States (NNWS) not part of the NPT. These guidelines include three conditions: assurance of non-explosive use, adherence to IAEA Safeguards, and re-transfer provisions, requiring recipient states to apply the same conditions during re-export. These Trigger List and Guidelines are documented as IAEA document INFCIRC/209, subject to periodic amendments.^[114]
1972 (May 26)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty is signed^[115] as an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons. It is intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain deterrence.^[116]	United States, Soviet Union
1974 (May 18)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	Using a reactor provided by Canada for “peaceful” purposes^[117], India becomes the first non-nuclear-weapon state to conduct a nuclear test, called Operation Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran-I). A non–NPT member, New Delhi insists the test is a “peaceful” nuclear explosion to mollify international criticism.^[67] Nuclear materials were supplied by the United States, and the Canadian reactor was used to produce plutonium for the nuclear explosive. This case can be seen as an example of how early civilian nuclear assistance could lead to the foundation of nuclear weapon programs.^[117] This test prompts accelerated efforts in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program.^[118]	India
1974	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	In response to India's nuclear test, Pakistani nuclear reactor physicist Munir Ahmad Khan initiates Pakistan's uranium program (Project-706), a pivotal initiative in Pakistan's nuclear program. Khan, a metallurgist with expertise in gas centrifuges, plays a crucial role, leading the Engineering Research Laboratories in Kahuta, later known as Khan Research Laboratories (KRL). Operating autonomously from the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Project-706 focuses on uranium enrichment, specifically through highly enriched uranium (HEU). Despite political transitions, including General Zia ul-Haq's military takeover in 1979, and international scrutiny, the project would persist. A.Q. Khan's contributions, including technology proliferation, become instrumental in Pakistan's successful development of nuclear weapons.^[119]	Pakistan
1974 (July 3)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) is initiated between the United States and the Soviet Union. This treaty sets a limit by prohibiting nuclear tests exceeding 150 kilotons. It specifically restricts the testing of nuclear weapons beyond the fractional-megaton range. Both the United States and the Soviet Union agree to verification measures involving hydrodynamic yield measurements, seismic monitoring, and on-site inspections. TTBT would enter into force on 11 December 1990, marking an important milestone in nuclear arms control efforts between these two major powers.^[120]^[121]	Soviet Union, United States
1974	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (international)	The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is formed.^[122] It is an international organization consisting of nuclear supplier countries formed in response to India's 1974 nuclear tests, which highlights the risk of nuclear proliferation. It initially has seven member countries but would grow to include 48 participating governments. NSG aims to control the export of materials and technology related to nuclear weapons development through a set of guidelines. These guidelines are divided into Part 1 and Part 2, covering nuclear-use items and nuclear-related dual-use items. India's attempts to join the NSG would be thwarted due to its non-signatory status to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and opposition from countries like China.^[123]	48 participating governments
1974 (August 1)	Prevention	Intentional	Risk spike	As a result of the Watergate scandal, United States President Richard Nixon becomes clinically depressed, emotionally unstable, and drinking heavily. As a mode of precaution U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger instruct the Joint Chiefs of Staff to route “any emergency order coming from the president”—such as a nuclear launch order— through him first.” ^[124]	United States
1974 (September 3)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Notable publication	The International Atomic Energy Agency publishes the “trigger list” developed by the Zangger Committee, identifying nuclear items that require IAEA safeguards as a condition of export.^[67]
1975 (January 19)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is formed as an independent U.S. government agency, through the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974. It is responsible for safeguarding public health and safety in matters related to nuclear energy. The NRC oversees reactor safety, security, and licensing, manages radioactive materials, and handles the storage, security, recycling, and disposal of spent nuclear fuel. After the dissolution of the Atomic Energy Commission, the NRC was formed to provide impartial oversight of nuclear energy, medicine, and safety. The NRC's mission encompasses regulating commercial reactors, nuclear materials use, and nuclear waste management. It is led by appointed commissioners, including Chairman Christopher T. Hanson.^[125]	United States
1975 (May 30)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The 91 states-parties to the NPT hold the treaty’s first review conference.^[67]
1975	Risk	Intentional (state program)	Binational cooperation	Taiwan receives nuclear assistance from France.^[126]^[117] In the same year, the CIA reports, “Taipei conducts its small nuclear program with a weapon option clearly in mind, and it will be in a position to fabricate a nuclear device after five years or so.”^[127]	Taiwan
1976	Risk	Intentional (state program)	Binational cooperation	Iraq signs an agreement for nuclear cooperation with France, which provides Osiris-class nuclear reactor.^[117] Intended for peaceful scientific research^[128], in 1981 it would be destroyed by the Israelis, who believe it was designed to make nuclear weapons.	Iraq
1976	Prevention	Intentional	Notable warning	Iosif Shklovsky argues that global self-destruction is the result of capitalist ideology, which doesn't take into account a potential ‘communist transformation of society’ which would ‘remove the very possibility of such crisis situations’.^[129]	Russia (Soviet Union)
1977	Prevention	Comprehensive	Diplomacy	The Jimmy Carter administration launches the International Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE), a program spanning two years, aimed to assess the nuclear fuel cycle globally. The primary objective is to minimize the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation while preserving the peaceful applications of nuclear power. INFCE focuses on technical analytical studies without engaging in formal international agreements. The effort seeks to address issues associated with existing export guidelines, particularly those of the 'London Club,' aiming to enhance inclusivity and ensure a more reliable supply of nuclear materials.^[130]^[131]	United States
1978 (January 11)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Notable publication	Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) member states provide the International Atomic Energy Agency with the first NSG Guidelines, a common set of guidelines they would follow in making nuclear exports. They are published as an Information Circular to apply to nuclear transfers to non-nuclear weapons states for peaceful purposes to help ensure that such transfers would not be diverted to unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activities.^[132]^[67]	NSG
1978	Prevention	Comprehensive	Policy (national)	The United States Congress passes the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act to put further restrictions on US nuclear exports.^[130]	United States
1978	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (nonprofit)	The Nuclear Information and Resource Service (NIRS) is founded. It is an anti-nuclear-energy advocacy group based in Takoma Park, Maryland. A 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization, NIRS would be part of a coalition opposing nuclear power in a letter to Congress seeking "100 percent decarbonization" while denouncing nuclear energy as "dirty." It would also express opposition to the "American Nuclear Infrastructure Act of 2020," considering nuclear power a false solution to climate change. In 2021, NIRS would label nuclear energy as "dirty" and call for a renewable electricity standard, excluding nuclear and promoting weather-dependent power sources.^[133]^[134]	United States
1979 (March 18)	Adverse consequence	Non-intentional	Nuclear accident	The Three Mile Island accident occurs at the TMI-2 reactor in Pennsylvania, releasing radioactive gases and iodine into the environment. It is the worst incident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history, rated Level 5 on the International Nuclear Event Scale. Mechanical failures and operator misjudgments, compounded by design flaws, lead to a loss-of-coolant accident. The event heightens anti-nuclear concerns, prompting new industry regulations and hindering reactor development. Epidemiological studies on cancer rates yield conflicting results. Cleanup, costing about $1 billion, would conclude in 1993.^[135] TMI-1, restarted in 1985, would be retired in 2019, with decommissioning expected by 2079 at a $1.2 billion estimate.^[136]
1979 (September 22)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test (suspicion)	The Vela incident occurs when an unexplained double flash of light is detected by an American Vela Hotel satellite, near the South African territory of Prince Edward Islands in the Indian Ocean. While the exact cause of the flash remains officially unknown, many independent researchers would believe it is an undeclared joint nuclear test conducted by South Africa and Israel. Despite some speculation about natural causes, the consensus would lean towards a clandestine nuclear test, with Israel and South Africa as possible culprits. The incident would remain shrouded in mystery and controversy to this time, with ongoing debates and investigations.^[137]	South Africa, Israel, United States
1979 (October 26)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Diplomacy	The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM) is adopted in Vienna, under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This legal instrument establishes obligations for Parties regarding the physical protection of nuclear material during international transport and criminalizes offenses related to nuclear material. Effective from February 8, 1987, an amendment would be adopted in 2005, significantly strengthening the original treaty by extending its scope to cover the protection of nuclear facilities and material in domestic use, storage, and transport. These milestones represent vital developments in the global legal framework for nuclear security.^[138]
1979 (November 9)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	A frightening incident occurs at around 11:00 a.m., where computer screens at the Pentagon and North American Aerospace Defense Command indicate that the United States is under attack. The source of panic is believed to be Soviet missiles launched from submarines and land. Fighter planes are immediately deployed to investigate, and air raid sirens blar across Strategic Air Command bases. Air traffic controllers are alerted that commercial flights might need to be grounded. Fortunately, it would be later discovered that a technician had mistakenly inserted a training tape into a computer used for a war game exercise simulating a Soviet attack. The incident highlights the importance of verification during the relatively low-tension period of the Cold War.^[139]^[87]	United States, Soviet Union
1979 (December)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) is established in Atlanta, Georgia, by the U.S. nuclear power industry in response to the Three Mile Island accident and recommendations from the Kemeny Commission Report. INPO has the mission to ensure the highest levels of safety and reliability in nuclear power plant operations. All U.S. organizations operating commercial nuclear power plants become INPO members. INPO also collaborates with international nuclear operating organizations and participates in the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO). The National Academy for Nuclear Training, operating under INPO, focuses on quality training and professionalism, integrating efforts from various nuclear utilities and accrediting boards.^[140]	United States
1979	Prevention	Intentional	Notable publication	The United States Congress' Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) publishes The Effects of Nuclear War,^[141] a study examining the full range of effects that nuclear war would have on civilians: direct effects from blast and radiation; and indirect effects from economic, social, and politicai disruption. Particular attention is devoted to the ways in which the impact of a nuclear war would extend over time.^[142]	United States
1979	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	American engineer Cresson Kearny publishes Nuclear War Survival Skills: Lifesaving Nuclear Facts and Self-Help Instructions, which aims to provide a general audience with advice on how to survive conditions likely to be encountered in the event of a nuclear catastrophe, as well as encouraging optimism in the face of such a catastrophe by asserting the survivability of a nuclear war.^[143]	United States
1979	Risk	Comprehensive	Statistics	Peak of the nuclear power sector’s growth in the world. At this time, there are 233 power reactors being simultaneously under construction, a number that would fall to 120 by 1987.^[117]	Worldwide
1980	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (national)	The Committee on International Security and Armament Control (CISAC) is established at the United States National Academy of Sciences, with the purpose to maintain bilateral contacts with an analogous group at the Soviet Academy of Science.^[144]	United States, Russia
1980	Risk	Intentional	Attack on nuclear plant	Iranian planes target Iraq's Osirak research reactor, which is still being built. The attack results in damage to surrounding structures but leaves the reactor unharmed.^[145]	Iraq, Iran
1980	Prevention	Intentional	Research	The earliest appearance of a connection between space exploration and human survival appears in Louis J. Halle, Jr.'s article in Foreign Affairs, in which he states colonization of space will keep humanity safe should global nuclear warfare occur.^[146]	United States
1980	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) is established by the United Nations General Assembly. UNIDIR serves to inform nations and the global community about international security matters and to support disarmament efforts. Operating autonomously within the UN structure, it conducts objective research on disarmament and security challenges, addressing issues such as nuclear weapons, conventional arms, new weapon technologies, and gender perspectives. It fosters dialogue among researchers, diplomats, and NGOs, aiming to bridge the gap between research and policy. UNIDIR's work aims to enhance security, economic development, and social well-being, contributing to global disarmament and peace efforts.^[147]^[148]
1980	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is established by the Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation, commemorating the centenary of Albert Einstein's birth and inspired by the Russell-Einstein Manifesto advocating nuclear disarmament. Swedish sociologist, diplomat and politician Alva Myrdal is first awarded for her outspoken advocacy for nuclear disarmament and her significant contributions to the achievement of key arms control agreements.^[149]^[150]
1980	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Survival expert Bruce Clayton publishes Life After Doomsday^[151], which attempts to provide a comprehensive guide to surviving a nuclear disaster, including detailed instructions on how to build and defend a shelter, store food, treat illnesses and injuries, and cope with the psychological effects of such an event.^[152]	United States
1980 (December)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The non-partisan federation International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) is established by physicians from the U.S. and the former Soviet Union. With members in 64 countries, including doctors, medical students, and health workers, IPPNW's goal is to create a peaceful world free from nuclear threats. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985, IPPNW would remain a global leader advocating for nuclear disarmament. IPPNW contributes to research, education, and policy development to promote global health and security.^[153]
1980	Risk	Comprehensive	Statistics	There are sixty-five nuclear engineering programs in the United States, a number that would be reduced to only thirty-one by 2008. With the Chernobyl disaster in between, nuclear risk and safety concerns are significant factors contributing to the decline in the number of nuclear engineering programs in the country.^[117]^[154]	United States
1981	Risk	Intentional	Attacks on nuclear plant	The Israeli Air Force destroys the unfinished Iraqi Osirak reactor during the Operation Opera.^[155] This attack would be widely viewed to be a stopgap measure, delaying but not preventing Iraqi nuclear aspirations.^[117]	Iraq, Israel
1981	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	American diplomat and historian George F. Kennan is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize "for his continuing efforts to reduce tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and the world in general."^[156]^[157]^[158]	United States
1982	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	South Africa develops and builds its first nuclear explosive device,^[159] with its scientists having been trained by the United States as a result of government-backed programs.^[117]	South Africa
1982	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	American author Jonathan Schell publishes The Fate of the Earth, which would be regarded as a key document in the nuclear disarmament movement.^[160] By the time of this publication, there are almost 60,000 nuclear weapons stockpiled with a destructive force equal to roughly 20,000 megatons (20 billion tons) of TNT, or over 1 million times the power of the Hiroshima bomb.^[161]^[59]	United States
1982	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The Nuclear Age Peace Foundation (NAPF) is established as a non-profit international organization focused on education and advocacy.^[162] NAPF's mission is to promote a just and peaceful world free from nuclear weapons. With consultative status to the UN Economic and Social Council and recognition as a Peace Messenger Organization, NAPF educates and advocates for nuclear disarmament.^[163] Notably, in 2014, NAPF would collaborate with the Marshall Islands to file lawsuits against nine nuclear-armed nations, alleging failure to uphold international obligations for disarmament. This includes a historic case against the U.S., marking the first time a nation is charged domestically for violating a disarmament treaty.^[164]
1982	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	McGeorge Bundy, Robert McNamara, and Gerard C. Smith are jointly awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize for their work in opposing pre-emptive nuclear strikes.^[165]^[166]^[167]	United States
1982–1983	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	India smuggles Chinese heavy water through German nuclear-materials broker Alfred Hempel, who manages to ship 60 tons of heavy water to Bombay.^[168]^[117]	India
1983 (March 23)	Risk	Intentional	Missile defence	A greater challenge to Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) arises when United States President Ronald Reagan declares his intention to establish a missile defense system, known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which envisions using advanced technology, including space-based lasers, to intercept and destroy incoming ballistic missiles. Reagan believes SDI could eliminate the need for nuclear weapons, potentially ending the Cold War. Critics, however, raise concerns about its high cost, potential to undermine deterrence, and violation of the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. The Soviet Union objects, complicating arms negotiations. Ultimately, SDI's impact on the Cold War would be mixed, facing substantial opposition and skepticism.^[169] Concerns would persist until the program, nicknamed "Star Wars," concludes ten years later. During this time, there are apprehensions that the initiative could heighten the risk of nuclear conflict by weakening the concept of nuclear deterrence.^[87]^[144]	United States
1983 (September 26)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident: During the Cold War, the Soviet early-warning radar system, Oko, malfunctions, indicating an incoming U.S. nuclear missile. Stanislov Petrov, an officer familiar with Oko's errors, hesitates to alert superiors and waits for corroborating evidence. No evidence surfaces, and Petrov's inaction likely prevents a nuclear catastrophe. Soon after, NATO's Able Archer 83 exercise, designed to test command procedures, confuses the Soviets. Soviet leader Yuri Andropov prepares for a large-scale retaliation, but a U.S. intelligence officer's decision to wait instead of escalating tensions diffuses the situation, averting a potential nuclear conflict.^[170]	Soviet Union, United States
1983	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	American Cardinal Joseph Bernardin is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize for his significant contributions to the drafting of the United States bishops' pastoral letter calling for new arms agreements.^[171]	United States
1984	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	India buys beryllium from a German company.^[172]^[117] Beryllium is a neutron reflector used in nuclear weapons.^[173] It is a substitute for gold or natural uranium reflectors in early devices, with the purpose of saving much weight and money.^[174]	India, Germany
1984	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	Pakistani Khan Research Laboratories claims the capability to detonate a nuclear bomb using highly enriched uranium.^[175]^[176]	Pakistan
1984	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Carl Sagan and Paul Ehrlich publish The Cold and the Dark, a book discussing long-term biological consequences of nuclear war.^[59]	United States
1984	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Canadian lawyer and politician Pierre Trudeau is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize for his dedication to promoting disarmament and advocating for peace.^[177]^[178]
1984–1987	Risk	Intentional	Attack on nuclear plant	During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq conducts multiple air strikes on Iran's Bushehr power reactors, which are still under construction at the time. These attacks result in significant damage to the reactors.^[145]	Iraq, Iran
1985 (March 2)	Prevention	Intentional	Politics	54-year-old Mikhail Gorbachev is appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. While his full intentions remain unclear, Gorbachev's moderate liberalization measures would result in the dissolution of the Soviet Union.^[161] Historian Yuval Noah Harari would call Gorbachev an historical hero, for probably saving the world from nuclear war.^[179]	Russia (Soviet Union)
1985 (August 6)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Treaty of Rarotonga, also known as the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, is signed on the island of Rarotonga. This treaty establishes a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific, encompassing nations such as Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji, New Zealand, and others. It prohibits the use, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons within the zone's borders. The treaty would come into force on December 11, 1986, with ratification by 13 parties. The treaty's protocols, binding the declared nuclear states, outline agreements regarding manufacturing, stationing, testing, and use of nuclear weapons within the zone and globally.^[180]
1985	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The International Nuclear Safety Group is established as the International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG), later adopting its current title in 2003. It is a panel of experts in nuclear and radiation safety. Convened by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since its establishment in 1985, INSAG's primary objective is to provide the IAEA Director General with authoritative advice and recommendations on nuclear and radiation safety. The group addresses both fundamental safety issues and current/emerging matters relevant to the safety of nuclear facilities and activities, including nuclear security issues related to nuclear and radiation safety.^[181]^[182]
1985	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	German politician and statesman Willy Brandt is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize for his contributions to the promotion of peace, reconciliation, and international understanding.^[183]
1986 (April 26)	Adverse consequence	Non-intentional	Nuclear accident	The Chernobyl disaster occurs at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in the Soviet Union, marking the worst disaster in nuclear power generation history. The catastrophe results from a poorly designed experiment at reactor Unit 4, causing a chain reaction to go out of control. Multiple explosions and a fire release substantial radioactive material into the atmosphere. Evacuations commence on the day after, and a subsequent cover-up is revealed by abnormally high radiation levels reported by Swedish monitoring stations. The disaster leads to global concerns, and the aftermath includes deaths, radiation-related illnesses, contamination of land, and the creation of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. This incident would have a devastating effect on nuclear industries around the world, as a result of decline in demand for nuclear power.^[117]^[184]	Ukraine (Soviet Union)
1986	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Lydia Dotto publishes Planet Earth in Jeopardy: Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War, A distillation of the report by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), written for a lay audience. It explores the climatic and atmospheric changes induced, radiation and fallout, and the putative biological consequences of nuclear war.^[185]
1986	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (nonprofit)	The Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control is established as a non-profit organization focused on halting the proliferation of nuclear weapons, chemical/biological weapons, and long-range missiles. It operates under the University of Wisconsin in Washington, D.C. Led by Emeritus Professor Gary Milhollin and later Valerie Lincy, the Project conducts research, public education, and advocacy. It publishes The Risk Report, a database used to screen business transactions related to sensitive products and technologies. The Project tracks WMD proliferation through websites like Iraq Watch and Iran Watch. It would play a role in revealing proliferation threats, aiding U.S. trade restrictions, and influencing sanctions against organizations linked to nuclear and missile activities.	United States
1986 (October 11–12)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Reykjavík Summit brings together U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in Iceland. While the talks collapse due to differences over the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), progress is made. Gorbachev proposes eliminating all nuclear weapons within a decade if SDI research remains in labs for ten years. Reagan wants SDI testing flexibility. Despite no formal agreement, the summit reveals the extent of concessions each side is willing to make and discusses human rights. The Reykjavík Summit is seen as a breakthrough that paves the way for the 1987 INF Treaty, which would lead to the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear forces.^[186]	Iceland, United States, Soviet Union
1986	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Swedish politician and statesman Olof Palme is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize posthumously for his "wide-ranging efforts on behalf of peace."^[187]
1986	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear proliferation	The global size of the nuclear arsenals peaks at 70,000 warheads.^[188]	Countries with nuclear weapons
1987	Adverse consequence	Non-intentional	Nuclear accident	A nuclear incident occurs in Goiania, Brazil, stemming from the radioactive contamination of an abandoned hospital machine containing Cs-137. Two men find and sell the machine to a local junkyard, where it is dismantled, releasing Cs-137. This radioactive isotope, produced spontaneously from nuclear fission, spreads throughout Goiania. Many residents fall ill, with 249 individuals found to have significant levels of radioactive material in or on their bodies out of 112,000 examined. International experts from the United States and the Soviet Union assist in containing the situation. The incident raises awareness about nuclear dangers and equipment containing radioactive materials in Brazil.^[189]	Brazil
1987 (April 1)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (binational)	The United States and the Soviet Union sign an agreement establishing the Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (NRRC) in Washington and Moscow. This initiative stems from concerns about nuclear tensions, armaments, and delivery systems. Proposed by Senators Sam Nunn and John Warner, the centers start serving as crisis control hubs, exchanging critical information on missile launches, nuclear accidents, and sea incidents. Over the years, their roles would expand, facilitating communications within the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (later OSCE), handling notifications for arms control treaties like New START, managing missile launch notifications, and addressing cybersecurity concerns. The centers' mandate and IT infrastructure would continue to evolve, leading to their renaming as the U.S. National and Nuclear Risk Reduction Center (NNRRC) in 2021.^[190]	United States, Soviet Union
1987 (December 8)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States and the Soviet Union sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty), aimed at eliminating their intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles. The treaty bans nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and missile launchers with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometers (310–620 mi) (short medium-range) and 1,000–5,500 km (620–3,420 mi) (intermediate-range). While contributing to stability and disarmament during the Cold War, eliminating thousands of missiles, the treaty would face challenges. In 2019, the U.S. would withdraw from the treaty, citing Russian non-compliance and concerns about China's growing missile capabilities, leading to the formal termination of the treaty.^[191]
1988	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize for his contributions to the promotion of peace, disarmament, and human rights.^[192]
1990	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Soviet and Russian politician Mikhail Gorbachev is awarded the Albert Einstein Peace Prize for his contributions to promoting peace, disarmament, and international cooperation.^[193]
1990	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	The William and Katherine Estes Award is first announced by the United States National Academy of Sciences "to recognize basic research in any field of cognitive or behavioral science that has employed rigorous formal or empirical methods, optimally a combination of these, to advance our understanding of problems or issues relating to the risk of nuclear war".^[194] American political scientist Robert Axelrod becomes the first recipient "for his imaginative use of game theory, experimentation, and computer simulation to define and test strategies for confrontation and cooperation and other models of social interaction."^[195]	United States
1991 (April 3)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	Resolution 687 of the UN Security Council is approved, demanding Iraq's termination of its concealed nuclear weapons initiative, exposed post its loss in the Gulf War. Iraq had pursued this program against its obligations as an NPT member. With the implementation of Resolution 687, the IAEA obtains enhanced insights into Iraq's covert project and proceeded to disassemble and secure its residual elements.^[67]	Iraq
1991 (July 10)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	South Africa accedes to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Two years later, the South African government admits having covertly built six completed nuclear devices and then dismantled them before joining the accord.^[67]	South Africa
1991 (July 18)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (binational)	The Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC) is established^[196] as a binational safeguards agency. Headquartered in Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires, ABACC plays a crucial role in verifying the peaceful use of nuclear materials that could potentially be used for weapons of mass destruction. It is formed as a result of nuclear cooperation between Argentina and Brazil, with a focus on ensuring the exclusive peaceful use of nuclear materials in the region and globally. ABACC is unique as the world's only binational safeguards organization, working to prevent nuclear weapon proliferation.	Argentina, Brazil
1991 (July 31)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States and the Soviet Union sign the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, a bilateral agreement aimed at reducing and limiting strategic offensive arms. Effective from December 5, 1994, the treaty prohibits the deployment of more than 6,000 nuclear warheads and a total of 1,600 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and bombers. It negotiates the largest arms control treaty to date, ultimately eliminating around 80% of existing strategic nuclear weapons. Proposed by President Ronald Reagan, it would be named START I when negotiations begin on START II. The treaty would expire on December 5, 2009, paving the way for the New START Treaty signed on April 8, 2010, further reducing strategic nuclear arms.^[197]	United States, Soviet Union
1991	Prevention	Intentional	Binational cooperation	The Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program is initiated upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when the risk of "loose nukes" prompts a new wave of government, academic, and popular concern about nuclear terrorism. The program provides funding and expertise to partner governments in the former Soviet Union to secure and eliminate weapons of mass destruction at the source.^[198]^[161]	Ex-Soviet Union, United States
1991	Prevention	Intentional	Program launch	Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR), is devised by U.S. Senators Sam Nunn and Richard Lugar, with the purpose to assist Russia and former Soviet states in dismantling and securing their vast nuclear arsenal. Triggered by a Soviet coup attempt in the same year, the initiative addresses concerns about unstable regimes controlling nuclear weapons. As the Soviet Union dissolves, the Nunn-Lugar Act would allocate approximately $400 million annually to eliminate or secure weapons in newly independent nations. By 1997, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine would have transferred their nuclear arsenals to Russia with U.S. assistance. The legislation would successfully oversee the safe movement of nuclear materials to Russia and improved relations between the U.S. and Russia, despite some congressional criticism over economic support for Russia.^[199]^[117]	United States, Russia, ex-Soviet Union members
1991 (December 12)	Prevention	Intentional	Policy	The Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991 is enacted by the 102nd United States Congress and signed into law by President George H. W. Bush. This legislation aims to address the changing landscape after the Cold War and authorize measures to reduce the Soviet nuclear threat. It allows for the transfer of Soviet military armaments and ordnances to NATO countries in coordination with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE). The Act also facilitates the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program, providing assistance for the transportation, storage, safeguarding, and destruction of nuclear and other weapons in the Soviet Union and its republics.
1991, 1993	Risk	Intentional	Attack on nuclear plant	During the First Gulf War, the United States attack the Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center and other nuclear targets in Iraq.^[145]	Iraq, United States
Early 1990s	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	Many nuclear smugglers are thought to be moving directly from the former Soviet Union to Western Europe by road or rail.^[117]	Ex-Soviet Union, Western Europe
1992 (March 9)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	China accedes to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.^[200] In the same year, the government announces its commitment to adhere to the guidelines and criteria of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) when engaging in the export of missiles and associated technologies.^[201]	China
1992 (May 23)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Lisbon Protocol is signed by representatives of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan that recognize the four states as successors of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and all of them assume obligations of the Soviet Union under the START I treaty. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine sign the Lisbon Protocol committing to join the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as non-nuclear-weapon states. All three had nuclear weapons when they were Soviet republics.^[67]	Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine
1992	Prevention	Intentional	Policy	The United States Congress passes the Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act, prohibiting the transfer of controlled goods or technology that could knowingly and materially contribute to Iran's proliferation of advanced conventional weapons.^[202]	Iran, United States
1992 (August 3)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	France accedes to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, becoming the last of the five recognized nuclear-weapon states to do so.^[67]	France
1992 (September)	Prevention	Intentional	Anti-nuclear movement	The World Uranium Hearing is conducted in Salzburg, Austria, marking a pivotal moment in raising awareness about the consequences of uranium mining and nuclear testing. Participants from 27 countries and 25 indigenous nations share testimonies on the devastating effects of nuclear technology. The event leads to the adoption of the "Declaration of Salzburg," urging to "Leave the uranium in the ground!". Despite positive developments since then, such as the submission of the declaration to the UN Human Rights Council, challenges would persist.^[203]
1992 (October 23)	Prevention	Intentional	Policy	The Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992 is enacted by the 102nd United States Congress. Also known as the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993, this federal law aims to coordinate disarmament efforts with the former Soviet Union. The act facilitates armament retooling, chemical demilitarization, and nonproliferation initiatives. It acknowledges the geopolitical changes of the early 1990s, including the collapse of communism, dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the Gulf War. The act's five subtitles provide authority, funding, and logistical support for various programs, such as transportation and destruction of weapons, establishing safeguards against proliferation, and supporting defense industry demilitarization and civilian conversion.
1992	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is awarded to Joseph Rotblat and Hans Bethe for their “wide-ranging efforts on behalf of peace”.^[204]^[205]
1993 (April 1)	Risk	Intentional	Regulatory compliance violation	The International Atomic Energy Agency declares North Korea in noncompliance with its safeguards obligations and refers Pyongyang to the United Nations Security Council.^[67]	North Korea
1993 (January 3)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	Presidents George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin sign START II (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II), a bilateral agreement between the United States and Russia aimed at limiting and reducing strategic nuclear arms.^[206] This treaty prohibits the use of multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Despite being ratified by the US Senate in 1996 and by Russia in 2000, the treaty would never come into effect due to the US withdrawal from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002. Instead, the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) would take its place in 2002, setting new reduction targets for strategic nuclear warheads.	United States, Russia
1993	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (nonprofit)	The Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) is established as a nonprofit think tank focused on nuclear nonproliferation.^[207] Led by founder David Albright, a former United Nations IAEA nuclear inspector, ISIS specializes in analyzing IAEA findings and technical data related to nuclear proliferation programs.^[208] The organization's main objectives include preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and technology, enhancing transparency of nuclear activities globally, reinforcing non-proliferation regimes, and reducing nuclear arsenals. ISIS would gain recognition for its technical analyses, particularly regarding nuclear programs in North Korea, Iran, Pakistan, and Syria.^[209] The institute would be funded by various organizations and government entities, and its work would be respected in non-proliferation circles and international media.^[210]	United States
1993	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	American economist Thomas Schelling is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for his pioneering work on the logic of military strategy, nuclear war, and arms races, which has profoundly influenced our understanding of this crucial subject."^[195]
1993 (December)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	The UN General Assembly passes resolution 48/75L, advocating for the negotiation of a comprehensive Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT) to ban the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or explosive devices. The Conference on Disarmament would establish a committee in March 1995 to negotiate the treaty, but substantive discussions would have yet to occur. The United States initially opposes including a verification mechanism in the treaty but later shifts its stance. In 2009, President Barack Obama would propose negotiating a verifiable treaty to halt fissile material production. Despite international pressure, Pakistan would block efforts to implement the treaty, citing concerns about its specific targeting.
1994 (January 11)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	Kremlin accords: United States President Bill Clinton and President Boris Yeltsin of Russia sign the Kremlin accords, a set of agreements with a the purpose to put an end to the preprogrammed targeting of nuclear weapons at specific targets in any country (known as United States – Russia mutual detargeting). The treaty also includes provisions for the dismantling of Russia's nuclear arsenal that is stationed in Ukraine.	United States, Russia, Ukraine
1994 (June 17)	Prevention	Non-intentional	International resolution	The Convention on Nuclear Safety (CNS) is adopted in Vienna. In force since 24 October 1996, it aims to ensure a high global standard of nuclear safety. CNS reflects collaborative efforts by states, regulatory authorities, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The obligations of contracting parties, rooted in fundamental safety principles, encompass legislative, regulatory, and technical aspects of nuclear installations. The innovative aspect involves peer reviews where parties submit reports on their safety obligations, fostering a collective commitment to achieving and maintaining robust nuclear safety worldwide.^[211]	65 signatories
1994	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	Former President Jimmy Carter and North Korean leader Kim Il Sung reach an agreement known as the U.S.-North Korea Agreed Framework. As part of this agreement, North Korea makes a commitment to freeze its plutonium-based weapons program.^[212]	North Korea, United States
1994	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (nonprofit)	The Nonproliferation Policy Education Center (NPEC) is established with the purpose to enhance understanding of strategic weapons proliferation. The center plans to challenge prevailing views on the advantages and drawbacks of East Asian nations expanding their use of civilian and military nuclear energy. By convening experts from security, nonproliferation, and energy sectors, the project seeks to evaluate the genuine opportunities and risks linked to extensive government backing of nuclear power, including fuel cycle closure.^[213]^[214]	United States
1994	Prevention	Intentional	Intelligence operation	Covert operation Project Sapphire is conducted as a covert operation involving the United States, Kazakhstan, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to transport 600 kilograms of highly enriched uranium (HEU) from Kazakhstan to the U.S. amid concerns about loose fissile material in the former Soviet states. Implemented under the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program, the project aims to prevent nuclear material from falling into the wrong hands. Successfully moving the HEU from Kazakhstan's Ulba Metallurgical Plant to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the operation would turn into a crucial validation of the CTR program in securing nuclear materials and preventing potential proliferation risks.^[215]	United States
1995 (January 25)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	The Norwegian rocket incident, known as the Black Brant scare, occurs when a Norwegian-U.S. scientific weather rocket launched for aurora borealis study is mistaken by Russian radar operators for a high-altitude nuclear attack. The rocket's trajectory resembles a U.S. Navy Trident missile, triggering Russian nuclear forces' high alert. The "nuclear briefcase" is activated, prompting President Boris Yeltsin to consider a retaliatory nuclear strike. However, Russian observers clarify the situation, averting a catastrophe. The incident, a post-Cold War nuclear tension, exposes suspicions between Russia and NATO. Notification errors heighten the crisis, leading to re-evaluation and redesign of disclosure protocols.^[216]^[217]	Russia
1995 (April 11)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	The United Nations Security Council adopts Resolution 984 at its 3,514th meeting. Titled "Security Council Resolution 984 (1995)," it aims to provide security assurances against the use of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). The resolution marks a historic moment as the permanent members of the Security Council, possessing nuclear weapons, committed to not using them against non-nuclear states unless in the case of an attack. It emphasizes efforts to prevent nuclear war, promote peaceful nuclear cooperation, and recognized the right to self-defense.^[67]^[218]
1995	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	Customs officials catch a man trying to smuggle highly enriched uranium through a land checkpoint in Bulgaria.^[117]	Bulgaria
1995 (November)	Prevention	Intentional	Anti-nuclear movement	The Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons is established by the Australian Government. It advocates for practical steps toward a world without nuclear weapons, addressing the challenges of stability and security during and after this transition. The commission emphasizes the catastrophic consequences of nuclear weapons use and asserts that these arms pose an intolerable threat to humanity. It condemns the current situation where a few states possess nuclear weapons, urging major nuclear powers – the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China – to commit unequivocally to eliminating all nuclear weapons. The commission proposes immediate measures and a verifiable elimination process, emphasizing the need for global political commitment and a binding legal framework to achieve a nuclear-free world.^[219]	Australia
1995 (December 5)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	Ukraine accedes to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.^[67]	Ukraine
1995 (December 15)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	Member states of ASEAN sign the Treaty of Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (SEANWFZ Treaty, also Bangkok Treaty) as a commitment to preserve the Southeast Asian region as a region free of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction.^[220]	ASEAN
1996 (April 12)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Pelindaba, is signed in Cairo, Egypt. This treaty establishes a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Africa, prohibiting the development, testing, possession, and deployment of nuclear weapons within the territory of its parties. The treaty would come into effect on July 15, 2009, after the 28th ratification. It aims to ensure peaceful nuclear activities in Africa, while also establishing mechanisms for compliance verification. The treaty covers the entire African continent and several islands, with the goal of promoting regional security and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.^[221]
1996 (July 8)	Prevention	Intentional	Notable publication	The International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivers its Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. The opinion states that while there is no explicit authorization or comprehensive prohibition of nuclear weapons' threat or use, it concludes that such actions would generally be contrary to international humanitarian law. The opinion notes that legality might vary in extreme circumstances of self-defense, where a state's survival is at stake. The Court emphasizes that nuclear disarmament is an obligation.^[222] The opinion is in response to a request from the United Nations General Assembly, addressing issues related to the legality of nuclear weapons' threat or use under international law.^[223]
1996 (July)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The Wassenaar Arrangement is formally established as a Multilateral export control regime with (MECR) with 41 participating states that promotes transparency of national export control regimes on conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies.^[224]^[225] It is the successor to the Coordinating Committee on Multilateral Export Control (COCOM), which coordinated western restrictions on trade with communist states during the Cold War.^[226] In December 2013, the list of export restricted technologies would be amended to include internet-based surveillance systems.^[227]
1996 (September 24)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty is signed. Since then, it would become one of the most adhered to arms control instruments in the world. The Treaty bans all nuclear explosions in any environment. As of 2017, 183 countries would have signed the CTBT, with 166 of these having set their commitment to that principal in stone through ratification.^[144]^:167 "The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty outlawing nuclear explosions is opened for signature. The treaty has yet to enter into force because not all of the requisite states, including China, India, Pakistan, and the United States, have ratified it."^[67]
1996	Prevention	Intentional	Policy	The World Bank adopts a more official policy proscription against loans for nuclear power plants.^[117]
1997 (January)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (international)	The International Nuclear Regulators' Association (INRA) is established.^[228] This association comprises senior officials from nuclear regulatory authorities in countries such as Canada, France, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others. The INRA aims to bolster and advance global nuclear safety by leveraging the regulatory expertise of its members. It collaborates to influence and improve nuclear safety regulations both within its membership and on a worldwide scale. This association operates in conjunction with other international nuclear organizations like the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Energy Agency.
1997 (May 15)	Prevention	Intentional	Policy	The IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) adopts the Model Additional Protocol, an optional safeguards agreement enabling the agency to enhance its verification capabilities and ensure no unauthorized nuclear weapons activities within a state. This protocol emerges as a response to Iraq and North Korea violating the nuclear treaty. On May 11 and 13, 1998, India conducts its second nuclear test.^[67]	Member states of the International Atomic Energy Agency
1997	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Alexander L. George is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for combining theory with history to elucidate the requirements of deterrence, the limits to coercive diplomacy, and the relationship between force and statecraft."^[195]
1998 (January)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is established with the mission to achieve global disarmament under strict international control. Focusing on weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, UNODA addresses their humanitarian impact alongside major conventional and emerging weapon technologies. It supports norm-setting through UN bodies, encouraging dialogue, transparency, and confidence-building. UNODA provides information to member states, international organizations, research institutions, civil society, and the media, fostering awareness on disarmament issues. Additionally, it assists in post-conflict disarmament, aiding former combatants' reintegration into society, embodying a comprehensive approach toward disarmament and peacebuilding efforts.^[229]
1998 (May)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	India conducts five nuclear tests at the Pokhran range, including a 45 kt thermonuclear device, a 15 kt fission device, and a sub-kiloton device. Two additional sub-kiloton devices are detonated later. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) confirms the yields through radiochemical analysis and ground motion simulations.^[230]	India
1998 (May 28)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	Pakistan, a nonsignatory to the NPT but a non-nuclear-weapon state by the treaty’s terms, conducts its first set of nuclear test explosions.^[67] In response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998, Pakistan, under Prime Minister Mohammad Nawaz Sharif, faces intense pressure to conduct its own nuclear tests. Despite international appeals to refrain, Sharif authorizes the tests. Codenamed Chagai-I, on May 28, Pakistan detonates its first nuclear devices at the Ras Koh test site in the southwestern Baluchistan province. The decision is driven by the desire to maintain a strategic balance with India. The total yield is approximately 9 kilotons, marking Pakistan's entry into the nuclear club.^[119]	Pakistan
1998 (June 30)	Risk	Intentional	Cyberattack	Hacktivist group milw0rm gains international attention by infiltrating India's primary nuclear research facility, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai. During the attack, they compromise the site and replace its content with a spoofed web page featuring an image of a mushroom cloud, along with the threatening message: "If a nuclear war does start, you will be the first to scream." This cyberattack highlights the vulnerability of critical infrastructure, particularly in the context of nuclear research facilities, and the potential for hackers to use digital means to convey political or ideological messages with significant global implications.^[231]	India
1998 (June)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The New Agenda Coalition (NAC) is formed by Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, and South Africa, aiming to promote global nuclear disarmament as mandated by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The coalition emerges due to dissatisfaction with the lack of progress in nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation discussions within the NPT framework. They officially launched in Dublin with a Joint Declaration, advocating for the elimination of nuclear weapons. In 2000, the NAC would play a pivotal role in crafting the 13 Steps agreement during the NPT Review Conference, emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament independent of general disarmament and outlining practical steps for achieving it.^[232]^[67]	Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa
2000 (February 2)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (national)	The Strategic Plans Division Force (SPD Force) is formed. It is a paramilitary organization in Pakistan established as part of the National Command Authority. It is responsible for safeguarding nuclear materials and providing security for Pakistan's tactical and strategic nuclear weapons stockpile. Led by Lieutenant-General Yusuf Jamal, it has around 60,000 personnel. The force is heavily armed to defend against potential threats to nuclear material-holding sites. SPD Force initially relied on Pakistan's Armed Forces for manpower but began hiring and training its own personnel at the Pakistan Centre of Excellence for Nuclear Security (PCENS). It also includes the Special Response Force (SRF), a special forces unit.^[233]	Pakistan
2000 (May 22)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	States party to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) holds a review conference at the United Nations in New York. Despite concerns of disarray, the parties achieve consensus on a historic third document in the treaty's history. Initial fears of conference breakdown are fueled by slow progress in disarmament, unmet objectives set in 1995, and criticism from non-nuclear-weapon states, particularly aimed at the United States. Surprisingly, the conference concludes with a robust document, featuring stronger language on nuclear disarmament and universal adherence than ever before, marking an unexpected diplomatic success and highlighting key points of agreement and compromise.^[234]
2000	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (national)	The National Nuclear Security Administration is established by the United States Congress.^[235]	United States
2000	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement (PMDA) is signed, committing the US and Russia to dispose of at least 34 metric tons of weapon-grade plutonium. A subsequent Plutonium Disposition Protocol, signed in 2010, ensures irreversible arms reductions by transparently disposing of this plutonium in civil power reactors, preventing its reuse for military purposes. The 2010 Protocol would update the PMDA, addressing financial viability issues in Russia's nuclear energy strategy.^[236]	Russia, United States
2000	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Philip E. Tetlock is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for successfully developing a semantic measure of cognitive complexity predictive of foreign policy decisions and for applying psychological analysis and knowledge to nuclear policy problems."^[195]
2001	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (international)	The World Nuclear Association is established^[237] as an international organization promoting nuclear power and supporting companies within the global nuclear industry. Its membership encompasses all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to electricity generation. Responsible for 70% of the world's nuclear power and a significant portion of uranium production, the Association's mission includes facilitating technical, commercial, and policy interactions among members, as well as promoting public understanding of nuclear technology. The Association also emphasizes its commitment to nuclear disarmament and operates with a Charter of Ethics. Its activities involve industry interaction, meetings, representation at international forums, and public information dissemination through various channels.
2001	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) is established^[238] in Japan as a regulatory body responsible for nuclear safety oversight under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). However, NISA would face criticism for its perceived conflict of interest, being part of the same ministry that promoted nuclear power. This criticism would further intensify following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. As a result, in 2012, NISA would be dissolved and replaced by the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) under the Ministry of the Environment. The NRA would take on the task of overseeing nuclear safety and addressing the shortcomings identified during the Fukushima disaster.	Japan
2001	Prevention	Intentional	Organization	The Nuclear Threat Initiative is formed.^[239] It is a nonprofit, nonpartisan global security organization focused on reducing nuclear and biological threats.^[240]
2001 (September)	Risk	Intentional (terrorist)	Notable case	Al-Qaeda considers flying airplanes into nuclear facilities in the United States as part of the September 11 attacks^[241]^[117]	United States
2002 (May 24)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty is signed as a treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation.^[242] Añso known as the Moscow Treaty, it mandates that the United States and Russia reduce their strategic nuclear weapons to between 1,700 and 2,200 warheads by December 31, 2012. The treaty would enter into force on June 1, 2003, and lapse on February 5, 2011, when the New START Treaty enters into force.^[243]	United States, Russia
2002 (August)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear weapon program	The National Council of Resistance of Iran, the political wing of the terrorist organization Mujahideen-e Khalq (MeK), holds a press conference and declares Iran has built nuclear facilities near Natanz and Arak.^[202]^[244]	Iran
2002 (November)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (also known as the Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC)) is established as an arrangement to prevent the proliferation of ballistic missiles.^[245]
2003 (January 11)	Risk	Intentional	Diplomacy (setback)	North Korea announces its withdrawal from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.^[246] Not all states, however, recognize the legality of this withdrawal from the treaty.^[202]	North Korea
2003 (May)	Prevention	Intentional	Anti-nuclear movement	The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) is launched as a global effort aimed at preventing the trafficking of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials to and from states and non-state actors of proliferation concern. PSI participants commit to interdicting transfers, exchanging information, strengthening legal authorities, and supporting interdiction efforts. The initiative addresses concerns about WMD falling into the hands of terrorists and emphasizes flexibility, voluntary cooperation, and collective action. The United States actively supports PSI, contributing various resources and expertise to enhance partner nations' capabilities and combat WMD proliferation effectively.^[247]
2003	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (nonprofit)	The Project on Nuclear Issues (PONI) is established as a program under the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) with the purpose to train nuclear professionals. In response to evolving global security dynamics, PONI focuses on outreach, mentorship, research, and debate. The project addresses the evolving landscape of global security, particularly in the realm of nuclear weapons.^[248]	United States
2003 (August)	Risk	Intentional	Diplomacy	Following North Korea's withdrawal from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Russia, China, Japan, the United States, and both Koreas initiate the six-party talks. In September 2005, the talks would achieve a breakthrough with a joint statement where North Korea commits to forsake nuclear activities and rejoin the NPT, receiving security assurances and energy aid in return. Progress includes disabling the Yongbyon plutonium reactor in 2007 and admitting IAEA inspectors, earning North Korea fuel oil. However, in April 2009, amid heightened tensions, North Korea would declare its release from commitments made under the six-party talks.^[212]	North Korea
2003 (December 19)	Prevention	Intentional	Nuclear program shutdown	Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi makes the decision to decommission his country's nuclear weapons program. This decision comes after years of negotiations and international pressure. As part of this process, Libya agrees to dismantle its nuclear weapons program and to allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify and monitor the disarmament. In exchange for this action, Libya received sanctions relief and an opportunity to re-engage with the international community. This move was seen as a significant step towards non-proliferation efforts and regional stability.^[87]^[67]	Lybia
2003	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Walter Enders and Todd Sandler are awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award for their joint work on transnational terrorism using game theory and time series analysis to document the cyclic and shifting nature of terrorist attacks in response to defensive counteractions." ^[195]
2004 (January)	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	Pakistani nuclear physicist Abdul Qadeer Khan, a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear program, confesses to transferring nuclear technology to Libya, Iran, and North Korea. This disclosure exposes a clandestine network engaged in illegal nuclear technology trade. The network, commonly known as the "Khan" network, is international and non-hierarchical, involving individuals and companies worldwide. It aims to provide turn-key gas centrifuge facilities, especially to Libya. The network's audacious plans includes supplying 10,000 centrifuges, detailed project designs, and even information for building nuclear weapons. The revelation underscores flaws in global nonproliferation efforts, prompting calls for improved export controls and safeguards.^[249]	Pakistan, Libya, Iran, North Korea
2004 (April 24)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	The United Nations Security Council adopts Resolution 1540 to address the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).^[250] This resolution imposes obligations under Chapter VII of the UN Charter for all member states to enact legal and regulatory measures against the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, biological, and radiological weapons, as well as their means of delivery. Notably, it recognizes the threat posed by non-state actors and obliges states to modify their internal legislation accordingly. The resolution establishes the 1540 Committee to oversee its implementation, emphasizing collaboration and participation rather than sanctions enforcement.^[251] It marks a departure from previous nonproliferation arrangements by imposing universal and mandatory obligations.
2004	Prevention	Intentional	Notable warning	U.S. nuclear terrorism expert Graham Allison bets some of his colleagues that terrorists would explode a nuclear bomb somewhere in the world by 2014. As he would write afterward, “I was happy to lose those bets.”"^[252]^[87]
2004	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, and Amy Sands publish The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism, which evaluates the intentions and capabilities of terrorist groups in obtaining and deploying nuclear weapons, creating and detonating improvised nuclear devices, targeting nuclear power plants and related facilities, and constructing and using radiological weapons, commonly known as "dirty bombs."^[253]^[254]	United States
2005 (April 1)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) is established as a Non-Departmental Public Body (NDPB) under the Energy Act (2004) to oversee the safe, secure, cost-effective decommissioning and cleanup of the UK's nuclear legacy sites, with a focus on protecting people and the environment. Mandated by the Energy Act, the NDA is required to review its Strategy at least every 5 years. The current consultation outcome reflects the NDA's updated Strategy, outlining its strategic direction and long-term objectives in managing nuclear decommissioning efforts.^[255]	United Kingdom
2005 (April 15)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (national)	The Domestic Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO) is established^[256] by the United States to enhance the nation's capability to detect and respond to unauthorized attempts involving nuclear or radiological material.^[257] It coordinates federal efforts against nuclear and radiological terrorism, developing the global nuclear detection architecture strategy. DNDO conducts research, testing, and evaluation of detection technologies, acquires necessary systems, and provides threat assessments, technical support, and training. Criticized for unsuccessful programs like the Advanced Spectroscopic Portal Monitor and Cargo Advanced Automated Radiography System, DNDO would face accusations of mismanagement and misleading Congress. In December 2017, it would become part of the Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction office.^[258]	United States
2005	Risk	Intentional	Policy	The Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations is discovered. It outlines conditions under which U.S. commanders can request the use of nuclear weapons. It is revised to align with the preemptive attack principles of the Bush doctrine. Eight scenarios are cited for requesting nuclear weapon use, including countering WMD threats, preventing biological attacks, striking enemy WMD facilities, halting overwhelming conventional enemy forces, ending a war favorably, ensuring the success of U.S. and international operations, deterring WMD use, and responding to enemy-supplied WMD. The doctrine stresses the integration of conventional and nuclear attacks for efficient force use but acknowledged the serious consequences of nuclear weapon use. In 2010, President Barack Obama would announce a stricter nuclear strike policy in a Nuclear Posture Review.^[259]	United States
2005 (July 18)	Prevention	Comprehensive	Binational cooperation	U.S. President George W. Bush and India's Prime Minister Manmohan Singh sign the India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement.^[260] This agreement, also known as the 123 Agreement, aims to enhance nuclear cooperation between the two nations. India agrees to separate its civil and military nuclear facilities and place its civil nuclear facilities under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. In return, the U.S. agrees to facilitate civil nuclear cooperation with India.^[261] The agreement encounters political and diplomatic challenges due to India's non-membership in the NPT. After several stages of negotiation, including changes to U.S. domestic law and international safeguards agreements, the deal is approved and hailed as a landmark in U.S.-India relations.^[262]	India, United States
2005 (August 8)	Risk	Intentional	Regulatory compliance violation	Iran begins producing uranium hexafluoride at its Isfahan facility. As a result, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom halt negotiations with Tehran. On September 24, the IAEA adopts a resolution finding Iran in noncompliance with its safeguards agreement by a vote of 22-1 with 12 members abstaining. The resolution says that the nature of Iran’s nuclear activities and the lack of assurance in their peaceful nature fall under the purview of the United Nations Security Council, paving the way for a future referral.^[202]	Iran
2005 (September 14)	Prevention	Intentional (terrorist)	Diplomacy	The International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism is signed. Later called Nuclear Terrorism Convention, it originates from a proposal by the Russian Federation to address gaps in countering nuclear terrorism beyond the 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM). The convention defines nuclear terrorism as the use or threat to use nuclear materials, installations, or devices for harmful purposes and obligates parties to cooperate in preventing and prosecuting such acts. Despite concerns, including issues related to the use of nuclear weapons, the convention becomes the first anti-terrorism treaty adopted since the 9/11 attacks, strengthening the international legal framework against terrorist acts. It would enter into force on July 7, 2007.^[263]^[264]
2005 (September 19)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	North Korea commits to abandoning its nuclear weapons and programs and returning to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to the International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards in an agreement of the six-party talks on North Korean denuclearization.^[67]	North Korea
2006 (February)	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	Oleg Khinsagov, a Russian national, is apprehended in Georgia, accompanied by three Georgian accomplices. They are found in possession of 79.5 grams of highly enriched uranium (HEU) with a concentration of 89 percent. This incident would raise concerns about the illicit trafficking of nuclear materials and the potential risks associated with the unauthorized possession of such dangerous substances.^[265]	Georgia, Russia
2006 (April 11)	Risk	Intentional	International resolution	Iran declares its first successful enrichment of uranium to about 3.5 percent at the Natanz plant. On June 6, 2006, the P5+1 (China, France, Germany, Russia, UK, US) proposes an offer to Iran, aiming to halt its enrichment efforts. The UN Security Council on July 31, 2006, adopts Resolution 1696, making the IAEA's demands for Iran's suspension of enrichment legally binding. In August, Iran responds to the P5+1 proposal with reservations. By December 23, 2006, the Security Council enforces Resolution 1737, imposing sanctions on Iran for its refusal to halt enrichment, prohibiting technology transfers, and freezing assets of organizations and individuals linked to Iran's nuclear and missile programs.^[202]	Iran
2006 (June 13)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Autorité de sûreté nucléaire (ASN), or Nuclear Safety Authority, is established in France.^[266] It is an independent administrative authority established by the 2006 law on transparency and security in nuclear matters. Acting on behalf of the state, it oversees nuclear safety and radiation protection to safeguard workers, patients, the public, and the environment from risks associated with nuclear energy. ASN focuses on regulating, controlling, and informing the public regarding nuclear activities, excluding military ones. It evaluates and issues authorizations for the use of ionizing radiation sources, conducts inspections, and participates in national and international debates on nuclear safety.^[267]	France
2006	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	A significant milestone in Central Asia is achieved with the Treaty of Semipalatinsk, following nine years of negotiations. The treaty is facilitated by the independence gained by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, after the USSR's collapse, which formerly controlled the region. Previously, the USSR extensively used the area for various nuclear-related activities, such as testing, missile trials, nuclear fuel processing, and weapon stockpiling. The establishment of the treaty zone becomes even more notable, given the region's history of hosting over 700 tactical nuclear weapons and returning over 1,400 former Soviet strategic nuclear weapons to Russia before Kazakhstan joined the NPT in 1995.^[268]	Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
2006	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The International Panel on Fissile Materials (IPFM) is established, consisting of nuclear experts from 17 countries including the United States, Russia, and China.^[269] The panel's primary goal is to promote international efforts in securing and reducing stocks of highly enriched uranium and plutonium, essential materials for nuclear weapons, while limiting their further production.^[270] Co-chaired by experts from Princeton University and Nagasaki University, the IPFM produces an annual Global Fissile Material Report detailing global stocks and production of fissile materials. The panel contributes to nuclear non-proliferation efforts by providing valuable information and analysis on fissile materials.^[271]^[270]
2006 (June 1)	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	The Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission, chaired by Dr. Hans Blix, publishes Weapons of Terror: Freeing the World of Nuclear, Biological And Chemical Arms In this report, which presents 60 recommendations on what the world community can and should do to avoid nuclear war.^[272]	United States
2006 (July 16)	Prevention	Intentional (terrorist)	Diplomacy	Presidents George W. Bush and Vladimir Putin jointly announce the organization of the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT). This international organization, co-chaired by the United States and Russia, involves 89 countries committed to nuclear security principles against terrorism. GICNT's goals include preventing terrorist acquisition of nuclear materials, strengthening security at nuclear facilities, detecting and preventing illicit trafficking of radioactive substances, and ensuring proper response and investigation in case of nuclear terrorism incidents. The initiative promotes cooperation, information sharing, and the development of legal frameworks. GICNT would evolve over the years, adding key coordinators, endorsing countries, and contributing to global efforts against nuclear terrorism.^[273]	United States, Russia
2006 (September 8)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Central Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (CANWFZ) treaty is signed by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. It prohibits the manufacture, acquisition, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons. Ratified by all five states, it would become effective on March 21, 2009. The zone aims to enhance regional security, address environmental concerns, and promote stability and development. Verification is conducted by the International Atomic Energy Agency, with commitments to safeguards and nuclear protection standards. Notably, CANWFZ is the only zone bordered by nuclear-weapon states and where nuclear weapons were deployed in the past. The idea originated in a 1997 conference, and the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan serves as the signing location.^[274]	Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
2006 (October 9)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	North Korea conducts its first nuclear test with an estimated yield of about one kiloton.^[212]	North Korea
2006 (November 1)	Adverse consequence	Intentional	High-profile assassination	Former Russian intelligence officer Alexander Litvinenko falls critically ill after meeting with two ex-KGB officers, Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovtun, in London. Litvinenko had accused the Russian government of orchestrating his persecution due to his revelations about the FSB's alleged involvement in various incidents, including bombings and assassinations. He had also exposed the connections between the Russian mafia in Europe and the government. His illness worsens, and he is hospitalized, eventually dying on November 23. His death is attributed to being the first confirmed case of lethal polonium-210-induced acute radiation syndrome. Litvinenko's public accusations against Putin would lead to global media coverage and diplomatic tensions between the UK and Russia.^[275]^[276]^[277]^[278]	United Kingdom, Russia
2006	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	American political scientist Robert Jervis is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for showing, scientifically and in policy terms, how cognitive psychology, politically contextualized, can illuminate strategies for the avoidance of nuclear war."^[195]
2007 (January 15)	Prevention?	Intentional (state terrorism)	High-profile assassination	Ardeshir Hosseinpour, an Iranian professor and authority on electromagnetism, becomes the first victim of a series of targeted killings against the country's nuclear scientists. He is killed either through gas poisoning or exposure to radiation, in the city of Shiraz. The same or similar fate would happen to Masoud Ali Mohammadi (killed in 2010), Majid Shahriari (killed in 2010), Fereydoun Abbasi (wounded in 2010), Darioush Rezaeinejad (killed in 2011), Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan (killed in 2012), and Mohsen Fakhrizadeh (killed in 2020). In almost all cases, Iran would attribute the attacks to Israel and/or the United States. The motivations behind these targeted killings would be often linked to Iran's nuclear program, and the deaths would heighten tensions between Iran and the implicated countries. Israel would typically neither confirm nor deny involvement, while U.S. officials would deny any role in the assassinations.^[279]	Iran, Israel
2007	Prevention	Intentional	Research	Members of the original group of nuclear winter scientists collectively perform a new comprehensive quantitative assessment utilizing the latest computer and climate models. They conclude that even a small-scale, regional nuclear war could kill as many people as died in all of World War II and seriously disrupt the global climate for a decade or more, harming nearly everyone on Earth.^[161]
2007	Risk	Intentional (terrorist)	Attack on nuclear plant	An armed attack on the Pelindaba nuclear facility in South Africa occurs when four armed men break in and head towards a control room in the eastern block, and manage to deactivate several layers of security, including a 10,000-volt electrical fence, suggesting insider knowledge of the system.^[280]^[281] This incident highlights that even single points have security weaknesses and can be subject to concerted attacks.^[117]	South Africa
2007	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (international)	The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) is launched as a global coalition with a mission to eliminate nuclear weapons through the enactment of international laws banning them. ICAN would play a pivotal role in the United Nations' Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons and would be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2017. Formed from the initiative of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, ICAN would grow to include over 450 partner organizations across 100 countries. It focuses on raising awareness, conducting research on the humanitarian impact of nuclear weapons, and advocating for international legislation against them, ultimately aiming to stigmatize, prohibit, and eliminate these weapons.^[282]
2007	Prevention	Intentional (terrorist)	Literature	Michael A. Levi publishes On Nuclear Terrorism, which delves into the subject of nuclear terrorism, examining the decisions a terrorist leader might make when attempting a nuclear attack. Levi highlights numerous obstacles that such a plot might face, leading to various potential ways it could be thwarted. Professor John Mueller's 2010 book, Atomic Obsession: Nuclear Alarmism From Hiroshima to Al-Qaeda, further explores this theme. Michael Levi is a senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, specializing in energy and environmental issues.^[283]^[284]	United States
2007 (September)	Prevention	Intentional	Attack on nuclear plant	Israeli aircraft destroys Syria's al-Kibar reactor, a secret facility supplied by North Korea for plutonium production. The attack occurs just as the reactor was nearing operational status.^[145]^[117]	Israel, Syria, North Korea
2007 (November)	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Jonathan Schell publishes The Seventh Decade in which he scrutinizes emerging nuclear perils. Schell highlights the United States' adoption of fresh nuclear policies during the Bush administration, including a first-strike approach and novel nuclear weaponry development. He argues that these changes triggered arms proliferation in countries like Iran and North Korea, intensified worldwide nuclear arms trade, and heightened the risk of nuclear terrorism. The book provocatively examines the evolving landscape of nuclear security, delving into the implications of these policy shifts.^[285]^[286]^[287]	United States
2008	Prevention	Comprehensive	Organization (international)	The World Institute for Nuclear Security (WINS) is established as an international non-governmental organization based in Vienna, Austria. Its mission is to promote best security practices among those responsible for managing the security of radioactive material. WINS provides a variety of services, including workshops, training courses, and round-table discussions worldwide, focusing on nuclear security management at the operational level. The organization offers the WINS Academy, the world's first international certification program for nuclear security management. It also publishes numerous documents on nuclear material management in its Knowledge Centre and offers evaluation services to help organizations assess their security programs' effectiveness.^[288]
2008	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Michael Dobbs publishes One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War, which describes what Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. called “the most dangerous moment in human history”.^[289]
2008 (July 9)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (binational)	The International Commission on Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament (ICNND) is established as a collaborative effort between the Australian and Japanese governments. Proposed by Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and agreed upon by Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda, the Commission aims to address nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament challenges. ICNND aims to reinvigorate global efforts on nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament. The commission's report, Eliminating Nuclear Threats - A Practical Agenda for Global Policymakers, launched on December 15, 2009, seeks to guide policymakers. The ICNND actively uses social networks to spread information about non-proliferation, emphasizing the importance of global awareness and support for de-escalation of nuclear threats.^[290]	Australia, Japan
2008	Risk	Intentional	Illegal nuclear trafficking	According to International Relations Professor Justin Hastings, when smuggling goods, illicit nonstate actors face a trade-off between the security and efficiency of the route. In the realm of nuclear risk, illicit nonstate actors involved in smuggling face a critical dilemma: balancing the security and efficiency of their transport routes. This trade-off underscores the challenge of moving nuclear materials covertly. Prioritizing security involves navigating discreet paths to evade detection and interception, while prioritizing efficiency necessitates swift transportation through potentially less secure routes. Striking the right balance is crucial, as heightened security measures may hinder efficiency, and overly efficient routes may compromise the overall security of smuggling operations. Understanding and addressing this trade-off is vital for counter-proliferation efforts and safeguarding against the illicit trafficking of nuclear materials.^[117]
2008	December	Intentional	Organization (international)	Global Zero, a non-partisan international initiative, is launched by 100 opinion leaders in Paris. The organization aims to raise awareness about the urgent nuclear threat and advocate for the complete elimination of all nuclear weapons. Over its first 21 months, Global Zero would gather support from 300 political, military, business, and civic leaders, along with 400,000 citizens worldwide. They would develop the Global Zero Action Plan (GZAP) outlining a step-by-step process for nuclear disarmament and established 70 student chapters globally. Global Zero would organize international conferences, engage with governments, produce educational films, and garner celebrity support, becoming a prominent advocate for nuclear disarmament on the global stage.^[291]
2009 (May 15)	Prevention	Non-intentional	Binational cooperation	The France–Pakistan Atomic Energy Framework is signed as a bilateral treaty focusing on nuclear energy cooperation.^[292]^[293] This agreement, distinct from the Indo-American nuclear deal, aims to enhance nuclear safety and technology in Pakistan. France agrees to assist in improving the safety of Pakistan's nuclear power installations under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, and to provide civilian-based nuclear technology.^[292]^[294] However, it differs from the Indo-US deal and focuses solely on "nuclear safety," as highlighted by the French Foreign Ministry.^[295] This framework marks a departure from France's prior nuclear cooperation with Pakistan, which faced international scrutiny due to concerns about proliferation.^[296]^[292]	France, Pakistan
2009 (June 25)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	North Korea conducts its second nuclear test, an underground nuclear weapons testing estimated to have a yield of 2 to 6 kilotons.^[212]	North Korea
2009 (September 24)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1887 is adopted unanimously by the Security Council on nuclear issues.^[67]
2009 (October)	Prevention	Intentional	Organization (national)	The Top Level Group (TLG) of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation is established in response to the increasing global focus on nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. Inspired by influential figures like Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, William Perry, and Senator Sam Nunn, as well as U.S. President Barack Obama's Prague speech in April 2009, the TLG comprises senior British parliamentarians who advocate for multilateral nuclear disarmament and security. The group emphasizes the importance of incremental steps while maintaining national and international security. Its members, prominent and experienced in politics, collaborate to influence UK government policies, support the ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) by the US, and advocate for the agreement of a Fissile Material Cut Off Treaty (FMCT). They engage in public and private events, meet with key decision-makers, and coordinate efforts with counterparts across Europe through the European Leadership Network.^[297]	United Kingdom
2009	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Graham Allison is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for illuminating alternative ways of thinking about political decision making with special relevance to crises, including nuclear crises, as demonstrated in his groundbreaking Essence of Decision and subsequent works."^[195]
2010 (April 8)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The New START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) is signed between the United States and the Russian Federation in Prague. This treaty, also known as Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms, would enter into force on February 5, 2011, following ratification by both parties. New START succeeds the Treaty of Moscow (SORT) and aims to reduce the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers, limit deployed warheads, and establish a new inspection and verification regime. However, on February 21, 2023, Russia would suspend its participation in New START, although it would not withdraw from the treaty.^[298]	United States, Russia
2010 (April 12–13)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States hosts the inaugural Nuclear Security Summit, convening 49 world leaders to enhance global cooperation and consensus towards nuclear security and disarmament. Despite underlying controversies, the summit produces a broad Communiqué committing to preventing nuclear terrorism and adopting a four-year timeline. Nations also agree on a voluntary Work Plan. The summit follows the New START Treaty and U.S. Nuclear Posture Review, signaling the U.S. commitment to nuclear security. The issue brief explores the summit's background, outcomes, and its ongoing significance in reinforcing international dedication to nuclear security amidst preparations for the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty's 2010 Review Conference.^[299]
2010 (April 17–18)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	Iran hosts the Tehran International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation, which brings together senior leaders and officials from over 50 countries to discuss approaches to non-proliferation and nuclear disarmament. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov emphasizes the importance of a balanced approach to the three pillars of the NPT: non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful uses of atomic energy. Discussions include Russia's nuclear disarmament efforts and the Treaty on Measures to Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. Ryabkov engages with Iranian and Chinese officials on issues related to Iran's nuclear program and preparations for the NPT Review Conference.^[300]	Iran, Russia, China
2010 (May 3–28)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The 2010 NPT Review Conference for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) takes place at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. Ambassador Libran N. Cabactulan of the Philippines presides over the conference.^[301]^[302] The event aims to address various issues, including nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation, peaceful use of nuclear energy, regional disarmament, and engagement with civil society. The NPT, in force since 1970, promotes nuclear disarmament and peaceful nuclear technology. Despite previous conferences' challenges, the 2010 Review Conference seeks to strengthen the treaty's implementation and foster international cooperation, coinciding with other events like the New START treaty signing and nuclear security summit.^[303]
2010 (June)	Prevention	Intentional	International resolution	A series of significant international sanctions are imposed on Iran. The United Nations Security Council passes Resolution 1929, which expands sanctions by prohibiting Iran from conducting nuclear-capable ballistic missile tests, imposing an arms embargo on major weapon transfers to Iran, and tightening proliferation-related sanctions. On June 24, the U.S. Congress adopts the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act, extending sanctions against firms investing in Iran's energy sector until 2016 and targeting companies selling refined petroleum to Iran. Subsequently, on July 26, the European Union also agrees to impose comprehensive sanctions on Iran, covering trade, financial services, energy, transport, and more, alongside visa bans and asset freezes.^[202]	Iran
2010 (September 16)	Risk	Intentional	Cyberattack	The malicious computer worm Stuxnet computer virus is first identified by a security expert as a directed attack against an Iranian nuclear-related facility, likely to be an enrichment plant in Natanz.^[202] Although neither country would openly admit responsibility, the worm is widely understood to be a cyberweapon built jointly by the United States and Israel in a collaborative effort known as Operation Olympic Games.^[304]^[305]^[306]	Iran
2011 (March)	Adverse consequence	Non-intentional	Nuclear accident	The Fukushima nuclear accident occurs as the second-worst nuclear accident in history after the Chernobyl disaster, resulted from damage to backup generators caused by a tsunami following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. Despite successful reactor shutdowns, the loss of power leads to cooling system failures, causing partial meltdowns in reactors 1, 2, and 3. Explosions release radiation, prompting evacuations and a no-fly zone. Ongoing efforts to cool the reactors face challenges. The incident escalates to a level-7 nuclear emergency, paralleling Chernobyl. Evacuation zones expand due to radiation concerns, and the region would face long-term uninhabitability. Later, some restrictions would be lifted, but challenges would persist, including a 2013 leak.^[307]	Japan
2011 (April 20)	Prevention	Intentional (terrorist)	International resolution	The United Nations Security Council passes Resolution 1977 (UNSCR 1977), reinforcing international measures against weapons of mass destruction (WMD) proliferation. The resolution extends the mandate of a key Committee established by UNSC Resolution 1540, emphasizing the commitment to preventing WMD spread. UNSCR 1977 urges member states to designate a Point of Contact for 1540 implementation. Since 2004, UNSCR 1540 obligates states to enact effective measures against WMD proliferation. The Committee, with a new ten-year mandate, collaborates globally and is supported by a Group of Experts. The resolution encourages partnerships with regional organizations and recognizes the importance of voluntary contributions.^[308]
2011	Prevention	Non-intentional	Organization (national)	The Office for Nuclear Regulation is established.^[309] It is the UK's independent nuclear regulator, with the mission to protect society by securing safe nuclear operations.^[310]	United Kingdom
2012 (March 26–27)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The 2012 Nuclear Security Summit is held in Seoul. It expands upon the Washington Summit, inviting six new countries: Azerbaijan, Denmark, Gabon, Hungary, Lithuania, and Romania. The summit, attended by 53 countries and 4 international organizations, focuses on combating nuclear terrorism, protecting nuclear materials and facilities, and preventing illicit trafficking of nuclear materials. The Seoul Communiqué identifies 11 priority areas, including minimizing highly enriched uranium use, ratifying the 2005 Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, improving nuclear safety and security synergy, securing spent nuclear fuel, and protecting radioactive sources. The summit introduces 'gift baskets,' resulting in over 100 new commitments for nuclear security.^[311]
2012 (November)	Risk	Intentional	Illicit nuclear trafficking	South Korea reportedly stops North Korea attempting to sell graphite rods to Syria, which are believed to be intended for use in Syria's nuclear program. The sale does not go through, as South Korea intercepts the shipment and prevents it from reaching Syria.^[212]^[312]	North Korea, Syria, South Korea
2012	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	M.A. Harwell publishes Nuclear Winter: The Human and Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War, which argues that comparatively little scientific research has been done about the envifonmental consequences of a nuclear war of the magnitude of the arsenal at the time could unleash.^[313]
2012	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Robert Powell is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for sophisticated game theoretic models of conflict that illuminate the heart of the strategic dilemmas of nuclear deterrence, including the importance of private information."^[195]
2013 (February 12)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear test	The Korean Central News Agency announces that North Korea successfully detonated a nuclear device at its underground test site. The explosive yield is estimated at approximately 15 kilotons. North Korea claims the device was ‘miniaturized’, a term commonly used to refer to a warhead light enough to fit on the tip of a ballistic missile.^[212]	North Korea
2014 (July)	Risk	Intentional	Attack on nuclear plant	Sunni Islamist political and military organization Hamas launches unsuccessful rocket attacks against Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center.^[145]	Israel
2014	Prevention	Intentional	Research	A study finds that even a regional nuclear war, involving fewer than a hundred weapons being detonated, could cause a global nuclear famine.^[87]^[314]
2015 (July 14)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (known commonly as the Iran nuclear deal or Iran deal) is agreed upon in Vienna, between Iran and the P5+1 group (China, France, Russia, UK, US, plus Germany) and the European Union. Iran agrees to restrict its nuclear program and allow strict monitoring to prevent weapon development. In return, the US and other parties lift sanctions on Iran's economy. However, in 2018, US President Donald J. Trump would withdraw from the deal and re-impose sanctions, citing concerns. The JCPOA aims to limit Iran's enrichment program in exchange for sanctions relief and international oversight. The withdrawal would lead to tensions and uncertainties about the agreement's future.^[87]	Iran, China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States, Germany
2016 (March 31–April 1)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The 2016 Nuclear Security Summit takes place in Washington, D.C. This is the fourth summit in a series that began in 2010.^[315] Notably absent are leaders from Russia, North Korea, Iran, and Belarus.^[316] However, the summit sees significant participation from Asian leaders, including India and Singapore, indicating growing concerns about terrorist threats to nuclear facilities. Various countries make commitments to reduce highly enriched uranium stockpiles, while Japan agrees to ship additional separated plutonium to the U.S. Canada pledges $42 million for nuclear security, and a strengthened nuclear security agreement is approved. This summit would be declared the last of its kind.^[317]
2017 (July 7)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) is adopted during a United Nations conference held in New York, emerging amid dissatisfaction with the 2015 NPT Review Conference. Effective since January 22, 2021, it prohibits the development, testing, possession, and use of nuclear weapons. As of 2022, the treaty lacks a verification regime, relies on existing safeguards agreements, and allows amendments with a two-thirds majority. The first Meeting of the States Parties in 2022 addressed global concerns, condemning nuclear threats and adopting the "Vienna Declaration."^[318]^[319]
2017	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	United States military analyst Daniel Ellsberg publishes The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner, attempting to reveal his shocking firsthand account of the Nuclear program of the United States in the 1960s.^[320]	United States
2018 (June 12)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	A meeting occurrs between Kim Jong-un and United States President Donald Trump in Singapore, centering on denuclearization of the Korean peninsula and enhancing bilateral ties. They ink a shared declaration to create "fresh US-DPRK relations," form a stable and enduring peace structure on the Korean peninsula, and locate POW/MIA remains. Kim also pledges to progress towards complete denuclearization, while Trump vowed security assurances for North Korea.^[321]^[322]	North Korea, United States
2018	Prevention	Intentional	Individual recognition	Etel Solingen is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for providing the first systematic analysis in contemporary international relations connecting political economy, globalization, and nuclear choices on the one hand with domestic politics and nuclear behavior on the other."^[195]
2018	Prevention	Intentional	Literature	Mark Wolverton publishes Burning the Sky: Operation Argus and the Untold Story of the Cold War Nuclear Tests in Outer Space.^[323]	United States (Abrams Books)
2019 (June)	Risk	Intentional	Nuclear proliferation	As of date, North Korea is estimated to have 20-30 warheads, and the fissile material for an estimated 30-60 nuclear weapons.^[212]	North Korea
2019 (October)	Risk	Intentional	Cyberattack	India's Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KKNPP) experiences a cyberattack, initially denied by authorities, exposing a lack of cybersecurity awareness. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited later confirms the breach, revealing vulnerabilities in the air-gap approach, which falsely assumed complete isolation. The attack used the Dtrack malware, potentially linked to North Korea. India's response includes cybersecurity measures, but the incident highlights the lag in critical infrastructure cybersecurity. The KKNPP hack underscores the importance of modern cybersecurity protocols for safeguarding nuclear facilities and emphasizes the need for increased vigilance in protecting critical infrastructure worldwide.^[324]	India, South Korea
2020 (January 23)	Prevention	Intentional	Probability	The Doomsday Clock moves to 100 seconds to midnight, the closest it has ever been in its 73-year history.^[325]
2020 (June)	Risk		Research	The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute publishes a study examining how advances in artificial intelligence impact nuclear weapons and doctrines. The report highlights the potential effects on strategic stability and increased nuclear weapon risks. It emphasizes the historical link between AI and nuclear weapons, stressing machine learning's role in modernizing nuclear systems. It underlines technical limitations and risks in adopting AI. The summary notes AI's strategic priority for nuclear-armed states, including the United States, China, Russia, etc., and emphasizes the importance of communication and transparency to manage associated risks. Existing arms control measures, such as no-first-use doctrines, are suggested to mitigate AI-related risks in the military and nuclear sphere. The report recommends a step-by-step approach, including raising awareness, transparency, collaborative problem-solving, and discussions on concrete limits for AI use in the nuclear context.^[326]	United States, China, Russia, etc
2021 (July)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The United States–Russia Strategic Stability Dialogue (SSD) is initiated as a vital effort to curtail the risk of nuclear conflict between the United States and Russia. Prompted by a June 2021 meeting between Presidents Joe Biden and Vladimir Putin, the SSD aims to establish stability that counters arms race dynamics and mitigates crises in which nuclear weapons might be employed. The dialogue encompasses plenary sessions and specialized working groups, addressing nuclear disarmament and cybersecurity of nuclear systems. Notably, the inaugural plenary meeting takes place in Geneva. An extraordinary meeting held in January 2022 discusses missile locations and addressed the Russo-Ukrainian crisis, reinforcing the significance of this strategic dialogue.^[327]^[328]	Russia, United States
2021	Risk	Intentional	Statistics	As of date, humanity has about 13,410 nuclear weapons, thousands of which are on hair-trigger alert.^[329]	Countries with nuclear weapons
2022 (January 3)	Prevention	Intentional	Diplomacy	The leaders of the five nuclear-weapon states - China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States - gather in Hiroshima and issue a joint statement emphasizing their commitment to preventing nuclear war and avoiding arms races. They emphasize the importance of the 77-year record of non-use of nuclear weapons and expresse concern over Russia's nuclear rhetoric and actions. The leaders call for continued reduction in global nuclear arsenals, upholding the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), and transparency in nuclear weapons reporting. They also urge negotiations for a treaty banning fissile material production and emphasize the importance of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). The G7 remain committed to non-proliferation and disarmament education and outreach efforts.^[330]	China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, United States
2022 (February)	Risk	Intentional	Risk spike	Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine raises concerns as the potential use of nuclear weapons rises, with statements from senior Russian politicians, including President Vladimir Putin, suggesting a willingness to escalate to nuclear conflict.^[331] Putin orders Russia's nuclear forces on "special mode of combat duty,"^[332]^[333] and test launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles are conducted.^[334]^[335] Threats and comments regarding the use of nuclear weapons in various scenarios spark discussions about the risk of nuclear escalation during the conflict. The situation is further complicated by the occupation of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, heightening fears of a nuclear disaster.^[336]^[337]^[338]	Russia, Ukraine
2022 (August 15)	Prevention	Intentional	Research	A Rutgers University-led global study on the aftermath of a full-scale U.S.-Russia nuclear war warns that over 5 billion people could die from hunger due to widespread starvation. The research, which considers the impact of sun-blocking soot from nuclear detonations on crop production, reveals a 7% global caloric production decline within five years even in a localized India-Pakistan war. A U.S.-Russia conflict could cause a 90% decline, leading to severe disruptions in global food markets. The study emphasizes the need for prevention, as adaptation measures like food waste reduction offer limited impact in the face of nuclear war, projecting catastrophic consequences.^[339]^[340]	Worldwide, Russia, United States, India, Pakistan
2022 (September 30)	Prevention	Intentional	Research	A report by NATO's Strategic Warfare Development Command discusses the potential impact of emerging technologies, particularly quantum computing and artificial intelligence, on intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance in the context of nuclear deterrence. It presents a hypothetical scenario involving China's integration of quantum-enhanced AI into its nuclear systems and addresses the challenges and risks associated with these technologies, such as escalation, disinformation, and cognitive biases in nuclear decision-making. The text emphasizes NATO's race to harness these technologies for defensive purposes and highlights the transformative effects of quantum and AI on military capabilities, information protection, and decision-making processes, particularly within the framework of nuclear deterrence.^[341]

Numerical and visual data

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Nuclear risk from 1500 to 2019.^[342]

Google trends

The chart below shows Google Trends data for "nuclear risk" (search term), from January 1 2004, to October 2023, when the screenshot was taken. See absolute maximum at the time of the Fukushima nuclear accident in March 2011, as well as local maximum in March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.^[343]

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

Base literature

The Nuclear Renaissance and International Security, by Adam N. Stulberg and Matthew Fuhrmann.^[117]
Nuclear Deviance: Stigma Politics and the Rules of the Nonproliferation Game, by Michal Smetana,^[130]
International Cooperation for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation–60 Years of IAEA and EURATOM, by Luciano Maiani, Said Abousahl, and Wolfango Plastino.^[144]

The initial version of the timeline was written by Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

External links

References

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@@ Line 43: / Line 43: @@
 ** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Notable publication".
 ** You will see a number of legal and scholarly documents related to international law, nuclear disarmament, and global security.
+* What are other publications on the topic of nuclear risk written by individual authors?
+** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Literature".
+** You will see publications spanning several decades and originating from various authors, each addressing different aspects of nuclear war, survival skills, and the environmental consequences of such events.
 * Who are some individuals having been recognized for their contributions to peace, disarmament, and international understanding?
-** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Recognition of individuals".
+** Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the rows with value "Individual recognition".
 ** You will see a number of notable individuals being recognized with the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} and the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}}. Both prizes seek to contribute to reducing nuclear risk and promoting peace.
-* Other events are described under the following types: "Concept development", "{{w|Cyberattack}}", "High-profile assassination", "Missile defence", "Nuclear weapon program shutdown", and {{w|Nuclear proliferation}}.
+* Other events are described under the following types: "Background", "Concept development", "{{w|Cyberattack}}", "High-profile assassination", "Missile defence", "Notable warning", "{{w|Nuclear proliferation}}", "Nuclear weapon program shutdown", and "Statistics".
 ==Big picture==
@@ Line 53: / Line 56: @@
 ! Time period !! Development summary !! More details
 |-
-| 1940s-1950s || Dawn of the {{w|Nuclear Age}} || This period marks the inception of the nuclear age, defined by transformative events and the emergence of a global power dynamic centered around nuclear capabilities. The 1940s witnesses the unprecedented development of nuclear weapons during {{w|World War II}}, a culmination that underscores their destructive potential through the devastating bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Subsequently, the 1950s usher in the Cold War, an ideological and political standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union. This era is characterized by an arms race, wherein both superpowers engage in vigorous testing and enhancement of nuclear weaponry. The mushroom clouds that rise from their nuclear tests symbolize the intensifying global competition and the emergence of nuclear weapons as a dominant force shaping geopolitics, security doctrines, and international relations.
+| 1940s || Dawn of the Nuclear Age || This decade marks the inception of the {{w|nuclear age}}, defined by transformative events and the emergence of a global power dynamic centered around nuclear capabilities. The 1940s witness the unprecedented development of nuclear weapons during {{w|World War II}}, a culmination that underscores their destructive potential through the devastating [[w:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].
 |-
-| 1960s-1970s || Escalation and tensions || During the 1960s and 1970s, the world confronts heightened tensions among nuclear-armed nations, spurring extensive global endeavors to mitigate the risk of nuclear warfare. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, a seminal episode between the United States and the Soviet Union, brings the globe to the brink of nuclear conflict, illustrating the perils of the arms race and potential devastation. Simultaneously, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) emerges in 1968 as a vital instrument to curb the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 1970s, pivotal negotiations between the superpowers result in significant nuclear arms control agreements. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) encompasses SALT I (1972) and the unratified SALT II, which aims to restrict strategic nuclear weapons development. Additionally, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972 aims to prevent the establishment of defensive systems that could undermine deterrence. This period exemplifies a delicate equilibrium among nuclear-armed states, accompanied by concentrated diplomatic endeavors to stave off nuclear conflict, notably underscored by the Cuban Missile Crisis.
+| 1950s || Cold War and Arms Race || The 1950s usher in the {{w|Cold War}}, an ideological and political standoff between the {{w|United States}} and the {{w|Soviet Union}}. This era is characterized by an {{w|arms race}}, wherein both superpowers engage in vigorous testing and enhancement of nuclear weaponry. Mushroom clouds from nuclear tests symbolize the intensifying global competition and the dominance of nuclear weapons in shaping geopolitics.
 |-
-| 1980s-1990s || Global proliferation concerns || In this period, the international landscape is marked by heightened apprehensions about nuclear proliferation, leading to a shifting focus on non-traditional sources of risk. In the 1980s, the arms race between major powers intensifies, accentuated by popular anti-nuclear movements and technological strides in nuclear capabilities by diverse nations. This era also sees pivotal negotiations aimed at reducing nuclear armaments, exemplified by the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. Subsequently, the 1990s witnesses a transformative event—the conclusion of the Cold War—which prompts substantial reductions in nuclear arsenals. Consequently, attention shifts towards the emergence of "rogue states" and non-state actors as potential nuclear threats, necessitating a recalibration of international efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation. This period witnesses a pivotal transition from superpower rivalries to more nuanced concerns surrounding unconventional sources of nuclear risk.
+| 1960s || Tensions and the Cuban Missile Crisis || During the 1960s, the world confronts heightened tensions among nuclear-armed nations, leading to the {{w|Cuban Missile Crisis}} in 1962—a seminal episode between the United States and the Soviet Union. This period illustrates the perils of the arms race and potential devastation, spurring global endeavors to mitigate the risk of {{w|nuclear warfare}}.
 |-
-| 2000s-present || Post-Cold War challenges || The period spanning the 2000s to the present is characterized by unique challenges and persistent global efforts in the realm of nuclear risk. In the 2000s, concerted endeavors persist to curtail nuclear proliferation, encompassing disarmament agreements and initiatives aimed at preventing the unauthorized acquisition of nuclear materials by terrorists. As the timeline progresses into the 2010s and beyond, mounting apprehensions emerge regarding the nuclear capabilities of {{w|North Korea}} and {{w|Iran}}. This era is marked by ongoing tensions among nuclear-armed nations, with a strong international focus on averting potential nuclear conflicts and promoting disarmament. Diplomatic channels and negotiations play a pivotal role in addressing these contemporary challenges, underscoring the imperative of collective efforts to navigate the complex landscape of nuclear risk in an ever-evolving global context.
+| 1970s || Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Arms Control || The 1970s witness pivotal negotiations between superpowers, resulting in significant nuclear arms control agreements. The {{w|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty}} (NPT) enters into force in 1970 as a vital instrument to curb nuclear weapons proliferation. The {{w|Strategic Arms Limitation Talks}} (SALT) encompass SALT I (1972) and the unratified SALT II, aiming to restrict strategic nuclear weapons development. Additionally, the {{w|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}} of 1972 aims to prevent the establishment of defensive systems that could undermine deterrence. This period exemplifies a delicate equilibrium among nuclear-armed states, accompanied by concentrated diplomatic endeavors to stave off nuclear conflict.
+|-
+| 1980s || Heightened proliferation concerns and technological strides || The 1980s are marked by heightened apprehensions about {{w|nuclear proliferation}}, intensifying arms races<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mulvihill |first1=Michael |title=Ukraine war: Russian tests and Putin's threats recall the nuclear fears of the cold war |url=https://theconversation.com/ukraine-war-russian-tests-and-putins-threats-recall-the-nuclear-fears-of-the-cold-war-181986 |website=The Conversation |access-date=29 December 2023 |date=5 May 2022}}</ref>, and popular {{w|anti-nuclear movement}}s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Anti-nuclear Activists and Protest Actions (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/antinuclearactivism.htm |website=www.nps.gov |access-date=29 December 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Technological strides in nuclear capabilities by diverse nations and pivotal negotiations, such as the {{w|Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty}}, aim at [[w:Nuclear disarmament|reducing nuclear armaments]].
+|-
+| 1990s || Post-Cold War transformations || The 1990s witnesses a transformative event—the conclusion of the Cold War—which prompts substantial reductions in nuclear arsenals. Consequently, attention shifts towards the emergence of "{{w|rogue state}}s" and non-state actors as potential nuclear threats, necessitating a recalibration of international efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kapur |first1=Ashok |title=Rogue States and the International Nuclear Order |journal=International Journal |date=1996 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=420–439 |doi=10.2307/40203122 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40203122 |issn=0020-7020}}</ref> This period witnesses a pivotal transition from superpower rivalries to more nuanced concerns surrounding unconventional sources of nuclear risk. During this time, notable developments include {{w|India}} and {{w|Pakistan}} conducting nuclear tests in 1998, officially declaring themselves as nuclear-armed states.
+|-
+| 2000s || Challenges and counter-proliferation efforts || The period spanning the 2000s is characterized by unique challenges and persistent global efforts in the realm of nuclear risk. Throughout this decade, heightened concerns arise with the nuclear capabilities of {{w|North Korea}} and {{w|Iran}}, adding complexity to the global nuclear landscape. Concerted endeavors persist to curtail nuclear proliferation, encompassing disarmament agreements and initiatives aimed at preventing the unauthorized acquisition of nuclear materials by terrorists.
+|-
+| 2010s-present || Ongoing tensions and emerging technologies || The later years witness a strategic refocus on global powers, with particular attention to Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 2010s |url=https://www.dia.mil/News-Features/The-DIA-60th-Anniversary/The-2010s/ |website=www.dia.mil |access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> Amidst diverse challenges, a notable event is the {{w|Fukushima nuclear accident}} in 2011, triggering humanitarian responses. The latter half of the 2010s sees a significant increase in interest in various emerging technologies, such as {{w|artificial intelligence}} and [[w:Quantum technology|quantum technologies]], and their relationship to nuclear risk and crisis stability.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Risk Reduction: Closing Pathways to Use |url=https://unidir.org/files/2020-07/Nuclear%20Risk%20Reduction%20-%20Closing%20Pathways%20to%20Use%20FINAL.pdf |website=unidir.org |access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> More recently, the {{w|Russian invasion of Ukraine}} further increases the global concern about nuclear risk.
+|-
+|}
+== Key events summary section ==
+=== Top historic events in nuclear risk ===
+{| class="wikitable"
+! Time period !! Development summary
+|-
+| 1945 || The {{w|United States}} drops the {{w|atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}, ending {{w|World War II}}.
+|-
+| 1949 || The {{w|Soviet atomic bomb project}} conducts [[w:RDS-1|its first successful nuclear test]]. This event marks the beginning of the {{w|Cold War}} arms race between the {{w|United States}} and the {{w|Soviet Union}}.
+|-
+| 1962 || The {{w|Cuban Missile Crisis}} unfolds, escalating the risk of nuclear conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.
+|-
+| 1968 || The {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} (NPT) is signed as an international treaty aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
+|-
+| 1986 || The {{w|Chernobyl Disaster}} occurs as the worst nuclear accident in history so far.
+|-
+| 1991 || The end of the Cold War marks a significant reduction in global nuclear tensions.
+|-
+| 1995 || The {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} is extended.
+|-
+| 1998 || India and Pakistan nuclear tests escalate tensions in {{w|South Asia}} and have significant implications for regional and global security.
+|-
+| 2006 || North Korea's nuclear test heightens global concerns about nuclear proliferation and regional stability.
+|-
+| 2015 || The [[w:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action|Iran Nuclear Deal]]. Iran agrees to limit its nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief, easing international tensions.
+|-
+| 2022 || {{w|Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine}} becomes a concern after numerous statements by prominent Russian politicians, which are widely perceived as indicating a potential threat of nuclear weapon deployment.
+|-
+|}
+=== First nuclear tests by country ===
+{| class="wikitable"
+! Time period !! Development summary !! Test article on Wikipedia !! Domestic nuclear weapons article on Wikipedia
+|-
+| 1945 || First nuclear test by the {{w|United States}}, the first country possessing nuclear weapons. || [[w:Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]] || {{w|Nuclear weapons of the United States}}
+|-
+| 1949 || First nuclear test by the {{w|Soviet Union}}, the second country possessing nuclear weapons. || {{w|RDS-1}} || {{w|Russia and weapons of mass destruction}}
+|-
+| 1952 || First nuclear test by the {{w|United Kingdom}}, the third country possessing nuclear weapons. || {{w|Operation Hurricane}} || {{w|Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom}}
+|-
+| 1960 || First nuclear test by {{w|France}}, the fourth country possessing nuclear weapons. || [[w:Gerboise Bleue (nuclear test)|Gerboise Bleue]] || {{w|France and weapons of mass destruction}}
+|-
+| 1964 || First nuclear test by {{w|China}}, the fifth country possessing nuclear weapons. || {{w|Project 596}} || {{w|China and weapons of mass destruction}}
+|-
+| 1966 || Israel is widely thought to be the sixth nuclear weapon state, already possessing "rudimentary, but deliverable" devices in its arsenal. || – || {{w|Nuclear weapons and Israel}}
+|-
+| 1974 || First nuclear test by {{w|India}}. || {{w|Smiling Buddha}} || {{w|India and weapons of mass destruction}}
+|-
+| 1998 || First nuclear test by {{w|Pakistan}}. || {{w|Chagai-I}} || {{w|Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction}}
+|-
+| 2006 || First nuclear test by {{w|North Korea}}. || {{w|2006 North Korean nuclear test}} || {{w|North Korea and weapons of mass destruction}}
 |-
 |}
@@ Line 72: / Line 139: @@
 * Event type: A more granular categorization, which allows for sorting into more specific subsets (see sample questions above).
-=== Inclussion criteria ===
+=== Inclusion criteria ===
 We include:
@@ Line 82: / Line 149: @@
 * Most national-level agencies.
 * Nuclear accidents rated level 4 and below in the {{w|International Nuclear Event Scale}}.
-* Awards recognizing endeavors related to nuclear disarmament and the prevention of nuclear war.
 * Anti-nuclear protests.
-* Bibliography on the topic.
+=== Timeline ===
 {| class="sortable wikitable"
 ! Year !! Dynamics !! Risk type !! Event type !! Details !! Involved country
 |-
-| 1898  || Risk case || Comprehensive || Scientific development || Marie and Pierre Curie discover the existence of the elements radium and polonium in their research of {{w|pitchblende}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marie and Pierre Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/marie-and-pierre-curie-and-the-discovery-of-polonium-and-radium/ |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> As the understanding of radioactivity deepens, it eventually leads to the development of nuclear technologies, including nuclear weapons and nuclear energy. Marie Curie would eventually die of aplastic anaemia, a blood disease that often results from exposure to large amounts of radiation.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/questions-and-answers/#:~:text=Answer%3A%20Marie%20Curie%20died%20on,belonged%20to%20the%20Russian%20Empire. |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
+| 1898  || Risk || Comprehensive || Background  || Marie and Pierre Curie discover the existence of the elements radium and polonium in their research of {{w|pitchblende}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marie and Pierre Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/marie-and-pierre-curie-and-the-discovery-of-polonium-and-radium/ |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> As the understanding of radioactivity deepens, it eventually leads to the development of nuclear technologies, including nuclear weapons and nuclear energy. Marie Curie would eventually die of aplastic anaemia, a blood disease that often results from exposure to large amounts of radiation.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/questions-and-answers/#:~:text=Answer%3A%20Marie%20Curie%20died%20on,belonged%20to%20the%20Russian%20Empire. |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
+|-
+| 1900 || Risk || Intentional || Background  || {{w|Ernest Rutherford}} identifies two types of radiation, [[w:Alpha particle|alpha (α)]] and [[w:Beta particle|beta (β)]], during the study of {{w|ionization}} of gases by {{w|uranium}}.<ref name="Discovery of Radioactivity">{{cite web |title=Discovery of Radioactivity |url=https://www.rsc.org/images/1%20Discovery%20of%20Radioactivity_tcm18-17763.pdf |website=rsc.org |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
-| 1939 (April) || Risk case || Intentional  || Nuclear weapon program   || The {{w|German nuclear weapons program}} begins with a secret conference in Berlin, which results in the Ministry of Education initiating a formal uranium research program and banning the export of uranium to other nations. The program launches five  months before U.S. President {{w|Franklin D. Roosevelt}} reads [[w:Einstein–Szilard letter|Einstein's letter]] warning of the potential for nuclear weapons. However, the German atomic weapons program during {{w|World War II}} would not come close to developing a usable weapon. Despite early efforts, various challenges, including scientific miscalculations, bureaucratic inefficiency, doubts among German scientists, and disruptions caused by Allied actions, would hinder its progress. By around 1942, German researchers would become pessimistic about the feasibility of nuclear weapons. The {{w|Alsos Mission}} would be conducted by the Allies towards the end of the war confirming that the German program have not advanced beyond research and development stages. The German uranium would be captured only weeks before Germany's surrender, alleviating any remaining fears of a {{w|Nazi}} atomic bomb.<ref>{{cite web |title=Manhattan Project: Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission, 1938-1945 |url=https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/rivals.htm |website=www.osti.gov |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NOVA {{!}} Hitler's Sunken Secret {{!}} Nazis and the Bomb {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hydro/close.html |website=www.pbs.org |access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
+| 1939 (April) || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program || The {{w|German nuclear weapons program}} begins with a secret conference in Berlin, which results in the Ministry of Education initiating a formal uranium research program and banning the export of uranium to other nations. The program launches five  months before U.S. President {{w|Franklin D. Roosevelt}} reads [[w:Einstein–Szilard letter|Einstein's letter]] warning of the potential for nuclear weapons. However, the German atomic weapons program during {{w|World War II}} would not come close to developing a usable weapon. Despite early efforts, various challenges, including scientific miscalculations, bureaucratic inefficiency, doubts among German scientists, and disruptions caused by Allied actions, would hinder its progress. By around 1942, German researchers would become pessimistic about the feasibility of nuclear weapons. The {{w|Alsos Mission}} would be conducted by the Allies towards the end of the war confirming that the German program have not advanced beyond research and development stages. The German uranium would be captured only weeks before Germany's surrender, alleviating any remaining fears of a {{w|Nazi}} atomic bomb.<ref>{{cite web |title=Manhattan Project: Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission, 1938-1945 |url=https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/rivals.htm |website=www.osti.gov |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NOVA {{!}} Hitler's Sunken Secret {{!}} Nazis and the Bomb {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hydro/close.html |website=www.pbs.org |access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
 |-
-| 1943 (August 19) || Risk case || Intentional  || Binational cooperation || The {{w|Quebec Agreement}} is signed between the United Kingdom and the United States, with the purpose to expedite the {{w|Tube Alloys}} project during {{w|World War II}}, which aims to research and develop nuclear weapons. The Quebec Agreement is based on the recognition that pooling British and American resources would accelerate progress while avoiding unnecessary duplication of facilities. The agreement includes provisions to prevent the use of Tube Alloys against each other or third parties without consent. It also addresses the division of post-war industrial and commercial advantages and establishes a Combined Policy Committee to oversee collaboration, allocate resources, and ensure information sharing across various aspects of the project.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quebec Agreement {{!}} The Manhattan Project {{!}} Historical Documents |url=https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/documents/manhattan-project/quebec-agreement.html |website=www.atomicarchive.com |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}},  {{w|United States}}
+| 1939 (September 1) || Risk || Intentional || Background || {{w|World War II}} begins.<ref>{{cite web |title=World War II {{!}} Facts, Summary, History, Dates, Combatants, & Causes {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=17 November 2023 |language=en |date=16 November 2023}}</ref> This war not only would witness the destructive power of nuclear weapons but also set the stage for the geopolitical and technological dynamics that define the nuclear age, bringing both the risks and challenges associated with nuclear weapons to the forefront of global consciousness. ||
 |-
-| 1945 || Risk case || Intentional  || {{w|Nuclear test}} || In the {{w|New Mexico}} desert, American scientists conduct "[[w:Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]," the first [[w:Nuclear weapons testing|nuclear weapons test]], marking the beginning of the {{w|atomic age}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wayback Machine |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003085814/http://research.unlv.edu/innovation/issues/summer2005/pdf/nuclearpast.pdf |website=web.archive.org |access-date=22 September 2022 |date=3 October 2011}}</ref> A {{w|plutonium}} implosion device named "Gadget" is detonated atop a 100-foot tower, releasing 18.6 kilotons of power. The explosion vaporizes the tower and turns the surrounding area into green glass, known as "{{w|trinitite}}." Witnesses from as far as 200 miles away report seeing the flash and feeling the heat.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trinity: World's First Nuclear Test |url=https://www.afnwc.af.mil/About-Us/History/Trinity-Nuclear-Test/ |website=www.afnwc.af.mil |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1939 || Risk || Intentional || Organization || American scientists, including refugees from fascist regimes in Europe, initiate steps to organize a project for military use of the fission process.<ref name="www.britannic">{{cite web |title=Manhattan Project {{!}} Definition, Scientists, Timeline, Locations, Facts, & Significance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Manhattan-Project |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=17 November 2023 |language=en |date=7 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1939 (August 2) || Prevention  || Intentional || Notable warning || As {{w|World War II}} nears, German-born theoretical physicist {{w|Albert Einstein}}, despite being a pacifist, signs a letter to President {{w|Franklin Delano Roosevelt}}, expressing concern that the {{w|Nazis}} might develop {{w|nuclear weapon}}s. The letter, not written by Einstein but by Hungarian émigré {{w|Leó Szilárd}}, urges the U.S. to accumulate {{w|uranium}} and initiate atomic weapon research. Szilárd, along with physicists {{w|Edward Teller}} and {{w|Eugene Wigner}}, approached Einstein to obtain signature on the letter, marking the beginning of the {{w|Manhattan Project}} and the {{w|Atomic Age}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Einstein Feared a Nazi Atom Bomb—But Immigrants Made Sure the U.S. Got There First |url=https://time.com/5641891/einstein-szilard-letter/ |website=TIME |access-date=19 January 2024 |language=en |date=2 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Einstein Letter That Started It All; A message to President Roosevelt 25 Years ago launched the atom bomb and the Atomic Age. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/02/archives/the-einstein-letter-that-started-it-all-a-message-to-president.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=17 November 2023 |date=2 August 1964}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1941 (December 6) || Risk || Intentional || Organization || The {{w|Manhattan Project}} is launched as a top-secret research and development project undertaken by the United States to develop the first nuclear weapons. The project would lead to the successful development and testing of the world's first atomic bombs, which would be later dropped on the Japanese cities of {{w|Hiroshima}} and {{w|Nagasaki}} in 1945. The Manhattan Project is a pivotal chapter in history, marking the beginning of the nuclear age and influencing global geopolitics.<ref name="www.britannic"/> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1943 (August 19) || Risk || Intentional || Binational cooperation || The {{w|Quebec Agreement}} is signed between the United Kingdom and the United States, with the purpose to expedite the {{w|Tube Alloys}} project during {{w|World War II}}, which aims to research and develop nuclear weapons. The Quebec Agreement is based on the recognition that pooling British and American resources would accelerate progress while avoiding unnecessary duplication of facilities. The agreement includes provisions to prevent the use of Tube Alloys against each other or third parties without consent. It also addresses the division of post-war industrial and commercial advantages and establishes a Combined Policy Committee to oversee collaboration, allocate resources, and ensure information sharing across various aspects of the project.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quebec Agreement {{!}} The Manhattan Project {{!}} Historical Documents |url=https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/documents/manhattan-project/quebec-agreement.html |website=www.atomicarchive.com |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}},  {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1945 (July 16) || Risk || Intentional  || {{w|Nuclear test}} || In the {{w|New Mexico}} desert, American scientists conduct "[[w:Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]," the first [[w:Nuclear weapons testing|nuclear weapons test]], marking the beginning of the {{w|atomic age}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wayback Machine |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003085814/http://research.unlv.edu/innovation/issues/summer2005/pdf/nuclearpast.pdf |website=web.archive.org |access-date=22 September 2022 |date=3 October 2011}}</ref> A {{w|plutonium}} implosion device named "Gadget" is detonated atop a 100-foot tower, releasing 18.6 kilotons of power. The explosion vaporizes the tower and turns the surrounding area into green glass, known as "{{w|trinitite}}." Witnesses from as far as 200 miles away report seeing the flash and feeling the heat.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trinity: World's First Nuclear Test |url=https://www.afnwc.af.mil/About-Us/History/Trinity-Nuclear-Test/ |website=www.afnwc.af.mil |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
 | 1945 (August) || Adverse consequence || Intentional || Nuclear attack on civilians || The {{w|atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}, during World War II, mark the first use of atomic weapons against people. Tens of thousands are killed instantly, with many more succumbing to radiation poisoning. Historical estimates would range from a "low" of around 110,000 total dead (70,000 at Hiroshima and 40,000 at Nagasaki) to a "high" of around 210,000 total dead (140,000 at Hiroshima and 70,000 at Nagasaki).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gaulkin |first1=Thomas |title=Counting the dead at Hiroshima and Nagasaki |url=https://thebulletin.org/2020/08/counting-the-dead-at-hiroshima-and-nagasaki/ |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |access-date=14 November 2023 |date=4 August 2020}}</ref> The long-term health effects of the atomic bombings would lead survivors facing increased risks of leukemia and other cancers. Studies on children born to survivors would also show impacts like small head size and mental disability.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects {{!}} K=1 Project |url=https://k1project.columbia.edu/news/hiroshima-and-nagasaki |website=k1project.columbia.edu |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> The bombings demonstrate the devastating power of nuclear weapons and the potential for widespread destruction and loss of life. They also highlight the risks of nuclear accidents and the possibility of nuclear war. || {{w|Japan}} ({{w|Empire of Japan}}), {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1945 (September) || Prevention case || Intentional  || Notable publication || The ''{{w|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}'' is founded by {{w|Albert Einstein}} and former {{w|Manhattan Project}} scientists as a response to the {{w|atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}. It aims to educate the public about the dangers of nuclear arms and the potential destruction of atomic warfare. The Bulletin would introduce the symbolic Doomsday Clock in 1947 to represent threats to humanity from nuclear weapons, climate change, and disruptive technologies. Over the years, the clock's setting would be adjusted to reflect changing global circumstances. The organization also would contribute to the formation of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs and would continue to inform people about global security issues and nuclear weapons.<ref name="Doomsday Clock">{{cite web |title=Doomsday Clock {{!}} Definition, Timeline, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Doomsday-clock |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=1 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1945 (August 18) || Prevention  || Intentional || Literature (article) || British mathematician, philosopher, logician, and public intellectual {{w|Bertrand Russell}} publishes ''The Bomb and Civilization'', a work he began writing on the day Nagasaki was bombed. In this piece, Russell reflects on the grave outlook for humanity in the aftermath of the atomic bombings. He presents a stark choice for the human race: either face total annihilation or develop some level of common sense. Russell emphasizes the urgent need for new political thinking to avert complete disaster, highlighting the critical importance of global cooperation and rational decision-making in the face of the unprecedented threat posed by nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Atomic Bomb [1945] |url=https://russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca/civbomb10.pdf |website=russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca |access-date=29 October 2022}}</ref><ref>[http://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/Philosophy/RBwritings/bombCivilization.htm Bertrand Russell, "The Bomb and Civilisation."]</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
-| 1945 (October 18) || Risk case || Comprehensive || Nuclear weapon program   || The French Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique; CEA) is establishes by General {{w|Charles de Gaulle}} with the goal of exploiting the scientific, industrial, and military potential of atomic energy.<ref name="Nuclear weapon - France">{{cite web |title=Nuclear weapon - France, Deterrence, Testing {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/nuclear-weapon/France |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=15 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
+| 1945 (September) || Prevention  || Intentional  || Notable publication || The ''{{w|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}'' is founded by {{w|Albert Einstein}} and former {{w|Manhattan Project}} scientists as a response to the {{w|atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}. It aims to educate the public about the dangers of nuclear arms and the potential destruction of atomic warfare. The Bulletin would introduce the symbolic Doomsday Clock in 1947 to represent threats to humanity from nuclear weapons, climate change, and disruptive technologies. Over the years, the clock's setting would be adjusted to reflect changing global circumstances. The organization also would contribute to the formation of the {{w|Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs}} and would continue to inform people about global security issues and nuclear weapons.<ref name="Doomsday Clock">{{cite web |title=Doomsday Clock {{!}} Definition, Timeline, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Doomsday-clock |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=1 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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-| 1946 (March) || Prevention case || Intentional || Notable publication || The ''[[w:Acheson–Lilienthal Report|Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy]]'' (generally known as the Acheson–Lilienthal Report) is created during the early {{w|Cold War}}, proposing a plan to prevent a nuclear arms race by advocating the sharing of nuclear energy knowledge and implementing inspections for peaceful use. The report recommends international cooperation with an agency possessing affirmative powers and inspection capabilities. It also suggests a progressive disclosure of nuclear information. The report emphasizes the importance of maintaining U.S. security during international discussions and the gradual transfer of authority over nuclear-related activities. However, American financier {{w|Bernard Baruch}} later modifies the plan as the {{w|Baruch Plan}}, which would be rejected by the {{w|Soviet Union}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Acheson-Lilienthal Report - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/key-documents/acheson-lilienthal-report/#:~:text=The%20Acheson%2DLilienthal%20Report%20was,development%20for%20only%20peaceful%20use. |website=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/baruch-plans |website=history.state.gov |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1945 (October 18) || Risk || Comprehensive || Nuclear weapon program   || The French Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique; CEA) is establishes by General {{w|Charles de Gaulle}} with the goal of exploiting the scientific, industrial, and military potential of atomic energy.<ref name="Nuclear weapon - France">{{cite web |title=Nuclear weapon - France, Deterrence, Testing {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/nuclear-weapon/France |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=15 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
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-| 1946 (June) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States government proposes the {{w|Baruch Plan}} to the {{w|United Nations Atomic Energy Commission}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/baruch-plans#:~:text=On%20June%2014%2C%201946%2C%20before,an%20international%20Atomic%20Development%20Authority. |website=history.state.gov |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> The plan aims to achieve global cooperation on nuclear control by decommissioning all US atomic weapons and sharing nuclear technology with other countries, on the condition that they pledge not to produce atomic weapons and accept strict inspections and sanctions. The plan also proposes creating an International Atomic Development Authority under the United Nations to control nuclear energy. However, the Soviet Union rejects the plan, fearing it would maintain the US nuclear monopoly, and the Cold War nuclear arms race ensues. The Baruch Plan would remain significant in discussions about international nuclear cooperation and arms control.<ref>{{cite web |last1=GERBER |first1=LARRY G. |title=The Baruch Plan and the Origins of the Cold War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24911302 |website=Diplomatic History |access-date=23 September 2022 |pages=69–95 |date=1982}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1946 (March) || Prevention  || Intentional || Notable publication || The ''[[w:Acheson–Lilienthal Report|Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy]]'' (generally known as the Acheson–Lilienthal Report) is created during the early {{w|Cold War}}, proposing a plan to prevent a nuclear arms race by advocating the sharing of nuclear energy knowledge and implementing inspections for peaceful use. The report recommends international cooperation with an agency possessing affirmative powers and inspection capabilities. It also suggests a progressive disclosure of nuclear information. The report emphasizes the importance of maintaining U.S. security during international discussions and the gradual transfer of authority over nuclear-related activities. However, American statesman {{w|Bernard Baruch}}, an advisor of U.S. president [[w:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt ]] during {{w|World War II}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Bernard Baruch {{!}} Biography, World War I, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bernard-Baruch |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=20 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>, later modifies the plan into what would be known as {{w|Baruch Plan}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/baruch-plans |website=history.state.gov |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
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-| 1946 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (national) || The {{w|Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission}} (CNSC) is established as the federal regulator of nuclear power and materials in Canada, replacing the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB). Today, its mandate, under the Nuclear Safety and Control Act of 1997, is to regulate nuclear energy, substances, and equipment to reduce safety, environmental, and national security risks, and to comply with international obligations such as the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}. The CNSC reports to the Parliament of Canada through the Minister of Natural Resources.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bloomberg - Are you a robot? |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/8113810Z:CN?leadSource=uverify+wall |website=www.bloomberg.com |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Canada}}
+| 1946 (June) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States government proposes the {{w|Baruch Plan}} to the {{w|United Nations Atomic Energy Commission}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/baruch-plans#:~:text=On%20June%2014%2C%201946%2C%20before,an%20international%20Atomic%20Development%20Authority. |website=history.state.gov |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> The plan aims to achieve global cooperation on nuclear control by decommissioning all US atomic weapons and sharing nuclear technology with other countries, on the condition that they pledge not to produce atomic weapons and accept strict inspections and sanctions. The plan also proposes creating an International Atomic Development Authority under the United Nations to control nuclear energy. However, the Soviet Union rejects the plan, fearing it would maintain the US nuclear monopoly, and the Cold War nuclear arms race ensues. The Baruch Plan would remain significant in discussions about international nuclear cooperation and arms control.<ref>{{cite web |last1=GERBER |first1=LARRY G. |title=The Baruch Plan and the Origins of the Cold War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24911302 |website=Diplomatic History |access-date=23 September 2022 |pages=69–95 |date=1982}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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-| 1946 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || {{w|Albert Einstein}} and {{w|Leó Szilárd}} establish the {{w|Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists}} (ECAS) with the goal of warning the public about the dangers of nuclear weapons and promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mian |first1=Zia |title=Out of the nuclear shadow: Scientists and the struggle against the Bomb |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=January 2015 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0096340214563680}}</ref> The committee, consisting of eight members, including prominent scientists like Linus Pauling and Hans Bethe, advocated for world peace to prevent the use of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Guide to the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists Records 1946-1952 |url=https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.ECAS |website=www.lib.uchicago.edu |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> ECAS would oppose the development of the hydrogen bomb and would conduct lecture tours and produce materials to support their message.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1946-05-25 |title=ATOMIC EDUCATION URGED BY EINSTEIN; Scientist in Plea for $200,000 to Promote New Type of Essential Thinking |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1946/05/25/archives/atomic-education-urged-by-einstein-scientist-in-plea-for-200000-to.html |access-date=2023-08-24 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Einstein's Page |url=http://www.turnthetide.info/id54.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061112101616/http://www.turnthetide.info/id54.htm |archive-date=2006-11-12 |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=TurnTheTide}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Young, Mrs. Sanford N., March 15, 1947. |url=https://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/omeka/exhibits/show/ecas/item/26211 |access-date=2023-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Zlotowski, Dr. Ignace, May 26, 1947. |url=https://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/omeka/exhibits/show/ecas/item/26256 |access-date=2023-08-23}}</ref> Despite initial fundraising success, the committee would be disbanded in 1950, with members continuing to campaign against nuclear war and participating in the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feld |first=Bernard T.|title=Einstein and the politics of nuclear weapons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7goAAAAAMBAJ |journal={{w|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}} |publication-date= |volume=35 |issue=3 |page=14 |access-date=2023-08-24 |via={{w|Google Books}}}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1946 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (national) || The {{w|Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission}} (CNSC) is established as the federal regulator of nuclear power and materials in Canada, replacing the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB). Today, its mandate, under the Nuclear Safety and Control Act of 1997, is to regulate nuclear energy, substances, and equipment to reduce safety, environmental, and national security risks, and to comply with international obligations such as the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}. The CNSC reports to the Parliament of Canada through the Minister of Natural Resources.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bloomberg - Are you a robot? |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/8113810Z:CN?leadSource=uverify+wall |website=www.bloomberg.com |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Canada}}
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-| 1949 (August 29) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || The {{w|Soviet Union}} conducts its first nuclear weapon test using the {{w|RDS-1}}, also known as Izdeliye 501 or First Lightning.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nations |first1=United |title=End Nuclear Tests Day - History |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/end-nuclear-tests-day/history |website=United Nations |access-date=2 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The bomb has a yield of 22 kilotons TNT equivalent and was an implosion-type weapon with a solid plutonium core.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPRVbYDc-7kC&pg=PA441|title=Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces|last1=Bukharin|first1=Oleg|last2=Podvig|first2=Pavel Leonardovich|last3=Hippel|first3=Frank Von|date=2004|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-66181-2|pages=441|language=en}}</ref> The test's effects are more destructive than anticipated.<ref name="rds-1-1949">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfHYz25l-sQ&t=512s ''First Soviet atomic bomb. Film report (1949)'']</ref> Western powers become surprised by the test, as they had underestimated the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities.<ref name="aldrich199807">{{cite journal | title=British Intelligence and the Anglo-American 'Special Relationship' during the Cold War | last=Aldrich|first= Richard J. | journal=Review of International Studies |date=July 1998 | volume=24 | issue=3 | pages=331–351 | doi=10.1017/S0260210598003313}}</ref> The United States, in response, begins tracking nuclear fallout debris to confirm the test. President Harry S. Truman publicly acknowledges the Soviet test on September 23, 1949, marking a pivotal moment in the early stages of the {{w|Cold War}} and leading to increased pressure to develop {{w|hydrogen bomb}}s.<ref name="Truman">{{cite web |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm |title=The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology |editor-first=Raymond H. |editor-last=Geselbracht |location=Harry S. Truman Library |access-date=13 August 2016 |archive-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626220210/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1946 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || {{w|Albert Einstein}} and {{w|Leó Szilárd}} establish the {{w|Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists}} (ECAS) with the goal of warning the public about the dangers of nuclear weapons and promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mian |first1=Zia |title=Out of the nuclear shadow: Scientists and the struggle against the Bomb |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=January 2015 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0096340214563680}}</ref> The committee, consisting of eight members, including prominent scientists like Linus Pauling and Hans Bethe, advocates for world peace to prevent the use of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Guide to the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists Records 1946-1952 |url=https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.ECAS |website=www.lib.uchicago.edu |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> ECAS would oppose the development of the hydrogen bomb and would conduct lecture tours and produce materials to support their message.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1946-05-25 |title=ATOMIC EDUCATION URGED BY EINSTEIN; Scientist in Plea for $200,000 to Promote New Type of Essential Thinking |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1946/05/25/archives/atomic-education-urged-by-einstein-scientist-in-plea-for-200000-to.html |access-date=2023-08-24 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Einstein's Page |url=http://www.turnthetide.info/id54.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061112101616/http://www.turnthetide.info/id54.htm |archive-date=2006-11-12 |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=TurnTheTide}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Young, Mrs. Sanford N., March 15, 1947. |url=https://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/omeka/exhibits/show/ecas/item/26211 |access-date=2023-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Zlotowski, Dr. Ignace, May 26, 1947. |url=https://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/omeka/exhibits/show/ecas/item/26256 |access-date=2023-08-23}}</ref> Despite initial fundraising success, the committee would be disbanded in 1950, likely due to political and financial issues as well as the burden placed on Einstein.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2010/08/04/the-emergency-committee-of-atomic-scientists/ |website=PaulingBlog |access-date=20 January 2024 |language=en |date=4 August 2010}}</ref> However, members would continue to campaign against nuclear war, participating in the {{w|Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feld |first=Bernard T.|title=Einstein and the politics of nuclear weapons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7goAAAAAMBAJ |journal={{w|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}} |publication-date= |volume=35 |issue=3 |page=14 |access-date=2023-08-24 |via={{w|Google Books}}}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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-| 1952 (June 13) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Israel Atomic Energy Commission}} (IAEC) is established as the primary nuclear regulatory authority of Israel. Concealed from the public until 1954, the IAEC oversees two research centers and advises the government on nuclear policy, representing Israel internationally. Key units include the Department for Nuclear Engineering (promoting reactor and nuclear power infrastructure, including desalination research), the Licensing and Safety Department (formulating safety policies, managing nuclear power stations and waste, and overseeing radiation dangers), and the Unit for Diplomatic Relations. Since 1966, the IAEC Chairman would be the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |title=Israel Atomic Energy Commission |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/facilities/israel-atomic-energy-commission/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Israel Atomic Energy Commission |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/facilities/israel-atomic-energy-commission/ |website=nti.org |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
+| 1947 || Risk || Intentional || Notable warning || The {{w|Doomsday Clock}} is introduced, and set seven minutes to midnight.<ref>{{cite web |title=Doomsday Clock moved to just two minutes to 'apocalypse' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42823734 |website=BBC News |access-date=7 July 2022 |date=25 January 2018}}</ref> It is a symbol that represents the likelihood of a man-made [[w:Global catastrophic risk|global catastrophe]], in the opinion of the members of the ''{{w|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sinclaire |first1=Janice |title=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Announces Leadership Changes to Governing Board, Board of Sponsors, and Science and Security Board |url=https://thebulletin.org/2016/03/bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists-announces-leadership-changes-to-governing-board-board-of-sponsors-and-science-and-security-board/ |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |access-date=20 July 2022 |date=9 March 2016}}</ref> ||
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-| 1952 (October 3) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|Operation Hurricane}} is conducted in the Montebello Islands, Western Australia, as the first British nuclear test, driven by the desire to maintain its status as a global power and not rely solely on the United States for atomic capabilities. The decision to develop the bomb is initially kept secret, with only a few officials aware of it. The test takes place off the coast of Australia to avoid mainland contamination. The bomb is detonated on the anchored frigate [[w:HMS Plym (K271)|HMS Plym]], resulting in a massive explosion that vaporizes the ship and sends debris into the air. The operation is deemed successful, and no casualties are reported.<ref>{{cite web |title=First British Atomic Bomb Test {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/first-british-atomic-bomb-test |website=www.historytoday.com |access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|Australia}}
+| 1949 (August 29) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || The {{w|Soviet Union}} conducts its first nuclear weapon test using the {{w|RDS-1}}, also known as Izdeliye 501 or First Lightning.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nations |first1=United |title=End Nuclear Tests Day - History |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/end-nuclear-tests-day/history |website=United Nations |access-date=2 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The bomb has a yield of 22 kilotons TNT equivalent and is an implosion-type weapon with a solid plutonium core.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPRVbYDc-7kC&pg=PA441|title=Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces|last1=Bukharin|first1=Oleg|last2=Podvig|first2=Pavel Leonardovich|last3=Hippel|first3=Frank Von|date=2004|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-66181-2|pages=441|language=en}}</ref> The test's effects are more destructive than anticipated.<ref name="rds-1-1949">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfHYz25l-sQ&t=512s ''First Soviet atomic bomb. Film report (1949)'']</ref> Western powers become surprised by the test, as they had underestimated the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities.<ref name="aldrich199807">{{cite journal | title=British Intelligence and the Anglo-American 'Special Relationship' during the Cold War | last=Aldrich|first= Richard J. | journal=Review of International Studies |date=July 1998 | volume=24 | issue=3 | pages=331–351 | doi=10.1017/S0260210598003313}}</ref> The United States, in response, begins tracking nuclear fallout debris to confirm the test. President Harry S. Truman publicly acknowledges the Soviet test on September 23, 1949, marking a pivotal moment in the early stages of the {{w|Cold War}} and leading to increased pressure to develop {{w|hydrogen bomb}}s.<ref name="Truman">{{cite web |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm |title=The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology |editor-first=Raymond H. |editor-last=Geselbracht |location=Harry S. Truman Library |access-date=13 August 2016 |archive-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626220210/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}
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-| 1953 (December 8) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Atoms for Peace}} speech is delivered by President {{w|Dwight D. Eisenhower}} to the {{w|United Nations General Assembly}}. In the speech, Eisenhower discusses the language of atomic warfare and proposes an international program called "Atoms for Peace." The program aims to share nuclear technology, equipment, and information for peaceful purposes like research, medicine, and energy production. It seeks to assure the world that the United States intends to use nuclear energy for constructive purposes and not for war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Atoms for Peace Speech |url=https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en |date=16 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" Speech - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/key-documents/eisenhowers-atoms-peace-speech/ |website=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org|access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> However, the program would also face criticism for being a propaganda component of the Cold War strategy of containment and for contributing to the nuclear arms race.<ref name=nei-20140123>{{cite news |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/features/feature60-years-of-atoms-for-peace-4164653/ |title=60 Years of Atoms for Peace |author=Jessica C. Varnum |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=23 January 2014 |access-date=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref name=isis-online-20151007>{{cite report |url=https://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/Civil_Stocks_of_HEU_Worldwide_October_7_2015_Final.pdf |title=Civil HEU Watch: Tracking Inventories of Civil Highly Enriched Uranium |author1=David Albright |author2=Serena Kelleher-Vergantini |publisher=Institute for Science and International Security |date=7 October 2015 |access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fuhrmann|first=Matthew|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.cttn34vg|title=Atomic Assistance: How "Atoms for Peace" Programs Cause Nuclear Insecurity|date=2012|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5090-7|edition=|jstor=10.7591/j.cttn34vg}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fuhrmann|first=Matthew|date=2009-03-09|title=Spreading Temptation: Proliferation and Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation Agreements|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1356091|journal=International Security|volume=34|pages=7–41|doi=10.1162/isec.2009.34.1.7|language=en}}</ref> ||
+| 1950 || Prevention  || Intentional || Notable warning || {{w|Leo Szilard}} alarms the world with the announcement of a potential doomsday bomb, a massive cobalt-clad H-bomb capable of ending all life on Earth. This revelation, made on American radio, marks the realization of mankind's godlike power to destroy life. The shockwave from Szilard's statement would reverberate throughout the following decades. Although no superpower would admit to creating the {{w|cobalt bomb}}, it would remain a possibility.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=P. D. |title=Doomsday Men: The Real Dr. Strangelove and the Dream of the Superweapon |url=https://books.google.hn/books?id=cM3ckFXlvpwC |website=books.google |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |access-date=20 January 2024 |language=en |date=10 December 2007}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
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-| 1954 (December 26) || Risk case || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program   || The French cabinet discusses proceeding with a French atomic bomb, leading Prime Minister {{w|Pierre Mendès France}} to launch a secret program for atomic bomb development.<ref name="Nuclear weapon - France"/> || {{w|France}}
+| 1952 (June 13) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Israel Atomic Energy Commission}} (IAEC) is established as the primary nuclear regulatory authority of Israel. Concealed from the public until 1954, the IAEC oversees two research centers and advises the government on nuclear policy, representing Israel internationally. Key units include the Department for Nuclear Engineering (promoting reactor and nuclear power infrastructure, including desalination research), the Licensing and Safety Department (formulating safety policies, managing nuclear power stations and waste, and overseeing radiation dangers), and the Unit for Diplomatic Relations. Since 1966, the IAEC Chairman would be the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |title=Israel Atomic Energy Commission |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/facilities/israel-atomic-energy-commission/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Israel Atomic Energy Commission |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/facilities/israel-atomic-energy-commission/ |website=nti.org |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
 |-
-| 1955 (January 15) || Risk case || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program   || The Chinese nuclear weapons program is officially initiated. The Soviet Union agrees to provide significant assistance.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Chinese nuclear tests, 1964–1996 |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/61/9/47/413439/The-Chinese-nuclear-tests-1964-1996A-combination |website=pubs.aip.org |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=1954-1959: The Soviet Union Aids China in the Development of its Nuclear Weapons Program {{!}} Nuclear Weapons Education Project |url=https://nuclearweaponsedproj.mit.edu/1954-1959-soviet-union-aids-china-development-its-nuclear-weapons-program |website=nuclearweaponsedproj.mit.edu |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
+| 1952 (October 3) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|Operation Hurricane}} is conducted in the Montebello Islands, Western Australia, as the first British nuclear test, driven by the desire to maintain its status as a global power and not rely solely on the United States for atomic capabilities. The decision to develop the bomb is initially kept secret, with only a few officials aware of it. The test takes place off the coast of Australia to avoid mainland contamination. The bomb is detonated on the anchored frigate [[w:HMS Plym (K271)|HMS Plym]], resulting in a massive explosion that vaporizes the ship and sends debris into the air. The operation is deemed successful, and no casualties are reported.<ref>{{cite web |title=First British Atomic Bomb Test {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/first-british-atomic-bomb-test |website=www.historytoday.com |access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|Australia}}
 |-
-| 1955 || Prevention case || Intentional (terrorist) || Organization (national) || The {{w|UK Atomic Energy Authority Constabulary}} is established as the armed {{w|security police}} force of the {{w|United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority}} with the purpose to counter potential terrorist threats. It would operate until 1 April 2005.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baraniuk |first1=Chris |title=The officers who protect Britain's nuclear plants |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170504-the-crucial-role-of-britains-nuclear-police |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=4 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=British Police History |url=https://british-police-history.uk/f/ukaea |website=british-police-history.uk |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=British Police History |url=https://british-police-history.uk/f/ukaea |website=british-police-history.uk |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=British Police History |url=https://british-police-history.uk/f/ukaea |website=british-police-history.uk |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 1953 (December 8) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Atoms for Peace}} speech is delivered by President {{w|Dwight D. Eisenhower}} to the {{w|United Nations General Assembly}}. In the speech, Eisenhower discusses the language of atomic warfare and proposes an international program called "Atoms for Peace." The program aims to share nuclear technology, equipment, and information for peaceful purposes like research, medicine, and energy production. It seeks to assure the world that the United States intends to use nuclear energy for constructive purposes and not for war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Atoms for Peace Speech |url=https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en |date=16 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" Speech - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/key-documents/eisenhowers-atoms-peace-speech/ |website=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org|access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> However, the program would also face criticism for being a propaganda component of the Cold War strategy of containment and for contributing to the nuclear arms race.<ref name=nei-20140123>{{cite news |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/features/feature60-years-of-atoms-for-peace-4164653/ |title=60 Years of Atoms for Peace |author=Jessica C. Varnum |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=23 January 2014 |access-date=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref name=isis-online-20151007>{{cite report |url=https://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/Civil_Stocks_of_HEU_Worldwide_October_7_2015_Final.pdf |title=Civil HEU Watch: Tracking Inventories of Civil Highly Enriched Uranium |author1=David Albright |author2=Serena Kelleher-Vergantini |publisher=Institute for Science and International Security |date=7 October 2015 |access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fuhrmann|first=Matthew|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.cttn34vg|title=Atomic Assistance: How "Atoms for Peace" Programs Cause Nuclear Insecurity|date=2012|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5090-7|edition=|jstor=10.7591/j.cttn34vg}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fuhrmann|first=Matthew|date=2009-03-09|title=Spreading Temptation: Proliferation and Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation Agreements|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1356091|journal=International Security|volume=34|pages=7–41|doi=10.1162/isec.2009.34.1.7|language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1955 || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Mainau Declaration}} emerges from a meeting of Nobel laureates in response to the growing nuclear threat. Inspired by {{w|Albert Schweitzer}} and {{w|Werner Heisenberg}}, the laureates from various countries and backgrounds urge political leaders in both East and West to reject the use of force as a means of politics. They specifically warn against the catastrophic consequences of atomic weapons, highlighting the potential for global devastation and the peril of even small conflicts escalating. The declaration emphasizes that nations must renounce force as a last resort, or they risk their own existence. Initially signed by eighteen laureates, the declaration calls for a commitment to peace amid the nuclear age.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mainau Declaration |url=http://www.mainaudeclaration.org/about |website=www.mainaudeclaration.org |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
+| 1954 (March 1) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || The United States tests its largest thermonuclear weapon test in {{w|Bikini Atoll}}; the detonation being code-named “{{w|Castle Bravo}}”.<ref>{{cite web |title=1 March 1954 - Castle Bravo: CTBTO Preparatory Commission |url=https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/1-march-1954-castle-bravo |website=www.ctbto.org |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1956 || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The Brazilian National Commission for Nuclear Energy (CNEN) is established to oversee all nuclear activities in Brazil. Undergoing reorganization with its responsibilities defined by new laws and amendments, CNEN would subsequently evolve into the regulatory authority responsible for regulating, licensing, and monitoring nuclear energy, while nuclear electricity generation would be transferred to the electricity sector.<ref>{{cite web |title=SIXTH NATIONAL REPORT OF BRAZIL |url=http://antigo.cnen.gov.br/images/cnen/documentos/drs/relatorios-de-convencao/NationalReportOfBrazil_13.pdf |website=antigo.cnen.gov.br |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Brazil}}
+| 1954 (December 26) || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program || The French cabinet discusses proceeding with a French atomic bomb, leading Prime Minister {{w|Pierre Mendès France}} to launch a secret program for atomic bomb development.<ref name="Nuclear weapon - France"/> || {{w|France}}
 |-
-| 1957 (July 29) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} (IAEA) is established as an autonomous intergovernmental organization, following US President {{w|Dwight D. Eisenhower}}'s proposal for an international body to oversee nuclear resources. The IAEA aims to promote peaceful uses of atomic energy, ensure its assistance isn't militarized, and prevent nuclear weapon proliferation. It provides technical aid, conducts research, and facilitates conferences. Under the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}, non-nuclear states must negotiate safeguards with the IAEA, granting the agency authority to monitor and inspect nuclear programs and facilities. The organization's governance involves a General Conference, Board of Governors, and a Secretariat, all headquartered in {{w|Vienna}}. In 2005, the IAEA and its director general, {{w|Mohamed ElBaradei}}, would receive the {{w|Nobel Peace Prize}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.iaea.org/about/overview/history |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=22 September 2022 |language=en |date=8 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT">{{cite web |title=Timeline of the NPT |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/system/files/NPT_Timeline.pdf |website=armscontrol.org |access-date=25 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Atomic-Energy-Agency |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=1 November 2023 |language=en |date=30 October 2023}}</ref> || [[w:Member states of the International Atomic Energy Agency|178 member states]]
+| 1955 (January 15) || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program   || The Chinese nuclear weapons program is officially initiated. The Soviet Union agrees to provide significant assistance.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Chinese nuclear tests, 1964–1996 |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/61/9/47/413439/The-Chinese-nuclear-tests-1964-1996A-combination |website=pubs.aip.org |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=1954-1959: The Soviet Union Aids China in the Development of its Nuclear Weapons Program {{!}} Nuclear Weapons Education Project |url=https://nuclearweaponsedproj.mit.edu/1954-1959-soviet-union-aids-china-development-its-nuclear-weapons-program |website=nuclearweaponsedproj.mit.edu |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 |-
-| 1957 (September 29) || Risk case || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Kyshtym disaster}} occurs when buried nuclear waste explodes at a plutonium-processing plant near {{w|Kyshtym, Chelyabinsk oblast}}, Russia (then in the U.S.S.R.). The Soviet government initially denies the event, which contaminates about 9,000 square miles of land, leading to over 10,000 evacuations, and likely causing hundreds of deaths due to radioactivity. It would be classified as a Level 6 accident on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale. The disaster results from a malfunctioning cooling system in a waste tank, leading to a nonnuclear explosion equivalent to 70 tons of TNT. Fallout contains {{w|cesium-137}} and {{w|strontium-90}}, impacting hundreds of thousands of people. It would remain largely unknown until 1976.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kyshtym disaster {{!}} Causes, Concealment, Revelation, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Kyshtym-disaster |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en |date=22 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}
+| 1955 || Prevention  || Intentional (terrorist) || Organization (national) || The {{w|UK Atomic Energy Authority Constabulary}} is established as the armed {{w|security police}} force of the {{w|United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority}} with the purpose to counter potential terrorist threats. It would operate until 1 April 2005.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baraniuk |first1=Chris |title=The officers who protect Britain's nuclear plants |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170504-the-crucial-role-of-britains-nuclear-police |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=4 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=British Police History |url=https://british-police-history.uk/f/ukaea |website=british-police-history.uk |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref>  || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
-| 1957 (October 10) || Risk case || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Windscale fire}} occurrs at the Windscale nuclear reactor facility in {{w|Cumbria}}, {{w|England}}, making it UK's most severe nuclear accident. During a routine heating procedure in the No. 1 reactor, the graphite control blocks overheated, causing nearby uranium cartridges to rupture. This leads to a fire burning for 16 hours, releasing radioactive materials. Approximately 10 tons of radioactive fuel melts in the reactor core, and significant amounts of radioactive {{w|iodine}} are released into the atmosphere. The incident prompts a ban on milk sales in a 500-square-km area around the reactor site. The contaminated reactor is sealed until the late 1980s when cleanup efforts begin, expected to conclude in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=Windscale fire {{!}} Nuclear Disaster, Cumbrian Village {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Windscale-fire |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=4 November 2023 |language=en |date=18 October 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 1955 ||  Prevention || Intentional || Notable warning || A group of prominent scientists, including Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein, write what would come to be known as the {{w|Russell–Einstein Manifesto}}, according to which: “No one knows how widely such lethal radioactive particles might be diffused, but the best authorities are unanimous in saying that a war with H-bombs might possibly put an end to the human race… sudden only for a minority, but for the majority a slow torture of disease and disintegration.”<ref name="Torres">{{cite journal |last1=Beard |first1=Simon |last2=Torres |first2=Phil |title=Ripples on the Great Sea of Life: A Brief History of Existential Risk Studies |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |date=2020 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3730000}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1957 (November) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament}} (CND) is launched in Britain as a program dedicated to advocating for nuclear disarmament. CND would become a prominent movement and play a crucial role in raising awareness about the dangers of nuclear weapons and pushing for global nuclear disarmament efforts. The campaign's focus is on promoting peace and eliminating the threat posed by nuclear arms, aiming to create a world free from the devastating impact of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who we are - |url=https://cnduk.org/who/ |website=cnduk.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Records of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament |url=https://library.udel.edu/special/fin |website=library.udel.edu |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 1955 || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Mainau Declaration}} emerges from a meeting of Nobel laureates in response to the growing nuclear threat. Inspired by {{w|Albert Schweitzer}} and {{w|Werner Heisenberg}}, the laureates from various countries and backgrounds urge political leaders in both East and West to reject the use of force as a means of politics. They specifically warn against the catastrophic consequences of atomic weapons, highlighting the potential for global devastation and the peril of even small conflicts escalating. The declaration emphasizes that nations must renounce force as a last resort, or they risk their own existence. Initially signed by eighteen laureates, the declaration calls for a commitment to peace amid the nuclear age.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mainau Declaration |url=http://www.mainaudeclaration.org/about |website=www.mainaudeclaration.org |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
 |-
-| 1958 (May 17) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|Institute of Nuclear Materials Management}} (INMM) is founded, with its first meeting held in 1959, jointly sponsored by INMM and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Originally formed due to discussions on the need for an independent organization providing expertise in nuclear materials management, INMM would grow to serve as a global resource for scientific, technical, and policy expertise in nuclear materials management, with over 1,200 members, 16 Professional Chapters (10 international), and 24 Student Chapters (10 international). INMM's activities include workshops, an Annual Meeting, the Journal of Nuclear Materials Management, collaboration agreements, support for national standards, and educational programs. INMM collaborates with global entities like the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} (IAEA) and the {{w|European Safeguards Research and Development Association}} (ESARDA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Institute of Nuclear Materials Management History |url=https://inmm.org/page/history#:~:text=The%20Institute%20of%20Nuclear%20Materials,Pittsburgh%2C%20Pennsylvania%20in%20October%201958. |website=inmm.org |access-date=8 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Institute of Nuclear Materials Management History |url=https://inmm.org/page/history |website=inmm.org |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1956 || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The Brazilian National Commission for Nuclear Energy (CNEN) is established to oversee all nuclear activities in Brazil. Undergoing reorganization with its responsibilities defined by new laws and amendments, CNEN would subsequently evolve into the regulatory authority responsible for regulating, licensing, and monitoring nuclear energy, while nuclear electricity generation would be transferred to the electricity sector.<ref>{{cite web |title=SIXTH NATIONAL REPORT OF BRAZIL |url=http://antigo.cnen.gov.br/images/cnen/documentos/drs/relatorios-de-convencao/NationalReportOfBrazil_13.pdf |website=antigo.cnen.gov.br |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Brazil}}
 |-
-| 1958 (October 17) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || {{w|Ireland}} proposes the first resolution at the United Nations to prohibit the “further dissemination of nuclear weapons.”<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Ireland}}
+| 1957 || Prevention || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs}} commence, initiated by {{w|Bertrand Russell}} and {{w|Joseph Rotblat}}. These international gatherings, addressing nuclear weapons and global security, begin at the estate of philanthropist Cyrus Eaton in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. The conferences, spanning various countries, would facilitate discussions on arms reduction during the {{w|Cold War}}, providing a crucial channel of communication between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Pugwash would also explore scientists' societal responsibilities regarding economic development, population growth, and environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pugwash Conferences {{!}} Nuclear Disarmament, Peaceful Coexistence & Cold War {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Pugwash-Conferences |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=20 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pugwash Literature Review |url=https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/100070/pugwash_literature_review_0.pdf |website=urban.org |access-date=20 January 2024}}</ref> In 1995, Pugwash and Rotblat would jointly receive the {{w|Nobel Peace Prize}} for their efforts in reducing the role of nuclear arms in international politics.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1995 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1995/press-release/ |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=20 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs - EA Forum |url=https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/topics/pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs |website=forum.effectivealtruism.org |access-date=20 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
 |-
-| 1960 (February 13) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|France}} conducts its first nuclear test explosion, becoming the world’s fourth {{w|nuclear state}}, after the {{w|United States}}, the {{w|Soviet Union}}, and the {{w|United Kingdom}}.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref name="Nuclear weapon - France"/> || {{w|France}}, {{w|Algeria}}
+| 1957 (July 29) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} (IAEA) is established as an autonomous intergovernmental organization, following US President {{w|Dwight D. Eisenhower}}'s proposal for an international body to oversee nuclear resources. The IAEA aims to promote peaceful uses of atomic energy, ensure its assistance isn't militarized, and prevent nuclear weapon proliferation. It provides technical aid, conducts research, and facilitates conferences. Under the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}, non-nuclear states must negotiate safeguards with the IAEA, granting the agency authority to monitor and inspect nuclear programs and facilities. The organization's governance involves a General Conference, Board of Governors, and a Secretariat, all headquartered in {{w|Vienna}}. In 2005, the IAEA and its director general, {{w|Mohamed ElBaradei}}, would receive the {{w|Nobel Peace Prize}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.iaea.org/about/overview/history |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=22 September 2022 |language=en |date=8 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT">{{cite web |title=Timeline of the NPT |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/system/files/NPT_Timeline.pdf |website=armscontrol.org |access-date=25 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Atomic-Energy-Agency |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=1 November 2023 |language=en |date=30 October 2023}}</ref> || [[w:Member states of the International Atomic Energy Agency|178 member states]]
 |-
-| 1960 (June 1) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || During its Forty-fourth Session, the General Conference of the {{w|International Labour Organization}} convenes in Geneva and adopts the [[w:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960|Radiation Protection Convention]]. This convention applies to all activities involving worker exposure to ionising radiations and outlines measures to protect workers' health and safety. It sets maximum permissible doses and amounts for radiation exposure, prohibits the employment of workers under 16 in radiation work, and mandates medical examinations for workers involved in radiation work. Member countries ratifying the convention are obligated to provide appropriate inspection services to supervise its application. The convention becomes binding upon registration of ratifications and allows for periodic revision.<ref>{{cite web |title=C115 - Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 (No. 115) |url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C115 |website=ilo.org |access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 1957 (September 29) || Risk || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Kyshtym disaster}} occurs when buried nuclear waste explodes at a plutonium-processing plant near {{w|Kyshtym, Chelyabinsk oblast}}, Russia (then in the U.S.S.R.). The Soviet government initially denies the event, which contaminates about 9,000 square miles of land, leading to over 10,000 evacuations, and likely causing hundreds of deaths due to radioactivity. It would be classified as a Level 6 accident on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale. The disaster results from a malfunctioning cooling system in a waste tank, leading to a nonnuclear explosion equivalent to 70 tons of TNT. Fallout contains {{w|cesium-137}} and {{w|strontium-90}}, impacting hundreds of thousands of people. It would remain largely unknown until 1976.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kyshtym disaster {{!}} Causes, Concealment, Revelation, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Kyshtym-disaster |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en |date=22 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 1961 (December 4) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations General Assembly}} unanimously adopts Resolution 1665, which is built upon an earlier draft resolution from Ireland. The resolution urges for negotiations to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons to additional states. Its key provisions require countries already possessing nuclear weapons to commit to retaining control over them and refraining from sharing information for their production with non-nuclear states. Simultaneously, countries without nuclear weapons agree not to acquire or develop such weapons. These fundamental principles lay the groundwork for the creation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), a landmark international agreement aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting disarmament.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref>{{cite web |title=A/RES/1665 (XVI) : UN Documents : Security Council Report |url=https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/document/disarm-ares1665.php#:~:text=This%20resolution%20called%20for%20legally,work%20towards%20their%20eventual%20elimination. |website=www.securitycouncilreport.org |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Nations General Assembly}} members
+| 1957 (October 10) || Risk || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Windscale fire}} occurrs at the Windscale nuclear reactor facility in {{w|Cumbria}}, {{w|England}}, making it UK's most severe nuclear accident. During a routine heating procedure in the No. 1 reactor, the graphite control blocks overheated, causing nearby uranium cartridges to rupture. This leads to a fire burning for 16 hours, releasing radioactive materials. Approximately 10 tons of radioactive fuel melts in the reactor core, and significant amounts of radioactive {{w|iodine}} are released into the atmosphere. The incident prompts a ban on milk sales in a 500-square-km area around the reactor site. The contaminated reactor is sealed until the late 1980s when cleanup efforts begin, expected to conclude in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=Windscale fire {{!}} Nuclear Disaster, Cumbrian Village {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Windscale-fire |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=4 November 2023 |language=en |date=18 October 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
-| 1961 (December 20) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|McCloy–Zorin Accords}} are agreed upon by the United States and the USSR, as a basis for future multilateral negotiations on disarmament. The goal is to achieve general and complete disarmament, with war no longer being an instrument for settling international problems. The program proposes a phased approach to disarmament, including the disbanding of armed forces, elimination of weapons stockpiles, and cessation of military expenditures. Strict and effective international control would ensure all parties' compliance, and measures to strengthen institutions for maintaining peace were to accompany disarmament. The goal is to achieve the widest possible agreement on the total disarmament program at the earliest possible date.<ref>{{cite web |title=Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Disarmament and Abolition: McCloy-Zorin Accords |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/arms-control-disarmament/mccloy-zorin-accords_1961-09-20.htm |website=www.nuclearfiles.org |access-date=4 August 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1957 (November) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament}} (CND) is launched in Britain as a program dedicated to advocating for nuclear disarmament. CND would become a prominent movement and play a crucial role in raising awareness about the dangers of nuclear weapons and pushing for global nuclear disarmament efforts. The campaign's focus is on promoting peace and eliminating the threat posed by nuclear arms, aiming to create a world free from the devastating impact of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who we are - |url=https://cnduk.org/who/ |website=cnduk.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Records of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament |url=https://library.udel.edu/special/fin |website=library.udel.edu |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
-| 1962 || Prevention case || Intentional  || Concept development || The concept of {{w|Mutual assured destruction}} (MAD) emerges as a strategic doctrine. MAD is based on the belief that if two nuclear-armed adversaries possess enough weapons to guarantee mutual destruction in the event of a nuclear war, it would deter both sides from initiating such an attack. The idea is that the fear of catastrophic retaliation would prevent any rational actor from launching a nuclear strike. This concept would play a significant role in shaping nuclear policies and arms control efforts during the tense period of the Cold War.<ref>{{cite web |title=How did we forget about mutually assured destruction? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17026538 |website=BBC News |access-date=4 August 2023 |date=15 February 2012}}</ref> ||
+| 1958 (May 17) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|Institute of Nuclear Materials Management}} (INMM) is founded, with its first meeting held in 1959, jointly sponsored by INMM and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Originally formed due to discussions on the need for an independent organization providing expertise in nuclear materials management, INMM would grow to serve as a global resource for scientific, technical, and policy expertise in nuclear materials management, with over 1,200 members, 16 Professional Chapters (10 international), and 24 Student Chapters (10 international). INMM's activities include workshops, an Annual Meeting, the Journal of Nuclear Materials Management, collaboration agreements, support for national standards, and educational programs. INMM collaborates with global entities like the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} (IAEA) and the {{w|European Safeguards Research and Development Association}} (ESARDA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Institute of Nuclear Materials Management History |url=https://inmm.org/page/history#:~:text=The%20Institute%20of%20Nuclear%20Materials,Pittsburgh%2C%20Pennsylvania%20in%20October%201958. |website=inmm.org |access-date=8 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Institute of Nuclear Materials Management History |url=https://inmm.org/page/history |website=inmm.org |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1962 (October) || Risk case || Intentional  || Risk augmentation || The {{w|Cuban Missile Crisis}} marks a critical moment in the Cold War when the United States and the Soviet Union come perilously close to nuclear conflict. Following the failed {{w|Bay of Pigs Invasion}} and Soviet-Cuban secret agreements, the U.S. discovers evidence of Soviet nuclear missile installations in Cuba. President Kennedy orders a naval "quarantine" of Cuba and communicates directly with Soviet Premier {{w|Nikita Khrushchev}}, emphasizing that any nuclear attack from Cuba would be considered an attack by the USSR. As tensions escalate, Khrushchev offers to remove the missiles in exchange for a pledge not to invade Cuba. Despite some setbacks and miscommunications, the crisis ends peacefully, leading to improved U.S.-Soviet communication and progress towards a nuclear [[w:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty|Test Ban Treaty]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1961–1968 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis |website=history.state.gov |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Cuba}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1958 (October 17) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || {{w|Ireland}} proposes the first resolution at the United Nations to prohibit the “further dissemination of nuclear weapons.”<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Ireland}}
 |-
-| 1963 (August 5) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty}} (PTBT) is signed in {{w|Moscow}} by the governments of the {{w|Soviet Union}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}, and the {{w|United States}} before it is opened for signature by other countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty {{!}} Definition, History, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water (Moscow, 5 August 1963) |url=https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/treaty_banning_nuclear_weapon_tests_in_the_atmosphere_in_outer_space_and_under_water_moscow_5_august_1963-en-7322ea8e-cd0a-422e-ab87-436776a1fe1e.html |website=cvce.eu |access-date=22 September 2022 |language=en |date=7 March 2015}}</ref> The treaty aims to curb the proliferation of nuclear weapons by prohibiting atmospheric, outer space, and underwater nuclear test detonations, except for those conducted underground.<ref>{{cite web |title=Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-banning-nuclear-test-atmosphere-outer-space-and-under-water-partial-test-ban-treaty-ptbt/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Its inception is driven by rising public concerns over the environmental and health impacts of nuclear tests, particularly those involving hydrogen bombs. The PTBT lays the foundation for arms control efforts and paves the way for subsequent agreements, including the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in 1968.<ref name=faschron>{{cite web |title=Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Chronology |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |url=https://fas.org/nuke/control/ctbt/chron1.htm |access-date=5 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1960 (February 13) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|France}} conducts its first nuclear test explosion, becoming the world’s fourth {{w|nuclear state}}, after the {{w|United States}}, the {{w|Soviet Union}}, and the {{w|United Kingdom}}.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref name="Nuclear weapon - France"/> || {{w|France}}, {{w|Algeria}}
 |-
-| 1964 (October 16) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|Project 596}} marks China's inaugural nuclear weapons test. It is conducted at the {{w|Lop Nur}} test site. Utilizing a uranium-235 implosion fission device constructed from enriched weapons-grade uranium, it yields 22 kilotons. This event establishes China as the fifth nuclear power globally and the first in Asia, further launching a series of 45 successful nuclear tests at Lop Nur between 1964 and 1996. China's nuclear program began in response to Cold War conflicts with the United States, reflecting Mao Zedong's belief that nuclear capabilities would bolster national security. Despite initial Soviet support, the Soviet Union withdrew aid in 1959, prompting China's self-reliance in nuclear development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Project 596 |url=https://academic-accelerator.com/encyclopedia/project-596 |website=academic-accelerator.com |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese Nuclear Program - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/history/chinese-nuclear-program/ |website=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org|access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|China}}
+| 1960 (June 1) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || During its Forty-fourth Session, the General Conference of the {{w|International Labour Organization}} convenes in Geneva and adopts the [[w:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960|Radiation Protection Convention]]. This convention applies to all activities involving worker exposure to ionising radiations and outlines measures to protect workers' health and safety. It sets maximum permissible doses and amounts for radiation exposure, prohibits the employment of workers under 16 in radiation work, and mandates medical examinations for workers involved in radiation work. Member countries ratifying the convention are obligated to provide appropriate inspection services to supervise its application. The convention becomes binding upon registration of ratifications and allows for periodic revision.<ref>{{cite web |title=C115 - Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 (No. 115) |url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C115 |website=ilo.org |access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1965 (August 17) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States submits to the [[w:Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament|Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee]] its first draft proposal to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. The {{w|Soviet Union}} submits its first draft a month later.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1960 (October 5) ||  Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || The world goes at the brink of nuclear war when a radar alert from {{w|Thule, Greenland}} is sent to the {{w|North American Aerospace Defense Command}} ({{w|NORAD}}), announcing the detection of dozens of Soviet missiles launched for the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barash |first1=David P. |title=International Affairs |journal=Threats |date=1 December 2020 |pages=121–216 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190055295.003.0004}}</ref> NORAD headquarter in Colorado goes into a panic, but the latter is put to rest when it is realized that Soviet Premier {{w|Nikita Khrushchev}} is visiting {{w|New York}} at the time. It would be later determined that the radar had mistaken the moon rising over Norway as Soviet missiles.<ref name="fdssdf">{{cite web |title=9 Times The World Was At The Brink Of Nuclear War - And Pulled Back |url=https://www.iflscience.com/9-times-the-world-was-at-the-brink-of-nuclear-war-and-pulled-back-47431 |website=IFLScience |access-date=2 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Greenland}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1967 (January 27) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Outer Space Treaty}} is ratified by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Rooted in the 1962 Declaration of Legal Principles for Outer Space, it outlines fundamental principles of international space law, including that space activities must benefit all nations, space is open to exploration by all states, space cannot be claimed as national territory, weapons of mass destruction are prohibited in space, celestial bodies like the Moon must be used for peaceful purposes, astronauts represent all of humanity, states are responsible for their space activities, they are liable for space object damage, and they must prevent space and celestial body contamination. It would become effective in October 1967.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Outer Space Treaty |url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html |website=www.unoosa.org |access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1960 || Prevention  || Intentional || Concept development || American nuclear physicist {{w|Herman Kahn}} develops the concept "doomsday machine" in his book ''On Thermonuclear War''. It refers to a hypothetical device designed to automatically trigger the nuclear destruction of an aggressor country or global extinction in response to a nuclear attack. Kahn's idea involves either launching intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or detonating large thermonuclear bombs with long-lasting radioactive fallout. Although the U.S. would never build such a machine, the idea would influence the doctrine of {{w|mutually assured destruction}} (MAD). In 1993, claims would surface about a Soviet doomsday device called the Dead Hand, designed to launch missiles in response to a detected nuclear attack.<ref>{{cite web |title=doomsday machine {{!}} nuclear device {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/doomsday-machine |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=27 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Darling |first1=David |title=Doomsday Machine |url=https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/D/Doomsday_Machine.html |website=www.daviddarling.info |access-date=20 January 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1967 (February 14) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Treaty of Tlatelolco}} is opened for signature, establishing Latin America and the Caribbean as a nuclear-weapon-free zone. It is the first of five such regional zones to be negotiated. The other zones cover Africa, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and Central Asia.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Latin America and the Caribbean}}
+| 1961 (November 20) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || The United States faces a potential nuclear crisis when contact with the [[w:Pituffik Space Base|Thule Air Base]]'s {{w|Ballistic Missile Early Warning System}} (BMEWS) radar is lost, triggering alarm at {{w|Strategic Air Command}} (SAC) headquarters. The loss of communication with key sites prompts SAC to prepare for a decapitation strike against a perceived Soviet attack. However, the crisis is averted when the "Thule monitor," a [[w:Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] flying over [[w:Qaanaaq|Thule]], reestablishes contact, proving it was a false alarm. An further investigation reveals that AT&T's skimping on promised redundant circuits causes the failure, emphasizing the critical role of reliable communication systems in preventing catastrophic misunderstandings.<ref name="neverwasmag.com">{{cite web |title=That Was Too Close… Five Times Nuclear War Didn’t Break Out |url=https://neverwasmag.com/2020/06/that-was-too-close-five-times-nuclear-war-didnt-break-out/ |website=neverwasmag.com |access-date=22 November 2023 |date=25 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Roulette |first1=Joey |title=NASA Launches New Mission: Crash Into Asteroid, Defend Planet Earth |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/24/science/nasa-dart-mission-asteroid.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=10 August 2022 |date=24 November 2021}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1967 || Risk case || Intentional  || {{w|Nuclear weapon program}} || Israel secretly acquires the capability to build a nuclear explosive device.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Israel}}
+| 1961 (December 4) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations General Assembly}} unanimously adopts Resolution 1665, which is built upon an earlier draft resolution from Ireland. The resolution urges for negotiations to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons to additional states. Its key provisions require countries already possessing nuclear weapons to commit to retaining control over them and refraining from sharing information for their production with non-nuclear states. Simultaneously, countries without nuclear weapons agree not to acquire or develop such weapons. These fundamental principles lay the groundwork for the creation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), a landmark international agreement aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting disarmament.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref>{{cite web |title=A/RES/1665 (XVI) : UN Documents : Security Council Report |url=https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/document/disarm-ares1665.php#:~:text=This%20resolution%20called%20for%20legally,work%20towards%20their%20eventual%20elimination. |website=www.securitycouncilreport.org |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Nations General Assembly}} members
 |-
-| 1967 (August 24) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|United States}} and {{w|Soviet Union}} separately introduce identical draft treaties to the [[w:Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament|Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee]] on preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1961 (December 20) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|McCloy–Zorin Accords}} are agreed upon by the United States and the USSR, as a basis for future multilateral negotiations on disarmament. The goal is to achieve general and complete disarmament, with war no longer being an instrument for settling international problems. The program proposes a phased approach to disarmament, including the disbanding of armed forces, elimination of weapons stockpiles, and cessation of military expenditures. Strict and effective international control would ensure all parties' compliance, and measures to strengthen institutions for maintaining peace were to accompany disarmament. The goal is to achieve the widest possible agreement on the total disarmament program at the earliest possible date.<ref>{{cite web |title=Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Disarmament and Abolition: McCloy-Zorin Accords |url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/arms-control-disarmament/mccloy-zorin-accords_1961-09-20.htm |website=www.nuclearfiles.org |access-date=4 August 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1968 (June 12) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || The UN General Assembly approves Resolution 2373, endorsing the preliminary text of the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). The resolution passes with a majority vote of 95 in favor, while 4 countries—Albania, Cuba, Tanzania, and Zambia—vote against it. Additionally, 21 countries chose to abstain from the vote. The NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and promote disarmament efforts among nations. This endorsement marks a significant step towards establishing a framework for nuclear nonproliferation and cooperation.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+| 1962 || Prevention  || Intentional  || Concept development || The concept of {{w|Mutual assured destruction}} (MAD) emerges as a strategic doctrine. MAD is based on the belief that if two nuclear-armed adversaries possess enough weapons to guarantee mutual destruction in the event of a nuclear war, it would deter both sides from initiating such an attack. The idea is that the fear of catastrophic retaliation would prevent any rational actor from launching a nuclear strike. This concept would play a significant role in shaping nuclear policies and arms control efforts during the tense period of the Cold War.<ref>{{cite web |title=How did we forget about mutually assured destruction? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17026538 |website=BBC News |access-date=4 August 2023 |date=15 February 2012}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1968 (June 19) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|United Nations Security Council Resolution 255}} is adopted, addressing measures to protect non-nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). The resolution aimed to safeguard these non-nuclear-armed nations by providing security assurances against the threat or use of nuclear weapons. It was adopted with a vote of 10 in favor, 0 against, and 5 abstentions during the 1433rd meeting. The resolution reflects the international community's commitment to promoting disarmament and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons among states.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Year: 1968) |first1=UN Security Council (23rd |title=Resolution 255 (1968) /: [adopted by the Security Council at its 1433rd meeting], of 19 June 1968. |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/90759?ln=en |website=digitallibrary.un.org |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en |date=1970}}</ref> ||
+| 1962 (October) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || The {{w|Cuban Missile Crisis}} marks a critical moment in the Cold War when the United States and the Soviet Union come perilously close to nuclear conflict. Following the failed {{w|Bay of Pigs Invasion}} and Soviet-Cuban secret agreements, the U.S. discovers evidence of Soviet nuclear missile installations in Cuba. President Kennedy orders a naval "quarantine" of Cuba and communicates directly with Soviet Premier {{w|Nikita Khrushchev}}, emphasizing that any nuclear attack from Cuba would be considered an attack by the USSR. As tensions escalate, Khrushchev offers to remove the missiles in exchange for a pledge not to invade Cuba. Despite some setbacks and miscommunications, the crisis ends peacefully, leading to improved U.S.-Soviet communication and progress towards a nuclear [[w:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty|Test Ban Treaty]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1961–1968 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis |website=history.state.gov |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Cuba}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
 |-
-| 1968 (July 1) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} (NPT) is signed. It is an international agreement aiming to curb the spread of nuclear weapons and technology, encourage peaceful nuclear energy cooperation, and promote disarmament. Negotiated between 1965 and 1968, it would enter into force on March 5, 1970, with 190 parties. The treaty recognizes five nuclear-weapon states ({{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|China}}), and seeks to prevent non-nuclear-weapon states from acquiring nuclear weapons, while obliging nuclear-weapon states to work towards disarmament. Despite criticisms, the NPT remains a significant tool in global efforts to control nuclear proliferation and promote peaceful nuclear cooperation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons - Main Page |url=https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/tnpt/tnpt.html#:~:text=The%20Treaty%20on%20the%20Non,force%20on%205%20March%201970. |website=legal.un.org |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+| 1962 (October 27) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || During the {{w|Cuban Missile Crisis}}, after a {{w|Soviet submarine B-59}} loses contact with Moscow for days, the captain orders the use of a nuclear torpedo when a US ship begins dropping practice depth charges to make the submarine surface, with the Russian captain mistaking them for real depth charges, and concluding that war has begun. Aboard commander {{w|Vasili Arkhipov}} countermands the order to fire, thus preventing the nuclear strike and potentially an all-out {{w|nuclear war}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vasili Arkhipov |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm6553291/ |website=IMDb |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=Leigh/> During the crisis, United States President {{w|John F. Kennedy}} would estimate the probability of escalation to nuclear conflict as between 33% and 50%.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allison |first=Graham |year=2012 |title=The Cuban Missile Crisis at 50 |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137679/graham-allison/the-cuban-missile-crisis-at-50 |journal={{w|Foreign Affairs}} |volume=91 |issue=4 |access-date=9 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vzglyad.ru/opinions/2013/11/22/660828.html|title= ВЗГЛЯД / "США и Россия: кризис 1962–го"|publisher=vzglyad.ru|date=26 June 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Cuba}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}} ({{w|Soviet Union}})
+|-
+| 1963–1964 || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|Israel}} clandestinely procures 80-100 tons of Argentine uranium oxide ("{{w|yellowcake}}") for its nuclear weapons initiative.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Israel-Argentina Yellowcake Connection |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb432/ |website=nsarchive2.gwu.edu |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref>  || {{w|Israel}}, {{w|Argentina}}
+|-
+| 1963 (March 21) || Prevention || Intentional || Notable comment || United States President {{w|John F. Kennedy}} highlights the looming threat of a world where numerous nations, possibly 15 to 25, could possess nuclear weapons by the 1970s. This concern arise following a confidential Department of Defense memo that projects Canada, China, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and West Germany as potential nuclear-capable countries within a decade. Kennedy's warning underscores the severe danger and potential hazards associated with nuclear proliferation, emphasizing the urgent need to address the proliferation issue and prevent the widespread access to nuclear weapons.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+|-
+| 1963 (August 5) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty}} (PTBT) is signed in {{w|Moscow}} by the governments of the {{w|Soviet Union}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}, and the {{w|United States}} before it is opened for signature by other countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty {{!}} Definition, History, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Nuclear-Test-Ban-Treaty |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water (Moscow, 5 August 1963) |url=https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/treaty_banning_nuclear_weapon_tests_in_the_atmosphere_in_outer_space_and_under_water_moscow_5_august_1963-en-7322ea8e-cd0a-422e-ab87-436776a1fe1e.html |website=cvce.eu |access-date=22 September 2022 |language=en |date=7 March 2015}}</ref> The treaty aims to curb the proliferation of nuclear weapons by prohibiting atmospheric, outer space, and underwater nuclear test detonations, except for those conducted underground.<ref>{{cite web |title=Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-banning-nuclear-test-atmosphere-outer-space-and-under-water-partial-test-ban-treaty-ptbt/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Its inception is driven by rising public concerns over the environmental and health impacts of nuclear tests, particularly those involving hydrogen bombs. The PTBT lays the foundation for arms control efforts and paves the way for subsequent agreements, including the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in 1968.<ref name=faschron>{{cite web |title=Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Chronology |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |url=https://fas.org/nuke/control/ctbt/chron1.htm |access-date=5 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1964 (October 16) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|Project 596}} marks China's inaugural nuclear weapons test. It is conducted at the {{w|Lop Nur}} test site. Utilizing a uranium-235 implosion fission device constructed from enriched weapons-grade uranium, it yields 22 kilotons. This event establishes China as the fifth nuclear power globally and the first in Asia, further launching a series of 45 successful nuclear tests at Lop Nur between 1964 and 1996. China's nuclear program began in response to Cold War conflicts with the United States, reflecting Mao Zedong's belief that nuclear capabilities would bolster national security. Despite initial Soviet support, the Soviet Union withdrew aid in 1959, prompting China's self-reliance in nuclear development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Project 596 |url=https://academic-accelerator.com/encyclopedia/project-596 |website=academic-accelerator.com |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese Nuclear Program - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/history/chinese-nuclear-program/ |website=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org|access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|China}}
+|-
+| 1965 (August 17) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States submits to the [[w:Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament|Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee]] its first draft proposal to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. The {{w|Soviet Union}} submits its first draft a month later.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+|-
+| 1966 || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapons program || Israel, widely presumed to be the world's sixth nuclear power, is believed by this time to possess operational nuclear weapons, described as "rudimentary but deliverable." Despite international suspicions, Israel would never officially acknowledge its nuclear capabilities, maintaining a policy of ambiguity regarding its nuclear forces.<ref>{{Citation | title = Israel and the Bomb | place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | last = Cohen | first = Avner | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-231-10482-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/israelbomb00cohe |page=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first = Mohamed | last = ElBaradei | url = http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html | title = Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News| publisher = {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} | date = 27 July 2004 | access-date = 3 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120418221656/http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html | archive-date = 18 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="NTI">{{cite web | access-date = 23 June 2009 | work = Israel | title = Nuclear Overview | format = profile | publisher = NTI | url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090102210432/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/ | archive-date = 2 January 2009 }}</ref><ref name="auto">''My Promised Land'', by {{w|Ari Shavit}}, (London 2014), page 188</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Israel's Quest for Yellowcake: The Secret Argentina-Israel Connection, 1963–1966|author=Nuclear Proliferation International History Project|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/israels-quest-for-yellowcake-the-secret-argentina-israel-connection-1963-1966|publisher={{w|Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars}}|date=28 June 2013|access-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814114619/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/israels-quest-for-yellowcake-the-secret-argentina-israel-connection-1963-1966|archive-date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|title=Nuclear Weapons |website=fas.org|access-date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207122117/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html|archive-date=7 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NTI: Research Library: Country Profiles: Israel |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728090642/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Israel/Nuclear/index.html |website=web.archive.org |access-date=22 November 2023 |date=28 July 2011}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
+|-
+| 1967 (January 27) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Outer Space Treaty}} is ratified by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Rooted in the 1962 Declaration of Legal Principles for Outer Space, it outlines fundamental principles of international space law, including that space activities must benefit all nations, space is open to exploration by all states, space cannot be claimed as national territory, weapons of mass destruction are prohibited in space, celestial bodies like the Moon must be used for peaceful purposes, astronauts represent all of humanity, states are responsible for their space activities, they are liable for space object damage, and they must prevent space and celestial body contamination. It would become effective in October 1967.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Outer Space Treaty |url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html |website=www.unoosa.org |access-date=23 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1967 (February 14) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Treaty of Tlatelolco}} is opened for signature, establishing Latin America and the Caribbean as a nuclear-weapon-free zone. It is the first of five such regional zones to be negotiated. The other zones cover Africa, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and Central Asia.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Latin America and the Caribbean}}
+|-
+| 1967 (May 23) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike|| A powerful solar storm triggers a potential nuclear war scare during the Cold War. The U.S. Air Force, suspecting Soviet jamming of American surveillance radars, prepares for war. However, timely intervention by military space-weather forecasters reveal a solar eruption as the cause. The investment in early solar observations and forecasting prove crucial. Solar forecasters at NORAD determine that a solar flare, not Soviet actions, disrupted radar sites, preventing the launch of nuclear-armed aircraft. The subsequent solar event causes a geomagnetic storm, disrupting American radio communications for nearly a week. This incident highlights the importance of preparedness in the face of solar threats.<ref>{{cite web |last1=published |first1=Mike Wall |title=How a 1967 Solar Storm Nearly Led to Nuclear War |url=https://www.space.com/33687-solar-storm-cold-war-false-alarm.html |website=Space.com |access-date=22 November 2023 |language=en |date=9 August 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |last1=Nast |first1=Condé |title=How a massive solar storm in 1967 almost sparked a nuclear war |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/solar-storm-in-1967-almost-sparked-a-nuclear-war#:~:text=A%20major%20solar%20flare%20on,to%20be%20act%20of%20war. |website=Wired UK |access-date=10 August 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1967 || Risk || Intentional  || {{w|Nuclear weapon program}} || Israel secretly acquires the capability to build a nuclear explosive device.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Israel}}
+|-
+| 1967 || Prevention  || Intentional || Notable warning || Hungarian-British essayist {{w|Arthur Koestler}} writes:
+{{quote|[B]efore the thermonuclear bomb, man had to live with the idea of his death as an individual; from now onward, mankind has to live with the idea of its death as a species. The bomb has given us the power to commit genosuicide; and within a few years we should even have the power to turn our planet into a nova, an exploding star. Every age has had its Cassandras [and] mankind has managed to survive regardless of their sinister prophecies. But this comforting argument is no longer valid, as no past age, however convulsed by war and pestilence, has possessed our newly acquired power over life on the planet as a whole.<ref>A. Koestler, The Ghost in the Machine (London: Hutchinson, 1967), 322.</ref>}}
+|| {{w|United Kingdom}}
+|-
+| 1967 (August 24) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|United States}} and {{w|Soviet Union}} separately introduce identical draft treaties to the [[w:Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament|Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee]] on preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+|-
+| 1968 (June 12) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || The UN General Assembly approves Resolution 2373, endorsing the preliminary text of the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). The resolution passes with a majority vote of 95 in favor, while 4 countries—Albania, Cuba, Tanzania, and Zambia—vote against it. Additionally, 21 countries chose to abstain from the vote. The NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and promote disarmament efforts among nations. This endorsement marks a significant step towards establishing a framework for nuclear nonproliferation and cooperation.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+|-
+| 1968 (June 19) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|United Nations Security Council Resolution 255}} is adopted, addressing measures to protect non-nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). The resolution aims to safeguard these non-nuclear-armed nations by providing security assurances against the threat or use of nuclear weapons. It was adopted with a vote of 10 in favor, 0 against, and 5 abstentions during the 1433rd meeting. The resolution reflects the international community's commitment to promoting disarmament and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons among states.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Year: 1968) |first1=UN Security Council (23rd |title=Resolution 255 (1968) /: [adopted by the Security Council at its 1433rd meeting], of 19 June 1968. |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/90759?ln=en |website=digitallibrary.un.org |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en |date=1970}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 1968 (July 1) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} (NPT) is signed. It is an international agreement aiming to curb the spread of nuclear weapons and technology, encourage peaceful nuclear energy cooperation, and promote disarmament. Negotiated between 1965 and 1968, it would enter into force on March 5, 1970, with 190 parties. The treaty recognizes five nuclear-weapon states ({{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|China}}), and seeks to prevent non-nuclear-weapon states from acquiring nuclear weapons, while obliging nuclear-weapon states to work towards disarmament. Despite criticisms, the NPT remains a significant tool in global efforts to control nuclear proliferation and promote peaceful nuclear cooperation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons - Main Page |url=https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/tnpt/tnpt.html#:~:text=The%20Treaty%20on%20the%20Non,force%20on%205%20March%201970. |website=legal.un.org |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1 July 1968) |url=https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/treaty_on_the_non_proliferation_of_nuclear_weapons_1_july_1968-en-0c1e0636-a043-4982-a8b5-0484c27a1747.html |website=cvce |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1968 || Risk case || Intentional  || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|Operation Plumbat}}: Israel intelligence agency orchestrates a bold operation using front companies to purchase uranium oxide, or {{w|yellowcake}}, in {{w|Antwerp}}. The yellowcake is concealed in drums labeled "plumbat" and loaded onto a freighter named Scheersberg A, leased by a fictitious Liberian company. The Israelis, with the help of German officials, disguise the transaction as a deal between German and Italian firms. When the ship docks in {{w|Rotterdam}}, the entire crew is dismissed under the guise of a sale, and an Israeli crew takes over. Under Israeli naval guard, the cargo is transferred to another vessel in the Mediterranean, effectively disappearing an entire freighter of uranium ore.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Borger |first1=Julian |title=The truth about Israel's secret nuclear arsenal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/15/truth-israels-secret-nuclear-arsenal |website=The Guardian |access-date=4 November 2023 |date=15 January 2014}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
+| 1968 || Risk || Intentional  || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|Operation Plumbat}}: Israel intelligence agency orchestrates a bold operation using front companies to purchase uranium oxide, or {{w|yellowcake}}, in {{w|Antwerp}}. The yellowcake is concealed in drums labeled "plumbat" and loaded onto a freighter named Scheersberg A, leased by a fictitious Liberian company. The Israelis, with the help of German officials, disguise the transaction as a deal between German and Italian firms. When the ship docks in {{w|Rotterdam}}, the entire crew is dismissed under the guise of a sale, and an Israeli crew takes over. Under Israeli naval guard, the cargo is transferred to another vessel in the Mediterranean, effectively disappearing an entire freighter of uranium ore.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Borger |first1=Julian |title=The truth about Israel's secret nuclear arsenal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/15/truth-israels-secret-nuclear-arsenal |website=The Guardian |access-date=4 November 2023 |date=15 January 2014}}</ref> || {{w|Israel}}
+|-
+| 1969 (November) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomatic conference}} || The {{w|Strategic Arms Limitation Talks}} (SALT) begins as bilateral conferences between the United States and the Soviet Union. SALT I, initiated in Helsinki, leads to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement. SALT II, launched in 1972, aims to reduce strategic nuclear weapons. Although an agreement would be reached in 1979, the US Senate wouldn't ratify it due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The talks would lay groundwork for the START treaties, particularly START I in 1991 and START II in 1993, focusing on arms reduction. SALT I and SALT II would pave the way for arms control efforts during the Cold War.<ref>{{cite web |title=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/strategic-arms-limitation-talks |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref>
 |-
-| 1969 (November) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomatic conference}} || The {{w|Strategic Arms Limitation Talks}} (SALT) begins as bilateral conferences between the United States and the Soviet Union. SALT I, initiated in Helsinki, leads to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement. SALT II, launched in 1972, aims to reduce strategic nuclear weapons. Although an agreement would be reached in 1979, the US Senate wouldn't ratify it due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The talks would lay groundwork for the START treaties, particularly START I in 1991 and START II in 1993, focusing on arms reduction. SALT I and SALT II would pave the way for arms control efforts during the Cold War.<ref>{{cite web |title=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/strategic-arms-limitation-talks |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref>
+| 1971 (February 11) || Prevention || Itentional || International resolution || The {{w|Seabed Arms Control Treaty}} is signed, with the purpose to ban stationing of {{w|weapons of mass destruction}} on the ocean floor. It would enter into force on May 18, 1972.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seabed Arms Control Treaty |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5187.htm#:~:text=The%20Seabed%20Arms%20Control%20Treaty,had%20deposited%20instruments%20of%20ratification. |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1971 || Prevention case || Itentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Zangger Committee}} is founded, consisting in major nuclear suppliers aiming to clarify the implementation of Article III.23 of the [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]]. In 1974, they would release a "Trigger List" that identifies items requiring safeguards and guidelines for their export to non-nuclear-weapon States (NNWS) not part of the NPT. These guidelines include three conditions: assurance of non-explosive use, adherence to IAEA Safeguards, and re-transfer provisions, requiring recipient states to apply the same conditions during re-export. These Trigger List and Guidelines are documented as IAEA document INFCIRC/209, subject to periodic amendments.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMMUNICATION RECEIVED FROM THE PERMANENT MISSION OF THE NETHERLANDS ON BEHALF OF THE MEMBER STATES OF THE NUCLEAR SUPPLIERS GROUP |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc539r1.pdf |website=iaea.org |access-date=1 September 2023 |date=April 2000}}</ref> ||
+| 1971 || Prevention || Itentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Zangger Committee}} is founded, consisting in major nuclear suppliers aiming to clarify the implementation of Article III.23 of the [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]]. In 1974, they would release a "Trigger List" that identifies items requiring safeguards and guidelines for their export to non-nuclear-weapon States (NNWS) not part of the NPT. These guidelines include three conditions: assurance of non-explosive use, adherence to IAEA Safeguards, and re-transfer provisions, requiring recipient states to apply the same conditions during re-export. These Trigger List and Guidelines are documented as IAEA document INFCIRC/209, subject to periodic amendments.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMMUNICATION RECEIVED FROM THE PERMANENT MISSION OF THE NETHERLANDS ON BEHALF OF THE MEMBER STATES OF THE NUCLEAR SUPPLIERS GROUP |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc539r1.pdf |website=iaea.org |access-date=1 September 2023 |date=April 2000}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1972 (May 26) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}} is signed<ref>{{cite web |title=Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty {{!}} international treaty {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Anti-Ballistic-Missile-Treaty |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> as an {{w|arms control treaty}} between the {{w|United States}} and the {{w|Soviet Union}} on the limitation of the {{w|anti-ballistic missile}} (ABM) systems used in defending areas against {{w|ballistic missile}}-delivered {{w|nuclear weapon}}s. It is intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The U.S. Exit From the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Has Fueled a New Arms Race - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620225219/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/12/13/u.s.-exit-from-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty-has-fueled-new-arms-race-pub-85977 |website=web.archive.org |access-date=26 September 2022 |date=20 June 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1972 (May 26) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}} is signed<ref>{{cite web |title=Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty {{!}} international treaty {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Anti-Ballistic-Missile-Treaty |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> as an {{w|arms control treaty}} between the {{w|United States}} and the {{w|Soviet Union}} on the limitation of the {{w|anti-ballistic missile}} (ABM) systems used in defending areas against {{w|ballistic missile}}-delivered {{w|nuclear weapon}}s. It is intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The U.S. Exit From the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Has Fueled a New Arms Race - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620225219/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/12/13/u.s.-exit-from-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty-has-fueled-new-arms-race-pub-85977 |website=web.archive.org |access-date=26 September 2022 |date=20 June 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
 |-
-| 1974 (May 18) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || Using a reactor provided by {{w|Canada}} for “peaceful” purposes<ref name="Stulberg"/>, India becomes the first non-nuclear-weapon state to conduct a {{w|nuclear test}}, called {{w|Operation Smiling Buddha}}. A non–NPT member, {{w|New Delhi}} insists the test is a “peaceful” nuclear explosion to mollify international criticism.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> Nuclear materials were supplied by the United States, and the Canadian reactor was used to produce plutonium for the nuclear explosive. This case can be seen as an example of how early civilian nuclear assistance could lead to the foundation of nuclear weapon programs.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|India}}
+| 1974 (May 18) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || Using a reactor provided by {{w|Canada}} for “peaceful” purposes<ref name="Stulberg"/>, India becomes the first non-nuclear-weapon state to conduct a {{w|nuclear test}}, called {{w|Operation Smiling Buddha}} ([[w:Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]] designation: Pokhran-I). A non–NPT member, {{w|New Delhi}} insists the test is a “peaceful” nuclear explosion to mollify international criticism.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> Nuclear materials were supplied by the United States, and the Canadian reactor was used to produce plutonium for the nuclear explosive. This case can be seen as an example of how early civilian nuclear assistance could lead to the foundation of nuclear weapon programs.<ref name="Stulberg"/> This test prompts accelerated efforts in {{w|Pakistan}}'s nuclear weapons program.<ref>Munir Ahmad Khan, "How Pakistan made its nuclear fuel cycle", ''The Nation'', (Islamabad) 7 and 9 February 1998.</ref> || {{w|India}}
 |-
-| 1974 (July 3) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Threshold Test Ban Treaty}} (TTBT) is initiated between the United States and the Soviet Union. This treaty sets a limit by prohibiting nuclear tests exceeding 150 kilotons. It specifically restricts the testing of nuclear weapons beyond the fractional-megaton range. Both the United States and the Soviet Union agree to verification measures involving hydrodynamic yield measurements, seismic monitoring, and on-site inspections. TTBT would enter into force on 11 December 1990, marking an important milestone in nuclear arms control efforts between these two major powers.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMPREHENSIVE NUCLEAR-TEST-BAN TREATY |url=https://legal.un.org/avl/pdf/ha/ctbt/ctbt_e.pdf |website=legal.un.org |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/threshold-test-ban-treaty |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1974 || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program || In response to [[w:Operation Smiling Buddha|India's nuclear test]], Pakistani nuclear reactor physicist {{w|Munir Ahmad Khan}} initiates Pakistan's uranium program ({{w|Project-706}}), a pivotal initiative in Pakistan's nuclear program. Khan, a metallurgist with expertise in gas centrifuges, plays a crucial role, leading the Engineering Research Laboratories in Kahuta, later known as {{w|Khan Research Laboratories}} (KRL). Operating autonomously from the {{w|Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission}}, Project-706 focuses on {{w|uranium enrichment}}, specifically through highly enriched uranium (HEU). Despite political transitions, including General Zia ul-Haq's military takeover in 1979, and international scrutiny, the project would persist. A.Q. Khan's contributions, including technology proliferation, become instrumental in Pakistan's successful development of nuclear weapons.<ref name="nuclearmuseum">{{cite web |title=Pakistani Nuclear Program - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/history/pakistani-nuclear-program/ |website=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Pakistan}}
 |-
-| 1974 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|Nuclear Suppliers Group}} (NSG) is formed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group {{!}} international organization {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nuclear-Suppliers-Group |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is an international organization consisting of nuclear supplier countries formed in response to [[w:Smiling Buddha|India's 1974 nuclear tests]], which highlights the risk of nuclear proliferation. It initially has seven member countries but would grow to include 48 participating governments. NSG aims to control the export of materials and technology related to nuclear weapons development through a set of guidelines. These guidelines are divided into Part 1 and Part 2, covering nuclear-use items and nuclear-related dual-use items. India's attempts to join the NSG would be thwarted due to its non-signatory status to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} (NPT) and opposition from countries like China.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) - Member Countries, Functions & India’s Bid for NSG |url=https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/nuclear-suppliers-group-nsg/#:~:text=The%20NSG%20was%20formed%20in,produced%20agreements%20on%20export%20guidelines. |website=BYJUS |access-date=1 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || 48 participating governments
+| 1974 (July 3) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Threshold Test Ban Treaty}} (TTBT) is initiated between the United States and the Soviet Union. This treaty sets a limit by prohibiting nuclear tests exceeding 150 kilotons. It specifically restricts the testing of nuclear weapons beyond the fractional-megaton range. Both the United States and the Soviet Union agree to verification measures involving hydrodynamic yield measurements, seismic monitoring, and on-site inspections. TTBT would enter into force on 11 December 1990, marking an important milestone in nuclear arms control efforts between these two major powers.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMPREHENSIVE NUCLEAR-TEST-BAN TREATY |url=https://legal.un.org/avl/pdf/ha/ctbt/ctbt_e.pdf |website=legal.un.org |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/threshold-test-ban-treaty |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1974 (September 3) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Notable publication || The {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} publishes the “trigger list” developed by the {{w|Zangger Committee}}, identifying nuclear items that require IAEA safeguards as a condition of export.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+| 1974 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|Nuclear Suppliers Group}} (NSG) is formed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group {{!}} international organization {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nuclear-Suppliers-Group |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is an international organization consisting of nuclear supplier countries formed in response to [[w:Smiling Buddha|India's 1974 nuclear tests]], which highlights the risk of nuclear proliferation. It initially has seven member countries but would grow to include 48 participating governments. NSG aims to control the export of materials and technology related to nuclear weapons development through a set of guidelines. These guidelines are divided into Part 1 and Part 2, covering nuclear-use items and nuclear-related dual-use items. India's attempts to join the NSG would be thwarted due to its non-signatory status to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} (NPT) and opposition from countries like China.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) - Member Countries, Functions & India’s Bid for NSG |url=https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/nuclear-suppliers-group-nsg/#:~:text=The%20NSG%20was%20formed%20in,produced%20agreements%20on%20export%20guidelines. |website=BYJUS |access-date=1 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || 48 participating governments
 |-
-| 1975 (January 19) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Nuclear Regulatory Commission}} (NRC) is formed as an independent U.S. government agency, through the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974. It is responsible for safeguarding public health and safety in matters related to nuclear energy. The NRC oversees reactor safety, security, and licensing, manages radioactive materials, and handles the storage, security, recycling, and disposal of spent nuclear fuel. After the dissolution of the Atomic Energy Commission, the NRC was formed to provide impartial oversight of nuclear energy, medicine, and safety. The NRC's mission encompasses regulating commercial reactors, nuclear materials use, and nuclear waste management. It is led by appointed commissioners, including Chairman Christopher T. Hanson.<ref>{{cite web |title=Atomic Energy Commission |url=https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/history.html |website=nrc.gov |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1974 (August 1) || Prevention  || Intentional || Risk spike || As a result of the {{w|Watergate scandal}}, United States President {{w|Richard Nixon}} becomes clinically depressed, emotionally unstable, and drinking heavily. As a mode of precaution U.S. Secretary of Defense {{w|James R. Schlesinger}} instruct the Joint Chiefs of Staff to route “any emergency order coming from the president”—such as a nuclear launch order— through him first.” <ref>Schlosser 2013, p. 360</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1975 (May 30) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The 91 states-parties to the [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]] hold the treaty’s first review conference.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+| 1974 (September 3) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Notable publication || The {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} publishes the “trigger list” developed by the {{w|Zangger Committee}}, identifying nuclear items that require IAEA safeguards as a condition of export.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
 |-
-| 1975 || Risk case || Intentional (state program) || Binational cooperation || {{w|Taiwan}} receives nuclear assistance from {{w|France}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KROENIG |first1=MATTHEW |title=Exporting the Bomb: Why States Provide Sensitive Nuclear Assistance |journal=The American Political Science Review |date=2009 |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=113–133 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27798489 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> In the same year, the {{w|CIA}} reports, “Taipei conducts its small nuclear program with a weapon option clearly in mind, and it will be in a position to fabricate a nuclear device after five years or so.”<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mizokami |first1=Kyle |title=China's Greatest Nightmare: Taiwan Armed with Nuclear Weapons |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/chinas-greatest-nightmare-taiwan-armed-nuclear-weapons-80041 |website=The National Interest |access-date=9 August 2022 |language=en |date=12 September 2019}}</ref> || {{w|Taiwan}}
+| 1975 (January 19) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Nuclear Regulatory Commission}} (NRC) is formed as an independent U.S. government agency, through the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974. It is responsible for safeguarding public health and safety in matters related to nuclear energy. The NRC oversees reactor safety, security, and licensing, manages radioactive materials, and handles the storage, security, recycling, and disposal of spent nuclear fuel. After the dissolution of the Atomic Energy Commission, the NRC was formed to provide impartial oversight of nuclear energy, medicine, and safety. The NRC's mission encompasses regulating commercial reactors, nuclear materials use, and nuclear waste management. It is led by appointed commissioners, including Chairman Christopher T. Hanson.<ref>{{cite web |title=Atomic Energy Commission |url=https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/history.html |website=nrc.gov |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1976 || Risk case || Intentional (state program) || Binational cooperation || {{w|Iraq}} signs an agreement for nuclear cooperation with {{w|France}}, which provides ''Osiris''-class nuclear reactor.<ref name="Stulberg"/> Intended for peaceful scientific research<ref name=worldbook>''The 1982 World Book Year Book''. World Book Inc., 1983. p. 350.</ref>, in 1981 it would be destroyed by the Israelis, who believe it was designed to make nuclear weapons. || {{w|Iraq}}
+| 1975 (May 30) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The 91 states-parties to the [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]] hold the treaty’s first review conference.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
 |-
-| 1977 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Jimmy Carter administration}} launches the International Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE), a program spanning two years, aimed to assess the nuclear fuel cycle globally. The primary objective is to minimize the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation while preserving the peaceful applications of nuclear power. INFCE focuses on technical analytical studies without engaging in formal international agreements. The effort seeks to address issues associated with existing export guidelines, particularly those of the 'London Club,' aiming to enhance inclusivity and ensure a more reliable supply of nuclear materials.<ref name="Smetana"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Loosch |first1=R. |title=International nuclear fuel cycle evaluation program (INFCE) |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/6950045 |website=Atomwirtsch., Atomtech.; (Germany, Federal Republic of) |access-date=14 November 2023 |language=German |date=1 January 1978}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1975 || Risk || Intentional (state program) || Binational cooperation || {{w|Taiwan}} receives nuclear assistance from {{w|France}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KROENIG |first1=MATTHEW |title=Exporting the Bomb: Why States Provide Sensitive Nuclear Assistance |journal=The American Political Science Review |date=2009 |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=113–133 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27798489 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> In the same year, the {{w|CIA}} reports, “Taipei conducts its small nuclear program with a weapon option clearly in mind, and it will be in a position to fabricate a nuclear device after five years or so.”<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mizokami |first1=Kyle |title=China's Greatest Nightmare: Taiwan Armed with Nuclear Weapons |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/chinas-greatest-nightmare-taiwan-armed-nuclear-weapons-80041 |website=The National Interest |access-date=9 August 2022 |language=en |date=12 September 2019}}</ref> || {{w|Taiwan}}
 |-
-| 1978 (January 11) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Notable publication || {{w|Nuclear Suppliers Group}} (NSG) member states provide the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} with the first NSG Guidelines, a common set of guidelines they would follow in making nuclear exports. They are published as an Information Circular to apply to nuclear transfers to non-nuclear weapons states for peaceful purposes to help ensure that such transfers would not be diverted to unsafeguarded {{w|nuclear fuel cycle}} or nuclear explosive activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group - What are the NSG Guidelines? |url=https://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/en/27-faq/198-what-are-the-nsg-guidelines |website=www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || [[File:NSG Members.svg|thumb|center|150px|NSG]]
+| 1976 || Risk || Intentional (state program) || Binational cooperation || {{w|Iraq}} signs an agreement for nuclear cooperation with {{w|France}}, which provides ''Osiris''-class nuclear reactor.<ref name="Stulberg"/> Intended for peaceful scientific research<ref name=worldbook>''The 1982 World Book Year Book''. World Book Inc., 1983. p. 350.</ref>, in 1981 it would be destroyed by the Israelis, who believe it was designed to make nuclear weapons. || {{w|Iraq}}
 |-
-| 1978 || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || The {{w|Nuclear Information and Resource Service}} (NIRS) is founded. It is an anti-nuclear-energy advocacy group based in {{w|Takoma Park, Maryland}. A 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization, NIRS would be part of a coalition opposing nuclear power in a letter to Congress seeking "100 percent decarbonization" while denouncing nuclear energy as "dirty." It would also express opposition to the "American Nuclear Infrastructure Act of 2020," considering nuclear power a false solution to climate change. In 2021, NIRS would label nuclear energy as "dirty" and call for a renewable electricity standard, excluding nuclear and promoting weather-dependent power sources.<ref>{{cite web |title=LinkedIn Login, Sign in |url=https://www.linkedin.com/company/nuclear-information-and-resource-service/about/ |website=LinkedIn |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Information and Resource Service |url=https://www.influencewatch.org/non-profit/nuclear-information-and-resource-service/ |website=InfluenceWatch |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1976 || Prevention  || Intentional || Notable warning || {{w|Iosif Shklovsky}} argues that global self-destruction is the result of capitalist ideology, which doesn't take into account a potential ‘communist transformation of society’ which would ‘remove the very possibility of such crisis situations’.<ref> I.S. Shklovsky, Vselennaia, zhizn’, razum (Moscow: Nauka, 1976), 257.</ref> || {{w|Russia}} ({{w|Soviet Union}})
 |-
-| 1978 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Policy (national) || The {{w|United States Congress}} passes the [[w:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act]] to put further restrictions on US nuclear exports.<ref name="Smetana"/> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1977 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Jimmy Carter administration}} launches the International Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE), a program spanning two years, aimed to assess the nuclear fuel cycle globally. The primary objective is to minimize the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation while preserving the peaceful applications of nuclear power. INFCE focuses on technical analytical studies without engaging in formal international agreements. The effort seeks to address issues associated with existing export guidelines, particularly those of the 'London Club,' aiming to enhance inclusivity and ensure a more reliable supply of nuclear materials.<ref name="Smetana"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Loosch |first1=R. |title=International nuclear fuel cycle evaluation program (INFCE) |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/6950045 |website=Atomwirtsch., Atomtech.; (Germany, Federal Republic of) |access-date=14 November 2023 |language=German |date=1 January 1978}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1978 (January 11) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Notable publication || {{w|Nuclear Suppliers Group}} (NSG) member states provide the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} with the first NSG Guidelines, a common set of guidelines they would follow in making nuclear exports. They are published as an Information Circular to apply to nuclear transfers to non-nuclear weapons states for peaceful purposes to help ensure that such transfers would not be diverted to unsafeguarded {{w|nuclear fuel cycle}} or nuclear explosive activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Suppliers Group - What are the NSG Guidelines? |url=https://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/en/27-faq/198-what-are-the-nsg-guidelines |website=www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || [[File:NSG Members.svg|thumb|center|150px|NSG]]
+|-
+| 1978 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Policy (national) || The {{w|United States Congress}} passes the [[w:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act]] to put further restrictions on US nuclear exports.<ref name="Smetana"/> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1978 || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]) || The {{w|Nuclear Information and Resource Service}} (NIRS) is founded. It is an anti-nuclear-energy advocacy group based in {{w|Takoma Park, Maryland}}. A 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization, NIRS would be part of a coalition opposing nuclear power in a letter to Congress seeking "100 percent decarbonization" while denouncing nuclear energy as "dirty." It would also express opposition to the "American Nuclear Infrastructure Act of 2020," considering nuclear power a false solution to climate change. In 2021, NIRS would label nuclear energy as "dirty" and call for a renewable electricity standard, excluding nuclear and promoting weather-dependent power sources.<ref>{{cite web |title=LinkedIn|url=https://www.linkedin.com/company/nuclear-information-and-resource-service/about/ |website=LinkedIn |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Information and Resource Service |url=https://www.influencewatch.org/non-profit/nuclear-information-and-resource-service/ |website=InfluenceWatch |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
 | 1979 (March 18) || Adverse consequence || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Three Mile Island accident}} occurs at the TMI-2 reactor in Pennsylvania, releasing radioactive gases and iodine into the environment. It is the worst incident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history, rated Level 5 on the International Nuclear Event Scale. Mechanical failures and operator misjudgments, compounded by design flaws, lead to a loss-of-coolant accident. The event heightens anti-nuclear concerns, prompting new industry regulations and hindering reactor development. Epidemiological studies on cancer rates yield conflicting results. Cleanup, costing about $1 billion, would conclude in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |title=14-Year Cleanup at Three Mile Island Concludes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/15/us/14-year-cleanup-at-three-mile-island-concludes.html |website=nytimes.com |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> TMI-1, restarted in 1985, would be retired in 2019, with decommissioning expected by 2079 at a $1.2 billion estimate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pennsylvania raises alarms on transfer of radioactive Three Mile Island reactor |url=https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2020/04/17/pennsylvania-raises-alarms-on-transfer-of-radioactive-three-mile-island-reactor/ |website=StateImpact Pennsylvania |access-date=14 November 2023 |language=en |date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
 |-
-| 1979 (September 22) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} (suspicion) || The {{w|Vela incident}} occurs when an unexplained double flash of light is detected by an American Vela Hotel satellite, near the South African territory of {{w|Prince Edward Islands}} in the {{w|Indian Ocean}}. While the exact cause of the flash remains officially unknown, many independent researchers would believe it is an undeclared joint nuclear test conducted by {{w|South Africa}} and {{w|Israel}}. Despite some speculation about natural causes, the consensus would lean towards a clandestine nuclear test, with Israel and South Africa as possible culprits. The incident would remain shrouded in mystery and controversy to this time, with ongoing debates and investigations.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test {{!}} National Security Archive |url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test |website=nsarchive.gwu.edu |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|South Africa}}, {{w|Israel}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1979 (September 22) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} (suspicion) || The {{w|Vela incident}} occurs when an unexplained double flash of light is detected by an American Vela Hotel satellite, near the South African territory of {{w|Prince Edward Islands}} in the {{w|Indian Ocean}}. While the exact cause of the flash remains officially unknown, many independent researchers would believe it is an undeclared joint nuclear test conducted by {{w|South Africa}} and {{w|Israel}}. Despite some speculation about natural causes, the consensus would lean towards a clandestine nuclear test, with Israel and South Africa as possible culprits. The incident would remain shrouded in mystery and controversy to this time, with ongoing debates and investigations.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Vela Incident: South Atlantic Mystery Flash in September 1979 Raised Questions about Nuclear Test {{!}} National Security Archive |url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2016-12-06/vela-incident-south-atlantic-mystery-flash-september-1979-raised-questions-about-nuclear-test |website=nsarchive.gwu.edu |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|South Africa}}, {{w|Israel}}, {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1979 (October 26) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Diplomacy || The {{w|Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material}} (CPPNM) is adopted in {{w|Vienna}}, under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This legal instrument establishes obligations for Parties regarding the physical protection of nuclear material during international transport and criminalizes offenses related to nuclear material. Effective from February 8, 1987, an amendment would be adopted in 2005, significantly strengthening the original treaty by extending its scope to cover the protection of nuclear facilities and material in domestic use, storage, and transport. These milestones represent vital developments in the global legal framework for nuclear security.<ref>{{cite web |title=Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM) and its Amendment |url=https://www.iaea.org/publications/documents/conventions/convention-physical-protection-nuclear-material-and-its-amendment |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en |date=17 October 2014}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 1979 (November 9) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || A frightening incident occurs at around 11:00 a.m., where computer screens at the Pentagon and North American Aerospace Defense Command indicate that the United States is under attack. The source of panic is believed to be Soviet missiles launched from submarines and land. Fighter planes are immediately deployed to investigate, and air raid sirens blar across Strategic Air Command bases. Air traffic controllers are alerted that commercial flights might need to be grounded. Fortunately, it would be later discovered that a technician had mistakenly inserted a training tape into a computer used for a war game exercise simulating a Soviet attack. The incident highlights the importance of verification during the relatively low-tension period of the Cold War.<ref>Eric Schlosser, Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Incident, and the Illusion of Safety (New York: Penguin Books, 2013), 364–367.</ref><ref name=Leigh>{{cite book |last1=Leigh |first1=Andrew |title=What's the Worst That Could Happen?: Existential Risk and Extreme Politics |date=9 November 2021 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-36661-8 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/What_s_the_Worst_That_Could_Happen.html?id=siMZEAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+|-
+| 1979 (December) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Institute of Nuclear Power Operations}} (INPO) is established in {{w|Atlanta, Georgia}}, by the U.S. nuclear power industry in response to the Three Mile Island accident and recommendations from the Kemeny Commission Report. INPO has the mission to ensure the highest levels of safety and reliability in nuclear power plant operations. All U.S. organizations operating commercial nuclear power plants become INPO members. INPO also collaborates with international nuclear operating organizations and participates in the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO). The National Academy for Nuclear Training, operating under INPO, focuses on quality training and professionalism, integrating efforts from various nuclear utilities and accrediting boards.<ref>{{cite web |title=About INPO |url=https://www.inpoitcoops.org/about.html |website=www.inpoitcoops.org |access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1979 || Prevention || Intentional || Notable publication || The {{w|United States Congress}}' {{w|Office of Technology Assessment}} (OTA) publishes ''The Effects of Nuclear War'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Assessment |first1=United States Congress Office of Technology |title=The Effects of Nuclear War |date=1979 |publisher=Congress of the U.S., Office of Technology Assessment |isbn=978-0-916672-36-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/The_Effects_of_Nuclear_War.html?id=ppQZAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> a study examining the full range of effects that nuclear war would have on civilians: direct effects from blast and radiation; and indirect effects from economic, social, and politicai disruption. Particular attention is devoted to the ways in which the impact of a nuclear war would extend over time.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Effects of Nuclear War |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk3/1979/7906/790601.PDF |website=princeton.edu |access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1979 (October 26) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Diplomacy || The {{w|Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material}} (CPPNM) is adopted in {{w|Vienna}}, under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This legal instrument establishes obligations for Parties regarding the physical protection of nuclear material during international transport and criminalizes offenses related to nuclear material. Effective from February 8, 1987, an amendment would be adopted in 2005, significantly strengthening the original treaty by extending its scope to cover the protection of nuclear facilities and material in domestic use, storage, and transport. These milestones represent vital developments in the global legal framework for nuclear security.<ref>{{cite web |title=Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM) and its Amendment |url=https://www.iaea.org/publications/documents/conventions/convention-physical-protection-nuclear-material-and-its-amendment |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en |date=17 October 2014}}</ref> ||
+| 1979 || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || American engineer {{w|Cresson Kearny}} publishes ''[[w:Nuclear War Survival Skills|Nuclear War Survival Skills: Lifesaving Nuclear Facts and Self-Help Instructions]]'', which aims to provide a general audience with advice on how to [[w:Survivalist|survive]] conditions likely to be encountered in the event of a [[w:Effects of nuclear explosions|nuclear catastrophe]], as well as encouraging optimism in the face of such a catastrophe by asserting the [[w:Nuclear warfare#Survival|survivability]] of a [[w:Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kearny |first1=Cresson H. |title=Nuclear War Survival Skills |date=1980 |publisher=NWS Research Bureau |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Nuclear_War_Survival_Skills.html?id=VPFTAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1979 || Risk || Comprehensive || Statistics || Peak of the nuclear power sector’s growth in the world. At this time, there are 233 power reactors being simultaneously under construction, a number that would fall to 120 by 1987.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || Worldwide
 |-
-| 1979 (November 9) || Risk case || Intentional || Risk augmentation || A frightening incident occurs at around 11:00 a.m., where computer screens at the Pentagon and North American Aerospace Defense Command indicate that the United States is under attack. The source of panic is believed to be Soviet missiles launched from submarines and land. Fighter planes were immediately deployed to investigate, and air raid sirens blar across Strategic Air Command bases. Air traffic controllers are alerted that commercial flights might need to be grounded. Fortunately, it would be later discovered that a technician had mistakenly inserted a training tape into a computer used for a war game exercise simulating a Soviet attack. The incident highlights the importance of verification during the relatively low-tension period of the Cold War.<ref>Eric Schlosser, Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Incident, and the Illusion of Safety (New York: Penguin Books, 2013), 364–367.</ref><ref name=Leigh>{{cite book |last1=Leigh |first1=Andrew |title=What's the Worst That Could Happen?: Existential Risk and Extreme Politics |date=9 November 2021 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-36661-8 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/What_s_the_Worst_That_Could_Happen.html?id=siMZEAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1980 || Prevention || Intentional || Organization (national) || The Committee on International Security and Armament Control (CISAC) is established at the {{w|United States National Academy of Sciences}}, with the purpose to maintain bilateral contacts with an analogous group at the {{w|Soviet Academy of Science}}.<ref name="Maiani">{{cite book |last1=Maiani |first1=Luciano |last2=Abousahl |first2=Said |last3=Plastino |first3=Wolfango |title=International Cooperation for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation–60 Years of IAEA and EURATOM: Proceedings of the XX Edoardo Amaldi Conference, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, Italy, October 9-10, 2017 |date=23 April 2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-57366-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/International_Cooperation_for_Enhancing.html?id=dYlXDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 1979 (December) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Institute of Nuclear Power Operations}} (INPO) is established in {{w|Atlanta, Georgia}}, by the U.S. nuclear power industry in response to the Three Mile Island accident and recommendations from the Kemeny Commission Report. INPO has the mission to ensure the highest levels of safety and reliability in nuclear power plant operations. All U.S. organizations operating commercial nuclear power plants become INPO members. INPO also collaborates with international nuclear operating organizations and participates in the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO). The National Academy for Nuclear Training, operating under INPO, focuses on quality training and professionalism, integrating efforts from various nuclear utilities and accrediting boards.<ref>{{cite web |title=About INPO |url=https://www.inpoitcoops.org/about.html |website=www.inpoitcoops.org |access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1980 || Risk || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || Iranian planes target Iraq's Osirak research reactor, which is still being built. The attack results in damage to surrounding structures but leaves the reactor unharmed.<ref name="Mirbach">{{cite web |title=Prohibition of Military Attacks on Nuclear Facilities |url=https://vcdnp.org/prohibition-military-attacks-on-nuclear-facilities/ |website=Vienna Center for Disarmament and Non‑Proliferation |access-date=21 November 2023 |date=12 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|Iran}}
 |-
-| 1980 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (national) || The Committee on International Security and Armament Control (CISAC) is established at the {{w|United States National Academy of Sciences}}, with the purpose to maintain bilateral contacts with an analogous group at the {{w|Soviet Academy of Science}}.<ref name="Maiani">{{cite book |last1=Maiani |first1=Luciano |last2=Abousahl |first2=Said |last3=Plastino |first3=Wolfango |title=International Cooperation for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation–60 Years of IAEA and EURATOM: Proceedings of the XX Edoardo Amaldi Conference, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, Italy, October 9-10, 2017 |date=23 April 2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-57366-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/International_Cooperation_for_Enhancing.html?id=dYlXDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
+| 1980 || Prevention || Intentional || Research || The earliest appearance of a connection between space exploration and human survival appears in {{w|Louis J. Halle, Jr.}}'s article in ''{{w|Foreign Affairs}}'', in which he states colonization of space will keep humanity safe should global {{w|nuclear warfare}} occur.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Hopeful Future for Mankind|jstor = 20040585|journal = Foreign Affairs|date = 1980-07-01|pages = 1129–1136|volume = 58|issue = 5|doi = 10.2307/20040585|first = Louis J.|last = Halle}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1980 || Risk case || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || Iranian planes target Iraq's Osirak research reactor, which is still being built. The attack results in damage to surrounding structures but leaves the reactor unharmed.<ref name="Mirbach">{{cite web |last1=Mirbach |first1=Karolina |title=Prohibition of Military Attacks on Nuclear Facilities |url=https://vcdnp.org/prohibition-military-attacks-on-nuclear-facilities/ |website=Vienna Center for Disarmament and Non‑Proliferation |access-date=4 November 2023 |date=12 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|Iran}}
+| 1980 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research}} (UNIDIR) is established by the United Nations General Assembly. UNIDIR serves to inform nations and the global community about international security matters and to support disarmament efforts. Operating autonomously within the UN structure, it conducts objective research on disarmament and security challenges, addressing issues such as nuclear weapons, conventional arms, new weapon technologies, and gender perspectives. It fosters dialogue among researchers, diplomats, and NGOs, aiming to bridge the gap between research and policy. UNIDIR's work aims to enhance security, economic development, and social well-being, contributing to global disarmament and peace efforts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UNIDIR at 40|url=https://www.unidir.org/unidir-at-40|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205202724/https://www.unidir.org/unidir-at-40|archive-date=2021-02-05|access-date=2021-02-05|website=United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Turner |first1=B. |title=The Statesman's Yearbook 2007: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World |date=7 February 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-27135-7 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=zzQUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=1980+Organization+The+United+Nations+Institute+for+Disarmament+Research+(UNIDIR)+is+established+by+the+United+Nations+General+Assembly&source=bl&ots=FabkliXFn-&sig=ACfU3U2_od1ptCahEr76ezKcZCFC0ZLhkA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjdj7TiqpaBAxU-pZUCHZzzBZYQ6AF6BAgsEAM#v=onepage&q=1980%20Organization%20The%20United%20Nations%20Institute%20for%20Disarmament%20Research%20(UNIDIR)%20is%20established%20by%20the%20United%20Nations%20General%20Assembly&f=false |language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1980 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research}} (UNIDIR) is established by the United Nations General Assembly. UNIDIR serves to inform nations and the global community about international security matters and to support disarmament efforts. Operating autonomously within the UN structure, it conducts objective research on disarmament and security challenges, addressing issues such as nuclear weapons, conventional arms, new weapon technologies, and gender perspectives. It fosters dialogue among researchers, diplomats, and NGOs, aiming to bridge the gap between research and policy. UNIDIR's work aims to enhance security, economic development, and social well-being, contributing to global disarmament and peace efforts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UNIDIR at 40|url=https://www.unidir.org/unidir-at-40|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205202724/https://www.unidir.org/unidir-at-40|archive-date=2021-02-05|access-date=2021-02-05|website=United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Turner |first1=B. |title=The Statesman's Yearbook 2007: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World |date=7 February 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-27135-7 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=zzQUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=1980+Organization+The+United+Nations+Institute+for+Disarmament+Research+(UNIDIR)+is+established+by+the+United+Nations+General+Assembly&source=bl&ots=FabkliXFn-&sig=ACfU3U2_od1ptCahEr76ezKcZCFC0ZLhkA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjdj7TiqpaBAxU-pZUCHZzzBZYQ6AF6BAgsEAM#v=onepage&q=1980%20Organization%20The%20United%20Nations%20Institute%20for%20Disarmament%20Research%20(UNIDIR)%20is%20established%20by%20the%20United%20Nations%20General%20Assembly&f=false |language=en}}</ref> ||
+| 1980 || Prevention || Intentional || Individual recognition || The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is established by the Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation, commemorating the centenary of Albert Einstein's birth and inspired by the Russell-Einstein Manifesto advocating nuclear disarmament. Swedish sociologist, diplomat and politician {{w|Alva Myrdal}} is first awarded for her outspoken advocacy for nuclear disarmament and her significant contributions to the achievement of key arms control agreements.<ref>"[http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/nobel/1980/1980al.html NAMES & FACES]" in {{w|Boston Globe}} March 14, 1980. Retrieved June 6, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Recipient of the first Albert Einstein Peace Prize of $50,000 is...Alva Myrdal for her service to her country and to the world |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwoAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7|access-date=11 January 2016|date=May 1980|publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.|page=7}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1980 || || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is established by the Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation, commemorating the centenary of Albert Einstein's birth and inspired by the Russell-Einstein Manifesto advocating nuclear disarmament. Swedish sociologist, diplomat and politician {{w|Alva Myrdal}} is first awarded for her outspoken advocacy for nuclear disarmament and her significant contributions to the achievement of key arms control agreements.<ref>"[http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/nobel/1980/1980al.html NAMES & FACES]" in {{w|Boston Globe}} March 14, 1980. Retrieved June 6, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Recipient of the first Albert Einstein Peace Prize of $50,000 is...Alva Myrdal for her service to her country and to the world |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwoAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7|access-date=11 January 2016|date=May 1980|publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.|page=7}}</ref> ||
+| 1980 || Prevention  || Intentional || Literature || Survival expert Bruce Clayton publishes ''Life After Doomsday''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clayton |first1=Bruce |title=Life After Doomsday |date=1980 |publisher=Paladin Press |isbn=978-0-87364-175-3 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Life_After_Doomsday.html?id=EpgsAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref>, which attempts to provide a comprehensive guide to surviving a nuclear disaster, including detailed instructions on how to build and defend a shelter, store food, treat illnesses and injuries, and cope with the psychological effects of such an event.<ref>{{cite web |first1= |title=Life After Doomsday |url=https://www.amazon.com/Life-After-Doomsday-Bruce-Clayton/dp/0873641752 |website=amazon |access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1980 (December) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The non-partisan federation {{w|International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War}} (IPPNW) is established by physicians from the U.S. and the former Soviet Union. With members in 64 countries, including doctors, medical students, and health workers, IPPNW's goal is to create a peaceful world free from nuclear threats. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985, IPPNW would remain a global leader advocating for nuclear disarmament. IPPNW contributes to research, education, and policy development to promote global health and security.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) |url=https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/violence-prevention-alliance-section/vpa-participants/international-physicians-for-the-prevention-of-nuclear-war.pdf?sfvrsn=b174d06e_3#:~:text=IPPNW%20was%20founded%20in%201980,war%20between%20their%20two%20countries. |website=cdn.who.int |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 1980 (December) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The non-partisan federation {{w|International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War}} (IPPNW) is established by physicians from the U.S. and the former Soviet Union. With members in 64 countries, including doctors, medical students, and health workers, IPPNW's goal is to create a peaceful world free from nuclear threats. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985, IPPNW would remain a global leader advocating for nuclear disarmament. IPPNW contributes to research, education, and policy development to promote global health and security.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) |url=https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/violence-prevention-alliance-section/vpa-participants/international-physicians-for-the-prevention-of-nuclear-war.pdf?sfvrsn=b174d06e_3#:~:text=IPPNW%20was%20founded%20in%201980,war%20between%20their%20two%20countries. |website=cdn.who.int |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1981 || Risk case || Intentional  || Attacks on nuclear plant || The {{w|Israeli Air Force}} destroys the unfinished Iraqi Osirak reactor during the {{w|Operation Opera}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=Persian Gulf War Encyclopedia: A Political, Social, and Military History: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=20 August 2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-416-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=-oaMBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&dq=1981+Israeli+Air+Force+destroys+the+unfinished+Iraqi+Osirak&hl=en#v=onepage&q=1981%20Israeli%20Air%20Force%20destroys%20the%20unfinished%20Iraqi%20Osirak&f=false |language=en}}</ref> This attack would be widely viewed to be a stopgap measure, delaying but not preventing Iraqi nuclear aspirations.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|Israel}}
+| 1980 || Risk || Comprehensive || Statistics || There are sixty-five nuclear engineering programs in the United States, a number that would be reduced to only thirty-one by 2008.  With the {{w|Chernobyl disaster}} in between, nuclear risk and safety concerns are significant factors contributing to the decline in the number of nuclear engineering programs in the country.<ref name="Stulberg">{{cite book |last1=Stulberg |first1=Adam N. |last2=Fuhrmann |first2=Matthew |title=The Nuclear Renaissance and International Security |date=23 January 2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8530-3 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ilTYOo6kdSYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Nuclear+Renaissance+and+International+Security&hl=en#v=onepage&q=The%20Nuclear%20Renaissance%20and%20International%20Security&f=false |language=en}}</ref><ref>Schneider et al. 2009b</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1981 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || American diplomat and historian {{w|George F. Kennan}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} "for his continuing efforts to reduce tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and the world in general."<ref>Krebs, Albin and [[w:Robert McG. Thomas|Thomas, Robert McG.]]: "[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/17/nyregion/notes-on-people-kennan-wins-peace-prize.html NOTES ON PEOPLE; Kennan Wins Peace Prize]" in {{w|The New York Times}} March 17, 1981. Retrieved June 6, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgoAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7|access-date=11 January 2016|date=May 1981|publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.|page=7|title=Recipient of the second Albert Einstein Peace Prize}}</ref><ref name="BurnsSiracusa2013">{{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Richard Dean|last2=Siracusa|first2=Joseph M.|title=A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EX2jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA566|access-date=11 January 2016|date=2013-04-23|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440800955|page=566}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1981 || Risk || Intentional || Attacks on nuclear plant || The {{w|Israeli Air Force}} destroys the unfinished Iraqi Osirak reactor during the {{w|Operation Opera}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=Persian Gulf War Encyclopedia: A Political, Social, and Military History: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=20 August 2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-416-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=-oaMBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&dq=1981+Israeli+Air+Force+destroys+the+unfinished+Iraqi+Osirak&hl=en#v=onepage&q=1981%20Israeli%20Air%20Force%20destroys%20the%20unfinished%20Iraqi%20Osirak&f=false |language=en}}</ref> This attack would be widely viewed to be a stopgap measure, delaying but not preventing Iraqi nuclear aspirations.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|Israel}}
 |-
-| 1982 || Risk case || Intentional  || Nuclear weapon program || {{w|South Africa}} develops and builds its first nuclear explosive device,<ref>{{cite web |title=South Africa: from nuclear armed state to disarmament hero |url=https://www.icanw.org/south_africa_from_nuclear_armed_state_to_disarmament_hero |website=ICAN |access-date=7 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> with its scientists having been trained by the United States as a result of government-backed programs.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|South Africa}}
+| 1981 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || American diplomat and historian {{w|George F. Kennan}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} "for his continuing efforts to reduce tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and the world in general."<ref>Krebs, Albin and [[w:Robert McG. Thomas|Thomas, Robert McG.]]: "[https://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/17/nyregion/notes-on-people-kennan-wins-peace-prize.html NOTES ON PEOPLE; Kennan Wins Peace Prize]" in {{w|The New York Times}} March 17, 1981. Retrieved June 6, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgoAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7|access-date=11 January 2016|date=May 1981|publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.|page=7|title=Recipient of the second Albert Einstein Peace Prize}}</ref><ref name="BurnsSiracusa2013">{{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Richard Dean|last2=Siracusa|first2=Joseph M.|title=A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EX2jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA566|access-date=11 January 2016|date=2013-04-23|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440800955|page=566}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1982 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Nuclear Age Peace Foundation}} (NAPF) is established as a non-profit international organization focused on education and advocacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/organization/?54705/nuclear-age-peace-foundation|title=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation {{!}} C-SPAN.org|website=www.c-span.org|language=en-us|access-date=2023-09-06}}</ref> NAPF's mission is to promote a just and peaceful world free from nuclear weapons. With consultative status to the UN Economic and Social Council and recognition as a Peace Messenger Organization, NAPF educates and advocates for nuclear disarmament.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission and Vission |url=https://www.wagingpeace.org/about/visionmission/ |website=wagingpeace.org |accessdate=6 September 2023}}</ref> Notably, in 2014, NAPF would collaborate with the {{w|Marshall Islands}} to file lawsuits against nine nuclear-armed nations, alleging failure to uphold international obligations for disarmament. This includes a historic case against the U.S., marking the first time a nation is charged domestically for violating a disarmament treaty.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Keating|first=Joshua|date=2014-04-25|title=A Tiny Pacific Island Nation Is Suing the U.S. for Not Giving Up Its Nukes|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2014/04/the-marshall-islands-is-suing-the-world-s-nuclear-powers-for-violating-international-law.html|access-date=2023-11-16|website=Slate Magazine|language=en}}</ref> ||
+| 1982 || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program || {{w|South Africa}} develops and builds its first nuclear explosive device,<ref>{{cite web |title=South Africa: from nuclear armed state to disarmament hero |url=https://www.icanw.org/south_africa_from_nuclear_armed_state_to_disarmament_hero |website=ICAN |access-date=7 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> with its scientists having been trained by the United States as a result of government-backed programs.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|South Africa}}
 |-
-| 1982 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || {{w|McGeorge Bundy}}, {{w|Robert McNamara}}, and {{w|Gerard C. Smith}} are jointly awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for their work in opposing pre-emptive nuclear strikes.<ref name="basv5n5p2">{{cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5AUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PP2|date=June 1988|title=William Swartz; 1912–1987|volume=5|number=5|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/02/us/briefing-193488.html|title=Briefing: How High Is High?|date=October 2, 1982|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/08/world/mcnamara-urges-shift-in-us-atomic-strategy.html|title=McNamara Urges Shift In U.S. Atomic Strategy|date=October 8, 1982|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 January 2016}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1982 || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || American author {{w|Jonathan Schell}} publishes ''{{w|The Fate of the Earth}}'', which would be regarded as a key document in the {{w|nuclear disarmament}} movement.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Martin |title=Smoking Guns and Mushroom Clouds |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/books/review/Walker-t.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2022 |date=25 November 2007}}</ref> By the time of this publication, there are almost 60,000 nuclear weapons stockpiled with a destructive force equal to roughly 20,000 megatons (20 billion tons) of TNT, or over 1 million times the power of the Hiroshima bomb.<ref name="Bostrom">{{cite book |last1=Bostrom |first1=Nick |last2=Cirkovic |first2=Milan M. |title=Global Catastrophic Risks |date=29 September 2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-960650-4 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=sTkfAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Global+Catastrophic+Risks+2008&hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Global%20Catastrophic%20Risks%202008&f=false |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Torres"/> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1982–1983 || Risk case || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || India smuggles Chinese {{w|heavy water}} through German nuclear-materials broker {{w|Alfred Hempel}}, who manages to ship 60 tons of heavy water to {{w|Bombay}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Milhollin |first1=Gary |title=Asia's Nuclear Nightmare: The German Connection |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1990/06/10/asias-nuclear-nightmare-the-german-connection/63bf43d7-86eb-4e31-9af7-b2d238e6b3be/ |website=Washington Post |access-date=9 August 2022 |date=10 June 1990}}</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|India}}
+| 1982 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Nuclear Age Peace Foundation}} (NAPF) is established as a non-profit international organization focused on education and advocacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/organization/?54705/nuclear-age-peace-foundation|title=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation {{!}} C-SPAN.org|website=www.c-span.org|language=en-us|access-date=2023-09-06}}</ref> NAPF's mission is to promote a just and peaceful world free from nuclear weapons. With consultative status to the UN Economic and Social Council and recognition as a Peace Messenger Organization, NAPF educates and advocates for nuclear disarmament.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission and Vission |url=https://www.wagingpeace.org/about/visionmission/ |website=wagingpeace.org |accessdate=6 September 2023}}</ref> Notably, in 2014, NAPF would collaborate with the {{w|Marshall Islands}} to file lawsuits against nine nuclear-armed nations, alleging failure to uphold international obligations for disarmament. This includes a historic case against the U.S., marking the first time a nation is charged domestically for violating a disarmament treaty.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Keating|first=Joshua|date=2014-04-25|title=A Tiny Pacific Island Nation Is Suing the U.S. for Not Giving Up Its Nukes|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2014/04/the-marshall-islands-is-suing-the-world-s-nuclear-powers-for-violating-international-law.html|access-date=2023-11-16|website=Slate Magazine|language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1983 (March 23) || Risk case || Intentional || Missile defence || A greater challenge to {{w|Mutual Assured Destruction}} (MAD) arises when United States President {{w|Ronald Reagan}} declares his intention to establish a missile defense system, known as the {{w|Strategic Defense Initiative}} (SDI), which envisions using advanced technology, including space-based lasers, to intercept and destroy incoming ballistic missiles. Reagan believes SDI could eliminate the need for nuclear weapons, potentially ending the Cold War. Critics, however, raise concerns about its high cost, potential to undermine deterrence, and violation of the 1972 {{w|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}}. The Soviet Union objects, complicating arms negotiations. Ultimately, SDI's impact on the Cold War would be mixed, facing substantial opposition and skepticism.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information |first1=Bureau of Public Affairs |title=Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/rd/104253.htm#:~:text=On%20March%2023%2C%201983%20in,could%20make%20nuclear%20weapons%20obsolete. |website=2001-2009.state.gov |access-date=2 September 2023 |language=en |date=1 May 2008}}</ref> Concerns would persist until the program, nicknamed "Star Wars," concludes ten years later. During this time, there are apprehensions that the initiative could heighten the risk of nuclear conflict by weakening the concept of nuclear deterrence.<ref name=Leigh/><ref name="Maiani"/> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1982 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || {{w|McGeorge Bundy}}, {{w|Robert McNamara}}, and {{w|Gerard C. Smith}} are jointly awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for their work in opposing pre-emptive nuclear strikes.<ref name="basv5n5p2">{{cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5AUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PP2|date=June 1988|title=William Swartz; 1912–1987|volume=5|number=5|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/02/us/briefing-193488.html|title=Briefing: How High Is High?|date=October 2, 1982|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/08/world/mcnamara-urges-shift-in-us-atomic-strategy.html|title=McNamara Urges Shift In U.S. Atomic Strategy|date=October 8, 1982|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 January 2016}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1983 (September 26) || Risk case || Intentional || Risk augmentation || {{w|1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident}}: During the Cold War, the Soviet early-warning radar system, Oko, malfunctions, indicating an incoming U.S. nuclear missile. {{w|Stanislov Petrov}}, an officer familiar with Oko's errors, hesitates to alert superiors and waits for corroborating evidence. No evidence surfaces, and Petrov's inaction likely prevents a nuclear catastrophe. Soon after, {{w|NATO}}'s {{w|Able Archer 83}} exercise, designed to test command procedures, confuses the Soviets. Soviet leader {{w|Yuri Andropov}} prepares for a large-scale retaliation, but a U.S. intelligence officer's decision to wait instead of escalating tensions diffuses the situation, averting a potential nuclear conflict.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schumann |first1=Anna |title=The Soviet False Alarm Incident and Able Archer 83 |url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/the-soviet-false-alarm-incident-and-able-archer-83/ |website=Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation |access-date=4 November 2023 |date=14 October 2022}}</ref>  || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1982–1983 || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || India smuggles Chinese {{w|heavy water}} through German nuclear-materials broker {{w|Alfred Hempel}}, who manages to ship 60 tons of heavy water to {{w|Bombay}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Milhollin |first1=Gary |title=Asia's Nuclear Nightmare: The German Connection |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1990/06/10/asias-nuclear-nightmare-the-german-connection/63bf43d7-86eb-4e31-9af7-b2d238e6b3be/ |website=Washington Post |access-date=9 August 2022 |date=10 June 1990}}</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|India}}
 |-
-| 1983 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || American Cardinal {{w|Joseph Bernardin}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his significant contributions to the drafting of the United States bishops' pastoral letter calling for new arms agreements.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0QUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA11|date=February 1984|page=11|title=Pacem in terris: twenty years later |first=Joseph |last=Bernardin}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1983 (March 23) || Risk || Intentional || Missile defence || A greater challenge to {{w|Mutual Assured Destruction}} (MAD) arises when United States President {{w|Ronald Reagan}} declares his intention to establish a missile defense system, known as the {{w|Strategic Defense Initiative}} (SDI), which envisions using advanced technology, including space-based lasers, to intercept and destroy incoming ballistic missiles. Reagan believes SDI could eliminate the need for nuclear weapons, potentially ending the Cold War. Critics, however, raise concerns about its high cost, potential to undermine deterrence, and violation of the 1972 {{w|Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty}}. The Soviet Union objects, complicating arms negotiations. Ultimately, SDI's impact on the Cold War would be mixed, facing substantial opposition and skepticism.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information |first1=Bureau of Public Affairs |title=Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 1983 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/rd/104253.htm#:~:text=On%20March%2023%2C%201983%20in,could%20make%20nuclear%20weapons%20obsolete. |website=2001-2009.state.gov |access-date=2 September 2023 |language=en |date=1 May 2008}}</ref> Concerns would persist until the program, nicknamed "Star Wars," concludes ten years later. During this time, there are apprehensions that the initiative could heighten the risk of nuclear conflict by weakening the concept of nuclear deterrence.<ref name=Leigh/><ref name="Maiani"/> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1984 || Risk case || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|India}} buys {{w|beryllium}} from a German company.<ref>Perkovich 1999: 242, 250, 271</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> Beryllium is a neutron reflector used in nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Smuggling of Beryllium {{!}} Iran Watch |url=https://www.iranwatch.org/library/ncri-smuggling-beryllium-9-1-05 |website=www.iranwatch.org |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref> It is a substitute for gold or natural uranium reflectors in early devices, with the purpose of saving much weight and money.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beryllium use at Los Alamos |url=https://wwwn.cdc.gov/LAHDRA/Content/pubs/reports/sections/Chapters%2011%20thru%2014.pdf |website=cdc.gov |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref> || {{w|India}}, {{w|Germany}}
+| 1983 (September 26) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || {{w|1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident}}: During the Cold War, the Soviet early-warning radar system, Oko, malfunctions, indicating an incoming U.S. nuclear missile. {{w|Stanislov Petrov}}, an officer familiar with Oko's errors, hesitates to alert superiors and waits for corroborating evidence. No evidence surfaces, and Petrov's inaction likely prevents a nuclear catastrophe. Soon after, {{w|NATO}}'s {{w|Able Archer 83}} exercise, designed to test command procedures, confuses the Soviets. Soviet leader {{w|Yuri Andropov}} prepares for a large-scale retaliation, but a U.S. intelligence officer's decision to wait instead of escalating tensions diffuses the situation, averting a potential nuclear conflict.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schumann |first1=Anna |title=The Soviet False Alarm Incident and Able Archer 83 |url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/the-soviet-false-alarm-incident-and-able-archer-83/ |website=Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation |access-date=4 November 2023 |date=14 October 2022}}</ref>  || {{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1984 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || Canadian lawyer and politician {{w|Pierre Trudeau}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his dedication to promoting disarmament and advocating for peace.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Whitaker |first=Reg |title=Pierre Elliott Trudeau |encyclopedia={{w|The Canadian Encyclopedia}} |date=2 June 2017 |publisher={{w|Historica Canada}} |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/pierre-elliott-trudeau}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1985 |date=1984 |publisher=Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-911818-71-5 |page=33}}</ref> ||
+| 1983 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || American Cardinal {{w|Joseph Bernardin}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his significant contributions to the drafting of the United States bishops' pastoral letter calling for new arms agreements.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0QUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA11|date=February 1984|page=11|title=Pacem in terris: twenty years later |first=Joseph |last=Bernardin}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1984–1987 || Risk case || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || During the {{w|Iran-Iraq war}}, Iraq conducts multiple air strikes on Iran's Bushehr power reactors, which are still under construction at the time. These attacks result in significant damage to the reactors.<ref name="Mirbach"/> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|Iran}}
+| 1984 || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|India}} buys {{w|beryllium}} from a German company.<ref>Perkovich 1999: 242, 250, 271</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> Beryllium is a neutron reflector used in nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Smuggling of Beryllium {{!}} Iran Watch |url=https://www.iranwatch.org/library/ncri-smuggling-beryllium-9-1-05 |website=www.iranwatch.org |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref> It is a substitute for gold or natural uranium reflectors in early devices, with the purpose of saving much weight and money.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beryllium use at Los Alamos |url=https://wwwn.cdc.gov/LAHDRA/Content/pubs/reports/sections/Chapters%2011%20thru%2014.pdf |website=cdc.gov |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref> || {{w|India}}, {{w|Germany}}
 |-
-| 1985 (August 6) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The Treaty of Rarotonga, also known as the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, is signed on the island of Rarotonga. This treaty establishes a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific, encompassing nations such as {{w|Australia}}, the {{w|Cook Islands}}, {{w|Fiji}}, {{w|New Zealand}}, and others. It prohibits the use, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons within the zone's borders. The treaty came into force on December 11, 1986, with ratification by 13 parties. The treaty's protocols, binding the declared nuclear states, outline agreements regarding manufacturing, stationing, testing, and use of nuclear weapons within the zone and globally.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of Rarotonga {{!}} United Nations Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones |url=https://www.un.org/nwfz/content/treaty-rarotonga |website=www.un.org |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Rarotonga Participation.svg|thumb|center|150px]]
+| 1984 || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program || Pakistani {{w|Khan Research Laboratories}} claims the capability to detonate a nuclear bomb using highly enriched uranium.<ref name="Levy page 112">Levy, Adrian and Catherine Scott-Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States, and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons. New York. Walker Publishing Company. 1977: page 112. Print.</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|author=A. Q. Khan |date=May 26, 2014|title=A historic day (Part - I)|work=The News International |url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-252241-A-historic-day |access-date=26 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810150255/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-252241-A-historic-day |archive-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> || {{w|Pakistan}}
 |-
-| 1985 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || German politician and statesman {{w|Willy Brandt}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his contributions to the promotion of peace, reconciliation, and international understanding.<ref>{{cite web |title={{!}} Memoria Abierta |url=https://indice.memoriaabierta.org.ar/item/60269 |website=indice.memoriaabierta.org.ar |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 1984 || Prevention  || Intentional || Literature || Carl Sagan and Paul Ehrlich publish ''The Cold and the Dark'', a book discussing long-term biological consequences of nuclear war.<ref name="Torres"/> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1984 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || Canadian lawyer and politician {{w|Pierre Trudeau}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his dedication to promoting disarmament and advocating for peace.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Whitaker |first=Reg |title=Pierre Elliott Trudeau |encyclopedia={{w|The Canadian Encyclopedia}} |date=2 June 2017 |publisher={{w|Historica Canada}} |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/pierre-elliott-trudeau}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1985 |date=1984 |publisher=Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-911818-71-5 |page=33}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 1984–1987 || Risk || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || During the {{w|Iran-Iraq war}}, Iraq conducts multiple air strikes on Iran's Bushehr power reactors, which are still under construction at the time. These attacks result in significant damage to the reactors.<ref name="Mirbach"/> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|Iran}}
+|-
+| 1985 (March 2) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Politics}} || 54-year-old {{w|Mikhail Gorbachev}} is appointed {{w|General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union}}. While his full intentions remain unclear, Gorbachev's moderate liberalization measures would result in the {{w|dissolution of the Soviet Union}}.<ref name="Bostrom"/> Historian {{w|Yuval Noah Harari}} would call Gorbachev an historical hero, for probably saving the world from {{w|nuclear war}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yuval Noah Harari: ‘I wish I had come out when I was 16 or 17, and not 21’ |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/oct/23/yuval-noah-harari-i-wish-i-had-come-out-when-i-was-16-or-17-and-not-21 |website=the Guardian |access-date=29 July 2022 |language=en |date=23 October 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}} ({{w|Soviet Union}})
+|-
+| 1985 (August 6) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The Treaty of Rarotonga, also known as the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, is signed on the island of Rarotonga. This treaty establishes a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific, encompassing nations such as {{w|Australia}}, the {{w|Cook Islands}}, {{w|Fiji}}, {{w|New Zealand}}, and others. It prohibits the use, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons within the zone's borders. The treaty would come into force on December 11, 1986, with ratification by 13 parties. The treaty's protocols, binding the declared nuclear states, outline agreements regarding manufacturing, stationing, testing, and use of nuclear weapons within the zone and globally.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of Rarotonga {{!}} United Nations Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones |url=https://www.un.org/nwfz/content/treaty-rarotonga |website=www.un.org |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Rarotonga Participation.svg|thumb|center|150px]]
+|-
+| 1985 || Prevention || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Nuclear Safety Group}} is established as the International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG), later adopting its current title in 2003. It is a panel of experts in nuclear and radiation safety. Convened by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since its establishment in 1985, INSAG's primary objective is to provide the IAEA Director General with authoritative advice and recommendations on nuclear and radiation safety. The group addresses both fundamental safety issues and current/emerging matters relevant to the safety of nuclear facilities and activities, including nuclear security issues related to nuclear and radiation safety.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Nuclear Safety Group {{!}} UIA Yearbook Profile {{!}} Union of International Associations |url=https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100052441 |website=uia.org |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Safe Management of the Operating Lifetimes of Nuclear Power Plants |url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/P085_scr.pdf |website=www-pub.iaea.org |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 1985 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || German politician and statesman {{w|Willy Brandt}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his contributions to the promotion of peace, reconciliation, and international understanding.<ref>{{cite web |title={{!}} Memoria Abierta |url=https://indice.memoriaabierta.org.ar/item/60269 |website=indice.memoriaabierta.org.ar |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
 | 1986 (April 26) || Adverse consequence || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Chernobyl disaster}} occurs at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in the Soviet Union, marking the worst disaster in nuclear power generation history. The catastrophe results from a poorly designed experiment at reactor Unit 4, causing a chain reaction to go out of control. Multiple explosions and a fire release substantial radioactive material into the atmosphere. Evacuations commence on the day after, and a subsequent cover-up is revealed by abnormally high radiation levels reported by Swedish monitoring stations. The disaster leads to global concerns, and the aftermath includes deaths, radiation-related illnesses, contamination of land, and the creation of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. This incident would have a devastating effect on nuclear industries around the world, as a result of decline in demand for nuclear power.<ref name="Stulberg"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Chernobyl disaster {{!}} Causes, Effects, Deaths, Videos, Location, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Chernobyl-disaster |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=15 November 2023 |language=en |date=14 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Ukraine}} ({{w|Soviet Union}})
 |-
-| 1986 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || The {{w|Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control}} is established as a non-profit organization focused on halting the proliferation of nuclear weapons, chemical/biological weapons, and long-range missiles. It operates under the University of Wisconsin in Washington, D.C. Led by Emeritus Professor Gary Milhollin and later Valerie Lincy, the Project conducts research, public education, and advocacy. It publishes The Risk Report, a database used to screen business transactions related to sensitive products and technologies. The Project tracks WMD proliferation through websites like Iraq Watch and Iran Watch. It would play a role in revealing proliferation threats, aiding U.S. trade restrictions, and influencing sanctions against organizations linked to nuclear and missile activities. || {{w|United States}}
+| 1986 || Prevention  || Intentional || Literature || Lydia Dotto publishes ''Planet Earth in Jeopardy: Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War'', A distillation of the report by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), written for a lay audience. It explores the climatic and atmospheric changes induced, radiation and fallout, and the putative biological consequences of nuclear war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=John |first1=Doxat |last2=Dotto |first2=Lydia |last3=l'environnement |first3=Comité scientifique chargé des problèmes de |last4=Environment |first4=Consejo Internacional de Uniones Científicas Scientific Committee on Problems of the |title=Planet Earth in Jeopardy: Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War |date=26 March 1986 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-99836-5 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=LtjaAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1986 (October 11–12) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Reykjavík Summit}} brings together U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in Iceland. While the talks collapse due to differences over the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), progress is made. Gorbachev proposes eliminating all nuclear weapons within a decade if SDI research remains in labs for ten years. Reagan wants SDI testing flexibility. Despite no formal agreement, the summit reveals the extent of concessions each side is willing to make and discusses human rights. The Reykjavík Summit is seen as a breakthrough that paves the way for the 1987 INF Treaty, which would lead to the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear forces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reykjavík summit of 1986 {{!}} United States–Soviet Union history {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Reykjavik-summit-of-1986 |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Iceland}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1986 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || The {{w|Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control}} is established as a non-profit organization focused on halting the proliferation of nuclear weapons, chemical/biological weapons, and long-range missiles. It operates under the University of Wisconsin in Washington, D.C. Led by Emeritus Professor Gary Milhollin and later Valerie Lincy, the Project conducts research, public education, and advocacy. It publishes The Risk Report, a database used to screen business transactions related to sensitive products and technologies. The Project tracks WMD proliferation through websites like Iraq Watch and Iran Watch. It would play a role in revealing proliferation threats, aiding U.S. trade restrictions, and influencing sanctions against organizations linked to nuclear and missile activities. || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1986 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || Swedish politician and statesman {{w|Olof Palme}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} posthumously for his "wide-ranging efforts on behalf of peace."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-L4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bu8FAAAAIBAJ&pg=2740%2C4410781|title=Palme honoured|date=September 30, 1986|work=Ottawa Citizen|page=A10|access-date=10 January 2016}}</ref> ||
+| 1986 (October 11–12) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Reykjavík Summit}} brings together U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in Iceland. While the talks collapse due to differences over the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), progress is made. Gorbachev proposes eliminating all nuclear weapons within a decade if SDI research remains in labs for ten years. Reagan wants SDI testing flexibility. Despite no formal agreement, the summit reveals the extent of concessions each side is willing to make and discusses human rights. The Reykjavík Summit is seen as a breakthrough that paves the way for the 1987 INF Treaty, which would lead to the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear forces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reykjavík summit of 1986 {{!}} United States–Soviet Union history {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Reykjavik-summit-of-1986 |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Iceland}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+|-
+| 1986 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || Swedish politician and statesman {{w|Olof Palme}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} posthumously for his "wide-ranging efforts on behalf of peace."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-L4yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bu8FAAAAIBAJ&pg=2740%2C4410781|title=Palme honoured|date=September 30, 1986|work=Ottawa Citizen|page=A10|access-date=10 January 2016}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 1986 || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear proliferation}} || The global size of the nuclear arsenals peaks at 70,000 warheads.<ref name="Ord">{{cite book |last1=Ord |first1=Toby |title=The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity |date=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |isbn=978-1-5266-0022-6 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/The_Precipice.html?id=8dTEyQEACAAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || [[w:List of states with nuclear weapons|Countries with nuclear weapons]]
 |-
 | 1987 || Adverse consequence || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || A nuclear incident [[w:Goiânia accident|occurs in Goiania]], Brazil, stemming from the radioactive contamination of an abandoned hospital machine containing Cs-137. Two men find and sell the machine to a local junkyard, where it is dismantled, releasing Cs-137. This radioactive isotope, produced spontaneously from nuclear fission, spreads throughout Goiania. Many residents fall ill, with 249 individuals found to have significant levels of radioactive material in or on their bodies out of 112,000 examined. International experts from the United States and the Soviet Union assist in containing the situation. The incident raises awareness about nuclear dangers and equipment containing radioactive materials in Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |title=Goiania Nuclear Accident, Brazil 1987 |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2018/ph241/gerli1/ |website=large.stanford.edu |access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Brazil}}
 |-
-| 1987 (April 1) || Prevention case || Intentional  || Organization (binational) || The United States and the Soviet Union sign an agreement establishing the {{w|Nuclear Risk Reduction Center}}s (NRRC) in Washington and Moscow. This initiative stems from concerns about nuclear tensions, armaments, and delivery systems. Proposed by Senators Sam Nunn and John Warner, the centers start serving as crisis control hubs, exchanging critical information on missile launches, nuclear accidents, and sea incidents. Over the years, their roles would expand, facilitating communications within the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (later OSCE), handling notifications for arms control treaties like New START, managing missile launch notifications, and addressing cybersecurity concerns. The centers' mandate and IT infrastructure would continue to evolve, leading to their renaming as the U.S. National and Nuclear Risk Reduction Center (NNRRC) in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the National and Nuclear Risk Reduction Center |url=https://www.state.gov/history-of-the-national-and-nuclear-risk-reduction-center/ |website=United States Department of State |access-date=6 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1987 (April 1) || Prevention  || Intentional  || Organization (binational) || The United States and the Soviet Union sign an agreement establishing the {{w|Nuclear Risk Reduction Center}}s (NRRC) in Washington and Moscow. This initiative stems from concerns about nuclear tensions, armaments, and delivery systems. Proposed by Senators Sam Nunn and John Warner, the centers start serving as crisis control hubs, exchanging critical information on missile launches, nuclear accidents, and sea incidents. Over the years, their roles would expand, facilitating communications within the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (later OSCE), handling notifications for arms control treaties like New START, managing missile launch notifications, and addressing cybersecurity concerns. The centers' mandate and IT infrastructure would continue to evolve, leading to their renaming as the U.S. National and Nuclear Risk Reduction Center (NNRRC) in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the National and Nuclear Risk Reduction Center |url=https://www.state.gov/history-of-the-national-and-nuclear-risk-reduction-center/ |website=United States Department of State |access-date=6 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
 |-
-| 1987 (December 8) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States and the Soviet Union sign the {{w|Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty}} (INF Treaty), aimed at eliminating their intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles. The treaty bans nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and missile launchers with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometers (310–620 mi) (short medium-range) and 1,000–5,500 km (620–3,420 mi) (intermediate-range). While contributing to stability and disarmament during the Cold War, eliminating thousands of missiles, the treaty would face challenges. In 2019, the U.S. would withdraw from the treaty, citing Russian non-compliance and concerns about China's growing missile capabilities, leading to the formal termination of the treaty.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty {{!}} Definition & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Intermediate-Range-Nuclear-Forces-Treaty |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
+| 1987 (December 8) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States and the Soviet Union sign the {{w|Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty}} (INF Treaty), aimed at eliminating their intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles. The treaty bans nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and missile launchers with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometers (310–620 mi) (short medium-range) and 1,000–5,500 km (620–3,420 mi) (intermediate-range). While contributing to stability and disarmament during the Cold War, eliminating thousands of missiles, the treaty would face challenges. In 2019, the U.S. would withdraw from the treaty, citing Russian non-compliance and concerns about China's growing missile capabilities, leading to the formal termination of the treaty.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty {{!}} Definition & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Intermediate-Range-Nuclear-Forces-Treaty |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
 |-
-| 1988 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || Soviet physicist {{w|Andrei Sakharov}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his contributions to the promotion of peace, disarmament, and human rights.<ref>{{cite web
+| 1988 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || Soviet physicist {{w|Andrei Sakharov}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his contributions to the promotion of peace, disarmament, and human rights.<ref>{{cite web
   |url        = http://proceedings.aip.org/resource/2/apcpcs/861/1/1139_1?isAuthorized=no
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 }}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1990 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || Soviet and Russian politician {{w|Mikhail Gorbachev}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his contributions to promoting peace, disarmament, and international cooperation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/02/world/summit-washington-bush-gorbachev-sign-major-accords-missiles-chemical-weapons.html?pagewanted=all|title=Summit in Washington; Bush and Gorbachev sign major accords on missiles, chemical weapons and trade |last=ROSENTHAL|first=ANDREW|date=June 2, 1990|work=The New York Times|quote=In the afternoon, Mr. Gorbachev received ... the award of the Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation.|access-date=10 January 2016}}</ref> ||
+| 1990 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || Soviet and Russian politician {{w|Mikhail Gorbachev}} is awarded the {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} for his contributions to promoting peace, disarmament, and international cooperation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/02/world/summit-washington-bush-gorbachev-sign-major-accords-missiles-chemical-weapons.html?pagewanted=all|title=Summit in Washington; Bush and Gorbachev sign major accords on missiles, chemical weapons and trade |last=ROSENTHAL|first=ANDREW|date=June 2, 1990|work=The New York Times|quote=In the afternoon, Mr. Gorbachev received ... the award of the Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation.|access-date=10 January 2016}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1990 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || The {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} is first announced by the {{w|United States National Academy of Sciences}} "to recognize basic research in any field of cognitive or behavioral science that has employed rigorous formal or empirical methods, optimally a combination of these, to advance our understanding of problems or issues relating to the risk of nuclear war".<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/behavioral-research.html|title=William and Katherine Estes Award|publisher= National Academy of Sciences|access-date=10 March 2017}} </ref> American political scientist {{w|Robert Axelrod}} becomes the first recipient "for his imaginative use of game theory, experimentation, and computer simulation to define and test strategies for confrontation and cooperation and other models of social interaction."<ref name="www.nasonline.org">{{cite web |title=William and Katherine Estes Award |url=https://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/behavioral-research.html#:~:text=The%20William%20and%20Katherine%20Estes%20Award%20(formerly%20the%20NAS%20Award,relating%20to%20the%20risk%20of |website=www.nasonline.org |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1990 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || The {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} is first announced by the {{w|United States National Academy of Sciences}} "to recognize basic research in any field of cognitive or behavioral science that has employed rigorous formal or empirical methods, optimally a combination of these, to advance our understanding of problems or issues relating to the risk of nuclear war".<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/behavioral-research.html|title=William and Katherine Estes Award|publisher= National Academy of Sciences|access-date=10 March 2017}} </ref> American political scientist {{w|Robert Axelrod}} becomes the first recipient "for his imaginative use of game theory, experimentation, and computer simulation to define and test strategies for confrontation and cooperation and other models of social interaction."<ref name="www.nasonline.org">{{cite web |title=William and Katherine Estes Award |url=https://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/behavioral-research.html#:~:text=The%20William%20and%20Katherine%20Estes%20Award%20(formerly%20the%20NAS%20Award,relating%20to%20the%20risk%20of |website=www.nasonline.org |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1991 (April 3) || Prevention case || Intentional  || International resolution || Resolution 687 of the UN Security Council is approved, demanding Iraq's termination of its concealed nuclear weapons initiative, exposed post its loss in the {{w|Gulf War}}. Iraq had pursued this program against its obligations as an NPT member. With the implementation of Resolution 687, the IAEA obtains enhanced insights into Iraq's covert project and proceeded to disassemble and secure its residual elements.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Iraq}}
+| 1991 (April 3) || Prevention  || Intentional  || International resolution || Resolution 687 of the UN Security Council is approved, demanding Iraq's termination of its concealed nuclear weapons initiative, exposed post its loss in the {{w|Gulf War}}. Iraq had pursued this program against its obligations as an NPT member. With the implementation of Resolution 687, the IAEA obtains enhanced insights into Iraq's covert project and proceeded to disassemble and secure its residual elements.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Iraq}}
 |-
-| 1991 (July 10) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|South Africa}} accedes to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}. Two years later, the South African government admits having covertly built six completed nuclear devices and then dismantled them before joining the accord.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|South Africa}}
+| 1991 (July 10) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|South Africa}} accedes to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}. Two years later, the South African government admits having covertly built six completed nuclear devices and then dismantled them before joining the accord.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|South Africa}}
 |-
-| 1991 (July 18) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (binational) || The {{w|Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials}} (ABACC) is established<ref>{{cite web |title=30th anniversary of Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC): A unique contribution to the world |url=https://www.cancilleria.gob.ar/en/announcements/news/30th-anniversary-brazilian-argentine-agency-accounting-and-control-nuclear#:~:text=On%2018%20July%2C%20the%20Brazilian,Brazil%20was%20signed%20in%20Guadalajara. |website=www.cancilleria.gob.ar |access-date=10 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> as a binational safeguards agency. Headquartered in {{w|Rio de Janeiro}} and {{w|Buenos Aires}}, ABACC plays a crucial role in verifying the peaceful use of nuclear materials that could potentially be used for weapons of mass destruction. It is formed as a result of nuclear cooperation between Argentina and Brazil, with a focus on ensuring the exclusive peaceful use of nuclear materials in the region and globally. ABACC is unique as the world's only binational safeguards organization, working to prevent nuclear weapon proliferation. || {{w|Argentina}}, {{w|Brazil}}
+| 1991 (July 18) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (binational) || The {{w|Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials}} (ABACC) is established<ref>{{cite web |title=30th anniversary of Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC): A unique contribution to the world |url=https://www.cancilleria.gob.ar/en/announcements/news/30th-anniversary-brazilian-argentine-agency-accounting-and-control-nuclear#:~:text=On%2018%20July%2C%20the%20Brazilian,Brazil%20was%20signed%20in%20Guadalajara. |website=www.cancilleria.gob.ar |access-date=10 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> as a binational safeguards agency. Headquartered in {{w|Rio de Janeiro}} and {{w|Buenos Aires}}, ABACC plays a crucial role in verifying the peaceful use of nuclear materials that could potentially be used for weapons of mass destruction. It is formed as a result of nuclear cooperation between Argentina and Brazil, with a focus on ensuring the exclusive peaceful use of nuclear materials in the region and globally. ABACC is unique as the world's only binational safeguards organization, working to prevent nuclear weapon proliferation. || {{w|Argentina}}, {{w|Brazil}}
 |-
-| 1991 (July 31) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States and the Soviet Union sign the [[w:START I|Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]], a bilateral agreement aimed at reducing and limiting strategic offensive arms. Effective from December 5, 1994, the treaty prohibits the deployment of more than 6,000 nuclear warheads and a total of 1,600 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and bombers. It negotiates the largest arms control treaty to date, ultimately eliminating around 80% of existing strategic nuclear weapons. Proposed by President {{w|Ronald Reagan}}, it would be named START I when negotiations begin on START II. The treaty would expire on December 5, 2009, paving the way for the New START Treaty signed on April 8, 2010, further reducing strategic nuclear arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=START I at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start1 |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
+| 1991 (July 31) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States and the Soviet Union sign the [[w:START I|Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]], a bilateral agreement aimed at reducing and limiting strategic offensive arms. Effective from December 5, 1994, the treaty prohibits the deployment of more than 6,000 nuclear warheads and a total of 1,600 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and bombers. It negotiates the largest arms control treaty to date, ultimately eliminating around 80% of existing strategic nuclear weapons. Proposed by President {{w|Ronald Reagan}}, it would be named START I when negotiations begin on START II. The treaty would expire on December 5, 2009, paving the way for the New START Treaty signed on April 8, 2010, further reducing strategic nuclear arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=START I at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start1 |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Soviet Union}}
 |-
-| 1991 || Prevention case || Intentional || Program launch || Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR), is devised by U.S. Senators Sam Nunn and Richard Lugar, with the purpose to assist Russia and former Soviet states in dismantling and securing their vast nuclear arsenal. Triggered by a Soviet coup attempt in the same year, the initiative addresses concerns about unstable regimes controlling nuclear weapons. As the Soviet Union dissolves, the Nunn-Lugar Act would allocate approximately $400 million annually to eliminate or secure weapons in newly independent nations. By 1997, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine would have transferred their nuclear arsenals to Russia with U.S. assistance. The legislation would successfully oversee the safe movement of nuclear materials to Russia and improved relations between the U.S. and Russia, despite some congressional criticism over economic support for Russia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cooperative-Threat-Reduction |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}, ex-{{w|Soviet Union}} members
+| 1991 || Prevention  || Intentional || Binational cooperation|| The {{w|Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction}} Program is initiated upon the {{w|dissolution of the Soviet Union}}, when the risk of "loose nukes" prompts a new wave of government, academic, and popular concern about nuclear terrorism. The program provides funding and expertise to partner governments in the former Soviet Union to secure and eliminate {{w|weapons of mass destruction}} at the source.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet: The Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program |url=https://www.globalwps.org/data/ALB/files/The%20Nunn-Lugar%20Cooperative%20Threat%20Reduction%20Program.pdf |website=globalwps |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="Bostrom"/> || Ex-{{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1991 (December 12) || Prevention case || Intentional  || Policy || The {{w|Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991}} is enacted by the 102nd United States Congress and signed into law by President George H. W. Bush. This legislation aims to address the changing landscape after the Cold War and authorize measures to reduce the Soviet nuclear threat. It allows for the transfer of Soviet military armaments and ordnances to NATO countries in coordination with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE). The Act also facilitates the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program, providing assistance for the transportation, storage, safeguarding, and destruction of nuclear and other weapons in the Soviet Union and its republics. ||
+| 1991 || Prevention  || Intentional || Program launch || Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR), is devised by U.S. Senators Sam Nunn and Richard Lugar, with the purpose to assist Russia and former Soviet states in dismantling and securing their vast nuclear arsenal. Triggered by a Soviet coup attempt in the same year, the initiative addresses concerns about unstable regimes controlling nuclear weapons. As the Soviet Union dissolves, the Nunn-Lugar Act would allocate approximately $400 million annually to eliminate or secure weapons in newly independent nations. By 1997, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine would have transferred their nuclear arsenals to Russia with U.S. assistance. The legislation would successfully oversee the safe movement of nuclear materials to Russia and improved relations between the U.S. and Russia, despite some congressional criticism over economic support for Russia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cooperative-Threat-Reduction |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}, ex-{{w|Soviet Union}} members
 |-
-| 1991, 1993 || Risk case || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || During the {{w|First Gulf War}}, the United States attack the {{w|Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center}} and other nuclear targets in Iraq.<ref name="Mirbach"/> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1991 (December 12) || Prevention  || Intentional  || Policy || The {{w|Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991}} is enacted by the 102nd United States Congress and signed into law by President George H. W. Bush. This legislation aims to address the changing landscape after the Cold War and authorize measures to reduce the Soviet nuclear threat. It allows for the transfer of Soviet military armaments and ordnances to NATO countries in coordination with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE). The Act also facilitates the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program, providing assistance for the transportation, storage, safeguarding, and destruction of nuclear and other weapons in the Soviet Union and its republics. ||
 |-
-| Early 1990s || Risk case || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || Many nuclear smugglers are thought to be moving directly from the former Soviet Union to Western Europe by road or rail.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || Ex-{{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|Western Europe}}
+| 1991, 1993 || Risk || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || During the {{w|First Gulf War}}, the United States attack the {{w|Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center}} and other nuclear targets in Iraq.<ref name="Mirbach"/> || {{w|Iraq}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1992 (March 9) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || China accedes to the {{w|Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=UNODA Treaties |url=https://treaties.unoda.org/a/npt/china/ACC/london |website=treaties.unoda.org |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> In the same year, the government announces its commitment to adhere to the guidelines and criteria of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) when engaging in the export of missiles and associated technologies.<ref>{{cite web |title=China's Non-Proliferation Policy and Measures |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/jks_665232/jkxw_665234/200312/t20031203_599082.html |website=www.fmprc.gov.cn |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
+| Early 1990s || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || Many nuclear smugglers are thought to be moving directly from the former Soviet Union to Western Europe by road or rail.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || Ex-{{w|Soviet Union}}, {{w|Western Europe}}
 |-
-| 1992 (May 23) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Lisbon Protocol}} is signed by representatives of {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Belarus}}, {{w|Ukraine}}, and {{w|Kazakhstan}} that recognize the four states as successors of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and all of them assume obligations of the Soviet Union under the {{w|START I}} treaty. {{w|Belarus}}, {{w|Kazakhstan}}, and {{w|Ukraine}} sign the Lisbon Protocol committing to join the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} as non-nuclear-weapon states. All three had nuclear weapons when they were Soviet republics.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Belarus}}, {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Ukraine}}
+| 1992 (March 9) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || China accedes to the {{w|Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=UNODA Treaties |url=https://treaties.unoda.org/a/npt/china/ACC/london |website=treaties.unoda.org |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> In the same year, the government announces its commitment to adhere to the guidelines and criteria of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) when engaging in the export of missiles and associated technologies.<ref>{{cite web |title=China's Non-Proliferation Policy and Measures |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/jks_665232/jkxw_665234/200312/t20031203_599082.html |website=www.fmprc.gov.cn |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|China}}
 |-
-| 1992 || Prevention case || Intentional || Policy || The United States Congress passes the Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act, prohibiting the transfer of controlled goods or technology that could knowingly and materially contribute to Iran's proliferation of advanced conventional weapons.<ref name="armscontrol.org">{{cite web |title=Timeline of Nuclear Diplomacy With Iran {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Nuclear-Diplomacy-With-Iran |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1992 (May 23) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Lisbon Protocol}} is signed by representatives of {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Belarus}}, {{w|Ukraine}}, and {{w|Kazakhstan}} that recognize the four states as successors of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and all of them assume obligations of the Soviet Union under the {{w|START I}} treaty. {{w|Belarus}}, {{w|Kazakhstan}}, and {{w|Ukraine}} sign the Lisbon Protocol committing to join the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} as non-nuclear-weapon states. All three had nuclear weapons when they were Soviet republics.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Belarus}}, {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Ukraine}}
 |-
-| 1992 (August 3) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|France}} accedes to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}, becoming the last of the five recognized nuclear-weapon states to do so.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|France}}
+| 1992 || Prevention  || Intentional || Policy || The United States Congress passes the Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act, prohibiting the transfer of controlled goods or technology that could knowingly and materially contribute to Iran's proliferation of advanced conventional weapons.<ref name="armscontrol.org">{{cite web |title=Timeline of Nuclear Diplomacy With Iran {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Nuclear-Diplomacy-With-Iran |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1992 (September) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|World Uranium Hearing}} is conducted in {{w|Salzburg}}, {{w|Austria}}, marking a pivotal moment in raising awareness about the consequences of uranium mining and nuclear testing. Participants from 27 countries and 25 indigenous nations share testimonies on the devastating effects of nuclear technology. The event leads to the adoption of the "Declaration of Salzburg," urging to "Leave the uranium in the ground!". Despite positive developments since then, such as the submission of the declaration to the UN Human Rights Council, challenges would persist.<ref>{{cite web |title=30 years of the World Uranium Hearing - Nuclear Free Future Foundation |url=https://www.nuclear-free.com/media-portal/news/30-years-of-the-world-uranium-hearing.html#:~:text=Nuclear%20Free%20Future%20Foundation,-Support%20us&text=In%201992%2C%20they%20came%20together,resistance%20against%20the%20nuclear%20industry. |website=www.nuclear-free.com |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 1992 (August 3) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|France}} accedes to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}, becoming the last of the five recognized nuclear-weapon states to do so.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|France}}
 |-
-| 1992 (October 23) || Prevention case || Intentional || Policy || The {{w|Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992}} is enacted by the 102nd United States Congress. Also known as the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993, this federal law aims to coordinate disarmament efforts with the former Soviet Union. The act facilitates armament retooling, chemical demilitarization, and nonproliferation initiatives. It acknowledges the geopolitical changes of the early 1990s, including the collapse of communism, dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the Gulf War. The act's five subtitles provide authority, funding, and logistical support for various programs, such as transportation and destruction of weapons, establishing safeguards against proliferation, and supporting defense industry demilitarization and civilian conversion. ||
+| 1992 (September) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|World Uranium Hearing}} is conducted in {{w|Salzburg}}, {{w|Austria}}, marking a pivotal moment in raising awareness about the consequences of uranium mining and nuclear testing. Participants from 27 countries and 25 indigenous nations share testimonies on the devastating effects of nuclear technology. The event leads to the adoption of the "Declaration of Salzburg," urging to "Leave the uranium in the ground!". Despite positive developments since then, such as the submission of the declaration to the UN Human Rights Council, challenges would persist.<ref>{{cite web |title=30 years of the World Uranium Hearing - Nuclear Free Future Foundation |url=https://www.nuclear-free.com/media-portal/news/30-years-of-the-world-uranium-hearing.html#:~:text=Nuclear%20Free%20Future%20Foundation,-Support%20us&text=In%201992%2C%20they%20came%20together,resistance%20against%20the%20nuclear%20industry. |website=www.nuclear-free.com |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1992 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || The {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} is awarded to {{w|Joseph Rotblat}} and {{w|Hans Bethe}} for their “wide-ranging efforts on behalf of peace”.<ref>[http://www.pugwash.org/about/history.htm Pugwash Online]. Retrieved June 6, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=11 January 2016 |date=December 1992 |title=Einstein Peace Prize Award |publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.|page=5}}</ref> ||
+| 1992 (October 23) || Prevention  || Intentional || Policy || The {{w|Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992}} is enacted by the 102nd United States Congress. Also known as the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993, this federal law aims to coordinate disarmament efforts with the former Soviet Union. The act facilitates armament retooling, chemical demilitarization, and nonproliferation initiatives. It acknowledges the geopolitical changes of the early 1990s, including the collapse of communism, dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the Gulf War. The act's five subtitles provide authority, funding, and logistical support for various programs, such as transportation and destruction of weapons, establishing safeguards against proliferation, and supporting defense industry demilitarization and civilian conversion. ||
 |-
-| 1993 (January 3) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Presidents George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin sign {{w|START II}} (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II), a bilateral agreement between the United States and Russia aimed at limiting and reducing strategic nuclear arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II (1993) |url=https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/treaties/start-II.html#:~:text=Summary,of%20warheads%20deployed%20on%20them. |website=atomicarchive |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> This treaty prohibits the use of multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Despite being ratified by the US Senate in 1996 and by Russia in 2000, the treaty would never come into effect due to the US withdrawal from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002. Instead, the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) would take its place in 2002, setting new reduction targets for strategic nuclear warheads. || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
+| 1992 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || The {{w|Albert Einstein Peace Prize}} is awarded to {{w|Joseph Rotblat}} and {{w|Hans Bethe}} for their “wide-ranging efforts on behalf of peace”.<ref>[http://www.pugwash.org/about/history.htm Pugwash Online]. Retrieved June 6, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=11 January 2016 |date=December 1992 |title=Einstein Peace Prize Award |publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.|page=5}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1993 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]) || The {{w|Institute for Science and International Security}} (ISIS) is established as a nonprofit think tank focused on nuclear nonproliferation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://isis-online.org/about/ |website=isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Led by founder David Albright, a former United Nations IAEA nuclear inspector, ISIS specializes in analyzing IAEA findings and technical data related to nuclear proliferation programs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://isis-online.org/about/staff/ |website=isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The organization's main objectives include preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and technology, enhancing transparency of nuclear activities globally, reinforcing non-proliferation regimes, and reducing nuclear arsenals. ISIS would gain recognition for its technical analyses, particularly regarding nuclear programs in North Korea, Iran, Pakistan, and Syria.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://www.isis-online.org/ |website=www.isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The institute would be funded by various organizations and government entities, and its work would be respected in non-proliferation circles and international media.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://isis-online.org/about/funders/ |website=isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1993 (April 1) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Regulatory compliance}} violation || The {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} declares {{w|North Korea}} in noncompliance with its safeguards obligations and refers {{w|Pyongyang}} to the {{w|United Nations Security Council}}.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
 |-
-| 1993 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || American economist {{w|Thomas Schelling}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for his pioneering work on the logic of military strategy, nuclear war, and arms races, which has profoundly influenced our understanding of this crucial subject."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 1993 (January 3) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Presidents George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin sign {{w|START II}} (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II), a bilateral agreement between the United States and Russia aimed at limiting and reducing strategic nuclear arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II (1993) |url=https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/treaties/start-II.html#:~:text=Summary,of%20warheads%20deployed%20on%20them. |website=atomicarchive |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> This treaty prohibits the use of multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Despite being ratified by the US Senate in 1996 and by Russia in 2000, the treaty would never come into effect due to the US withdrawal from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002. Instead, the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) would take its place in 2002, setting new reduction targets for strategic nuclear warheads. || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 1993 (December) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || The UN General Assembly passes resolution 48/75L, advocating for the negotiation of a comprehensive {{w|Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty}} (FMCT) to ban the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or explosive devices. The Conference on Disarmament would establish a committee in March 1995 to negotiate the treaty, but substantive discussions would have yet to occur. The United States initially opposes including a verification mechanism in the treaty but later shifts its stance. In 2009, President Barack Obama would propose negotiating a verifiable treaty to halt fissile material production. Despite international pressure, Pakistan would block efforts to implement the treaty, citing concerns about its specific targeting. ||
+| 1993 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]) || The {{w|Institute for Science and International Security}} (ISIS) is established as a nonprofit think tank focused on nuclear nonproliferation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://isis-online.org/about/ |website=isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Led by founder David Albright, a former United Nations IAEA nuclear inspector, ISIS specializes in analyzing IAEA findings and technical data related to nuclear proliferation programs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://isis-online.org/about/staff/ |website=isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The organization's main objectives include preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and technology, enhancing transparency of nuclear activities globally, reinforcing non-proliferation regimes, and reducing nuclear arsenals. ISIS would gain recognition for its technical analyses, particularly regarding nuclear programs in North Korea, Iran, Pakistan, and Syria.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://www.isis-online.org/ |website=www.isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The institute would be funded by various organizations and government entities, and its work would be respected in non-proliferation circles and international media.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Security |first1=Institute for Science and International |title=Institute for Science and International Security |url=https://isis-online.org/about/funders/ |website=isis-online.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1994 (January 11) || Prevention case || Intentional || Diplomacy || {{w|Kremlin accords}}  United States President {{w|Bill Clinton}} and President Boris Yeltsin of Russia sign the Kremlin accords, a set of agreements with a the purpose to put an end to the preprogrammed targeting of nuclear weapons at specific targets in any country (known as United States – Russia mutual detargeting). The treaty also includes provisions for the dismantling of Russia's nuclear arsenal that is stationed in Ukraine. || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Ukraine}}
+| 1993 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || American economist {{w|Thomas Schelling}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for his pioneering work on the logic of military strategy, nuclear war, and arms races, which has profoundly influenced our understanding of this crucial subject."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 1994 || Prevention case || Intentional || Diplomacy || Former President Jimmy Carter and North Korean leader Kim Il Sung reach an agreement known as the U.S.-North Korea Agreed Framework. As part of this agreement, North Korea makes a commitment to freeze its plutonium-based weapons program.<ref name="www.armsco">{{cite web |title=Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: North Korea {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/northkoreaprofile |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=25 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 1993 (December) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || The UN General Assembly passes resolution 48/75L, advocating for the negotiation of a comprehensive {{w|Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty}} (FMCT) to ban the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or explosive devices. The Conference on Disarmament would establish a committee in March 1995 to negotiate the treaty, but substantive discussions would have yet to occur. The United States initially opposes including a verification mechanism in the treaty but later shifts its stance. In 2009, President Barack Obama would propose negotiating a verifiable treaty to halt fissile material production. Despite international pressure, Pakistan would block efforts to implement the treaty, citing concerns about its specific targeting. ||
 |-
-| 1994 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]) || The {{w|Nonproliferation Policy Education Center}} (NPEC) is established with the purpose to enhance understanding of strategic weapons proliferation. The center plans to challenge prevailing views on the advantages and drawbacks of East Asian nations expanding their use of civilian and military nuclear energy. By convening experts from security, nonproliferation, and energy sectors, the project seeks to evaluate the genuine opportunities and risks linked to extensive government backing of nuclear power, including fuel cycle closure.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission – NPEC |url=https://npolicy.org/mission/ |website=npolicy.org |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nonproliferation Policy Education Center - MacArthur Foundation |url=https://www.macfound.org/grantee/nonproliferation-policy-education-center-39992/#:~:text=The%20Nonproliferation%20Policy%20Education%20Center%20(NPEC)%20is%20a%20nonpartisan%20educational,of%20strategic%20weapons%20proliferation%20issues. |website=www.macfound.org |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1994 (January 11) || Prevention  || Intentional || Diplomacy || {{w|Kremlin accords}}: United States President {{w|Bill Clinton}} and President Boris Yeltsin of Russia sign the Kremlin accords, a set of agreements with a the purpose to put an end to the preprogrammed targeting of nuclear weapons at specific targets in any country (known as United States – Russia mutual detargeting). The treaty also includes provisions for the dismantling of Russia's nuclear arsenal that is stationed in Ukraine. || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Ukraine}}
 |-
-| 1994 || Prevention case || Intentional || Intelligence operation || Covert operation {{w|Project Sapphire}} is conducted as a covert operation involving the United States, Kazakhstan, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to transport 600 kilograms of highly enriched uranium (HEU) from Kazakhstan to the U.S. amid concerns about loose fissile material in the former Soviet states. Implemented under the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program, the project aims to prevent nuclear material from falling into the wrong hands. Successfully moving the HEU from Kazakhstan's Ulba Metallurgical Plant to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the operation would turn into a crucial validation of the CTR program in securing nuclear materials and preventing potential proliferation risks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schumann |first1=Anna |title=Fact Sheet: Project Sapphire |url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/fact-sheet-project-sapphire/ |website=Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation |access-date=11 November 2023 |date=28 April 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1994 (June 17) || Prevention || Non-intentional || International resolution || The {{w|Convention on Nuclear Safety}} (CNS) is adopted in {{w|Vienna}}. In force since 24 October 1996, it aims to ensure a high global standard of nuclear safety. CNS reflects collaborative efforts by states, regulatory authorities, and the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} (IAEA). The obligations of contracting parties, rooted in fundamental safety principles, encompass legislative, regulatory, and technical aspects of nuclear installations. The innovative aspect involves peer reviews where parties submit reports on their safety obligations, fostering a collective commitment to achieving and maintaining robust nuclear safety worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=CONVENTION ON NUCLEAR SAFETY (CNS) |url=https://www-ns.iaea.org/downloads/ni/safety_convention/related-documents/cns-brochure_final_2017-01-23.pdf |website=iaea.org |access-date=22 November 2023}}</ref> || 65 signatories
 |-
-| 1995 (April 11) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || The United Nations Security Council adopts [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 984|Resolution 984]] at its 3,514th meeting. Titled "Security Council Resolution 984 (1995)," it aims to provide security assurances against the use of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). The resolution marks a historic moment as the permanent members of the Security Council, possessing nuclear weapons, committed to not using them against non-nuclear states unless in the case of an attack. It emphasizes efforts to prevent nuclear war, promote peaceful nuclear cooperation, and recognized the right to self-defense.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Year: 1995) |first1=UN Security Council (50th |title=Resolution 984 (1995) /: adopted by the Security Council at its 3514th meeting, on 11 April 1995. |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/176507?ln=en |website=digitallibrary.un.org |access-date=12 November 2023 |language=en |date=11 April 1995}}</ref> ||
+| 1994 || Prevention || Intentional || Diplomacy || Former President Jimmy Carter and North Korean leader Kim Il Sung reach an agreement known as the U.S.-North Korea Agreed Framework. As part of this agreement, North Korea makes a commitment to freeze its plutonium-based weapons program.<ref name="www.armsco">{{cite web |title=Arms Control and Proliferation Profile: North Korea {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/northkoreaprofile |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=25 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1995 || Risk case || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || Customs officials catch a man trying to smuggle {{w|highly enriched uranium}} through a land checkpoint in Bulgaria.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|Bulgaria}}
+| 1994 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]) || The {{w|Nonproliferation Policy Education Center}} (NPEC) is established with the purpose to enhance understanding of strategic weapons proliferation. The center plans to challenge prevailing views on the advantages and drawbacks of East Asian nations expanding their use of civilian and military nuclear energy. By convening experts from security, nonproliferation, and energy sectors, the project seeks to evaluate the genuine opportunities and risks linked to extensive government backing of nuclear power, including fuel cycle closure.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission – NPEC |url=https://npolicy.org/mission/ |website=npolicy.org |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nonproliferation Policy Education Center - MacArthur Foundation |url=https://www.macfound.org/grantee/nonproliferation-policy-education-center-39992/#:~:text=The%20Nonproliferation%20Policy%20Education%20Center%20(NPEC)%20is%20a%20nonpartisan%20educational,of%20strategic%20weapons%20proliferation%20issues. |website=www.macfound.org |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1994 || Prevention || Intentional || Intelligence operation || Covert operation {{w|Project Sapphire}} is conducted as a covert operation involving the United States, Kazakhstan, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to transport 600 kilograms of highly enriched uranium (HEU) from Kazakhstan to the U.S. amid concerns about loose fissile material in the former Soviet states. Implemented under the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program, the project aims to prevent nuclear material from falling into the wrong hands. Successfully moving the HEU from Kazakhstan's Ulba Metallurgical Plant to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the operation would turn into a crucial validation of the CTR program in securing nuclear materials and preventing potential proliferation risks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schumann |first1=Anna |title=Fact Sheet: Project Sapphire |url=https://armscontrolcenter.org/fact-sheet-project-sapphire/ |website=Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation |access-date=11 November 2023 |date=28 April 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 1995 (January 25) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || The {{w|Norwegian rocket incident}}, known as the Black Brant scare, occurs when a Norwegian-U.S. scientific weather rocket launched for {{w|aurora borealis}} study is mistaken by Russian radar operators for a high-altitude nuclear attack. The rocket's trajectory resembles a U.S. Navy Trident missile, triggering Russian nuclear forces' high alert. The "{{w|nuclear briefcase}}" is activated, prompting President {{w|Boris Yeltsin}} to consider a retaliatory nuclear strike. However, Russian observers clarify the situation, averting a catastrophe. The incident, a post-Cold War nuclear tension, exposes suspicions between Russia and {{w|NATO}}. Notification errors heighten the crisis, leading to re-evaluation and redesign of disclosure protocols.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Norwegian Rocket Incident {{!}} Russian Roulette - A Close Call? {{!}} FRONTLINE {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/russia/closecall/ |website=www.pbs.org |access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=This Week in History: The Rocket Launch That Didn’t Start a Nuclear War With Russia {{!}} Russia Matters |url=https://www.russiamatters.org/blog/week-history-rocket-launch-didnt-start-nuclear-war-russia |website=www.russiamatters.org |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}
+|-
+| 1995 (April 11) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || The United Nations Security Council adopts [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 984|Resolution 984]] at its 3,514th meeting. Titled "Security Council Resolution 984 (1995)," it aims to provide security assurances against the use of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). The resolution marks a historic moment as the permanent members of the Security Council, possessing nuclear weapons, committed to not using them against non-nuclear states unless in the case of an attack. It emphasizes efforts to prevent nuclear war, promote peaceful nuclear cooperation, and recognized the right to self-defense.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Year: 1995) |first1=UN Security Council (50th |title=Resolution 984 (1995) /: adopted by the Security Council at its 3514th meeting, on 11 April 1995. |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/176507?ln=en |website=digitallibrary.un.org |access-date=12 November 2023 |language=en |date=11 April 1995}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 1995 || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || Customs officials catch a man trying to smuggle {{w|highly enriched uranium}} through a land checkpoint in Bulgaria.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|Bulgaria}}
 |-
-| 1995 (November) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons}} is established by the Australian Government. It advocates for practical steps toward a world without nuclear weapons, addressing the challenges of stability and security during and after this transition. The commission emphasizes the catastrophic consequences of nuclear weapons use and asserts that these arms pose an intolerable threat to humanity. It condemns the current situation where a few states possess nuclear weapons, urging major nuclear powers – the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China – to commit unequivocally to eliminating all nuclear weapons. The commission proposes immediate measures and a verifiable elimination process, emphasizing the need for global political commitment and a binding legal framework to achieve a nuclear-free world.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons |url=https://www.ccnr.org/canberra.html#:~:text=The%20Canberra%20Commission%20on%20the%20Elimination%20of%20Nuclear%20Weapons%20was,and%20security%20during%20the%20transitional |website=www.ccnr.org |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Australia}}
+| 1995 (November) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons}} is established by the Australian Government. It advocates for practical steps toward a world without nuclear weapons, addressing the challenges of stability and security during and after this transition. The commission emphasizes the catastrophic consequences of nuclear weapons use and asserts that these arms pose an intolerable threat to humanity. It condemns the current situation where a few states possess nuclear weapons, urging major nuclear powers – the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China – to commit unequivocally to eliminating all nuclear weapons. The commission proposes immediate measures and a verifiable elimination process, emphasizing the need for global political commitment and a binding legal framework to achieve a nuclear-free world.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons |url=https://www.ccnr.org/canberra.html#:~:text=The%20Canberra%20Commission%20on%20the%20Elimination%20of%20Nuclear%20Weapons%20was,and%20security%20during%20the%20transitional |website=www.ccnr.org |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Australia}}
+|-
+| 1995 (December 5) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|Ukraine}} accedes to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Ukraine}}
+|-
+| 1995 (December 15) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|Member states of ASEAN}} sign the Treaty of Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (SEANWFZ Treaty, also Bangkok Treaty) as a commitment to preserve the Southeast Asian region as a region free of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction.<ref>{{cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://asean.org/our-communities/asean-political-security-community/peaceful-secure-and-stable-region/southeast-asia-nuclear-weapon-free-zone-seanwfz/#:~:text=On%2015%20December%201995%2C%20ASEAN,known%20as%20the%20Bangkok%20Treaty. |website=asean.org |access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Association of Southeast Asian Nations (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|center|100px|{{w|ASEAN}}]]
 |-
-| 1995 (December 5) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|Ukraine}} accedes to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Ukraine}}
+| 1996 (April 12) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Pelindaba, is signed in Cairo, Egypt. This treaty establishes a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Africa, prohibiting the development, testing, possession, and deployment of nuclear weapons within the territory of its parties. The treaty would come into effect on July 15, 2009, after the 28th ratification. It aims to ensure peaceful nuclear activities in Africa, while also establishing mechanisms for compliance verification. The treaty covers the entire African continent and several islands, with the goal of promoting regional security and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of Pelindaba {{!}} United Nations Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones |url=https://www.un.org/nwfz/content/treaty-pelindaba#:~:text=The%20African%20Nuclear%2DWeapon%2DFree,force%20on%2015%20July%202009. |website=www.un.org |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1995 (December 15) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|Member states of ASEAN}} sign the Treaty of Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (SEANWFZ Treaty, also Bangkok Treaty) as a commitment to preserve the Southeast Asian region as a region free of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction.<ref>{{cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=https://asean.org/our-communities/asean-political-security-community/peaceful-secure-and-stable-region/southeast-asia-nuclear-weapon-free-zone-seanwfz/#:~:text=On%2015%20December%201995%2C%20ASEAN,known%20as%20the%20Bangkok%20Treaty. |website=asean.org |access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Association of Southeast Asian Nations (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|center|100px|{{w|ASEAN}}]]
+| 1996 (July 8) || Prevention  || Intentional  || Notable publication || The International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivers its ''{{w|Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons}}''. The opinion states that while there is no explicit authorization or comprehensive prohibition of nuclear weapons' threat or use, it concludes that such actions would generally be contrary to international humanitarian law. The opinion notes that legality might vary in extreme circumstances of self-defense, where a state's survival is at stake. The Court emphasizes that nuclear disarmament is an obligation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons - Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 - Advisory Opinions [1996] ICJ 3; ICJ Reports 1996, p 226; [1996] ICJ Rep 226 (8 July 1996) |url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICJ/1996/3.html |website=www.worldlii.org |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> The opinion is in response to a request from the United Nations General Assembly, addressing issues related to the legality of nuclear weapons' threat or use under international law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/95/7646.pdf |title=Request for advisory opinion |access-date=2009-02-11 |date=1994-12-19 |publisher=International Court of Justice |location=The Hague |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410131344/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/95/7646.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-10 }}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1996 (April 12) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Pelindaba, is signed in Cairo, Egypt. This treaty establishes a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Africa, prohibiting the development, testing, possession, and deployment of nuclear weapons within the territory of its parties. The treaty would come into effect on July 15, 2009, after the 28th ratification. It aims to ensure peaceful nuclear activities in Africa, while also establishing mechanisms for compliance verification. The treaty covers the entire African continent and several islands, with the goal of promoting regional security and preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of Pelindaba {{!}} United Nations Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones |url=https://www.un.org/nwfz/content/treaty-pelindaba#:~:text=The%20African%20Nuclear%2DWeapon%2DFree,force%20on%2015%20July%202009. |website=www.un.org |access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref> ||
+| 1996 (July) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Wassenaar Arrangement}} is formally established as a {{w|Multilateral export control regime}} with (MECR) with 41 participating states that promotes transparency of national export control regimes on conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Wassenaar Arrangement at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/wassenaar |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wassenaar Arrangement |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/wassenaar-arrangement/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is the successor to the {{w|Coordinating Committee on Multilateral Export Control}} (COCOM), which coordinated western restrictions on trade with communist states during the {{w|Cold War}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lipson |first1=Michael |title=The Wassenaar Arrangement: Transparency and Restraint through Trans-Governmental Cooperation? |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315247892-12/wassenaar-arrangement-transparency-restraint-trans-governmental-cooperation-michael-lipson |website=Non-Proliferation Export Controls |access-date=23 September 2022 |doi=10.4324/9781315247892-12/wassenaar-arrangement-transparency-restraint-trans-governmental-cooperation-michael-lipson}}</ref> In December 2013, the list of export restricted technologies would be amended to include internet-based surveillance systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Federal Register :: Request Access |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2015/05/20/2015-11642/wassenaar-arrangement-2013-plenary-agreements-implementation-intrusion-and-surveillance-items |website=unblock.federalregister.gov |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Wassenaar Arrangement members map.svg|thumb|center|150px]]
 |-
-| 1996 (July 8) || Prevention case || Intentional  || Notable publication || The International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivers its ''{{w|Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons}}''. The opinion states that while there is no explicit authorization or comprehensive prohibition of nuclear weapons' threat or use, it concludes that such actions would generally be contrary to international humanitarian law. The opinion notes that legality might vary in extreme circumstances of self-defense, where a state's survival is at stake. The Court emphasizes that nuclear disarmament is an obligation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons - Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 - Advisory Opinions [1996] ICJ 3; ICJ Reports 1996, p 226; [1996] ICJ Rep 226 (8 July 1996) |url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICJ/1996/3.html |website=www.worldlii.org |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> The opinion is in response to a request from the United Nations General Assembly, addressing issues related to the legality of nuclear weapons' threat or use under international law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/95/7646.pdf |title=Request for advisory opinion |access-date=2009-02-11 |date=1994-12-19 |publisher=International Court of Justice |location=The Hague |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410131344/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/95/7646.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-10 }}</ref> ||
+| 1996 (September 24) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty}} is signed. Since then, it would become one of the most adhered to arms control instruments in the world. The Treaty bans all nuclear explosions in any environment. As of 2017, 183 countries would have signed the CTBT, with 166 of these having set their commitment to that principal in stone through ratification.<ref name="Maiani"/>{{rp|167}} "The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty outlawing nuclear explosions is opened for signature. The treaty has yet to enter into force because not all of the requisite states, including China, India, Pakistan, and the United States, have ratified it."<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
 |-
-| 1996 (July) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|Wassenaar Arrangement}} is formally established as a {{w|Multilateral export control regime}} with (MECR) with 41 participating states that promotes transparency of national export control regimes on conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Wassenaar Arrangement at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/wassenaar |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wassenaar Arrangement |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/wassenaar-arrangement/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is the successor to the {{w|Coordinating Committee on Multilateral Export Control}} (COCOM), which coordinated western restrictions on trade with communist states during the {{w|Cold War}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lipson |first1=Michael |title=The Wassenaar Arrangement: Transparency and Restraint through Trans-Governmental Cooperation? |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315247892-12/wassenaar-arrangement-transparency-restraint-trans-governmental-cooperation-michael-lipson |website=Non-Proliferation Export Controls |access-date=23 September 2022 |doi=10.4324/9781315247892-12/wassenaar-arrangement-transparency-restraint-trans-governmental-cooperation-michael-lipson}}</ref> In December 2013, the list of export restricted technologies would be amended to include internet-based surveillance systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Federal Register :: Request Access |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2015/05/20/2015-11642/wassenaar-arrangement-2013-plenary-agreements-implementation-intrusion-and-surveillance-items |website=unblock.federalregister.gov |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Wassenaar Arrangement members map.svg|thumb|center|150px]]
+| 1996 || Prevention || Intentional || Policy || The {{w|World Bank}} adopts a more official policy proscription against loans for {{w|nuclear power plant}}s.<ref name="Stulberg"/> ||
 |-
-| 1996 (September 24) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty}} is signed. Since then, it would become one of the most adhered to arms control instruments in the world. The Treaty bans all nuclear explosions in any environment. As of 2017, 183 countries would have signed the CTBT, with 166 of these having set their commitment to that principal in stone through ratification.<ref name="Maiani"/>{{rp|167}} "The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty outlawing nuclear explosions is opened for signature. The treaty has yet to enter into force because not all of the requisite states, including China, India, Pakistan, and the United States, have ratified it."<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+| 1997 (January) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Nuclear Regulators' Association}} (INRA) is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=International policies |url=https://www.bmuv.de/en/topics/nuclear-safety-radiological-protection/nuclear-safety/international-policies |website=Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This association comprises senior officials from nuclear regulatory authorities in countries such as Canada, France, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others. The INRA aims to bolster and advance global nuclear safety by leveraging the regulatory expertise of its members. It collaborates to influence and improve nuclear safety regulations both within its membership and on a worldwide scale. This association operates in conjunction with other international nuclear organizations like the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Energy Agency. ||
 |-
-| 1997 (January) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Nuclear Regulators' Association}} (INRA) is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=International policies |url=https://www.bmuv.de/en/topics/nuclear-safety-radiological-protection/nuclear-safety/international-policies |website=Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, nukleare Sicherheit und Verbraucherschutz |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This association comprises senior officials from nuclear regulatory authorities in countries such as Canada, France, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others. The INRA aims to bolster and advance global nuclear safety by leveraging the regulatory expertise of its members. It collaborates to influence and improve nuclear safety regulations both within its membership and on a worldwide scale. This association operates in conjunction with other international nuclear organizations like the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Energy Agency. ||
+| 1997 (May 15) || Prevention  || Intentional || Policy || The IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) adopts the Model Additional Protocol, an optional safeguards agreement enabling the agency to enhance its verification capabilities and ensure no unauthorized nuclear weapons activities within a state. This protocol emerges as a response to Iraq and North Korea violating the nuclear treaty. On May 11 and 13, 1998, India conducts its second nuclear test.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Member states of the International Atomic Energy Agency}}
 |-
-| 1997 (May 15) || Prevention case || Intentional || Policy || The IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) adopts the Model Additional Protocol, an optional safeguards agreement enabling the agency to enhance its verification capabilities and ensure no unauthorized nuclear weapons activities within a state. This protocol emerges as a response to Iraq and North Korea violating the nuclear treaty. On May 11 and 13, 1998, India conducts its second nuclear test.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Member states of the International Atomic Energy Agency}}
+| 1997 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || {{w|Alexander L. George}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for combining theory with history to elucidate the requirements of deterrence, the limits to coercive diplomacy, and the relationship between force and statecraft."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 1997 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || {{w|Alexander L. George}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for combining theory with history to elucidate the requirements of deterrence, the limits to coercive diplomacy, and the relationship between force and statecraft."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 1998 (January) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs}} (UNODA) is established with the mission to achieve global disarmament under strict international control. Focusing on weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, UNODA addresses their humanitarian impact alongside major conventional and emerging weapon technologies. It supports norm-setting through UN bodies, encouraging dialogue, transparency, and confidence-building. UNODA provides information to member states, international organizations, research institutions, civil society, and the media, fostering awareness on disarmament issues. Additionally, it assists in post-conflict disarmament, aiding former combatants' reintegration into society, embodying a comprehensive approach toward disarmament and peacebuilding efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us – UNODA |url=https://disarmament.unoda.org/about/#:~:text=United%20Nations%20Office%20for%20Disarmament,A%2F51%2F950). |website=disarmament.unoda.org |access-date=7 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 1998 (January) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs}} (UNODA) is established with the mission to achieve global disarmament under strict international control. Focusing on weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, UNODA addresses their humanitarian impact alongside major conventional and emerging weapon technologies. It supports norm-setting through UN bodies, encouraging dialogue, transparency, and confidence-building. UNODA provides information to member states, international organizations, research institutions, civil society, and the media, fostering awareness on disarmament issues. Additionally, it assists in post-conflict disarmament, aiding former combatants' reintegration into society, embodying a comprehensive approach toward disarmament and peacebuilding efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us – UNODA |url=https://disarmament.unoda.org/about/#:~:text=United%20Nations%20Office%20for%20Disarmament,A%2F51%2F950). |website=disarmament.unoda.org |access-date=7 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 1998 (May) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|India}} conducts [[w:Pokhran-II|five nuclear tests]] at the {{w|Pokhran}} range, including a 45 kt thermonuclear device, a 15 kt fission device, and a sub-kiloton device. Two additional sub-kiloton devices are detonated later. The {{w|Atomic Energy Commission}} (AEC) confirms the yields through radiochemical analysis and ground motion simulations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814 |website=pib.gov.in |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 |-
-| 1998 (May 28) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|Pakistan}}, a nonsignatory to the [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]] but a non-nuclear-weapon state by the treaty’s terms, conducts its first set of nuclear test explosions.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Pakistan}}
+| 1998 (May 28) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|Pakistan}}, a nonsignatory to the [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|NPT]] but a non-nuclear-weapon state by the treaty’s terms, conducts its first set of nuclear test explosions.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> In response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998, Pakistan, under Prime Minister {{w|Mohammad Nawaz Sharif}}, faces intense pressure to conduct its own nuclear tests. Despite international appeals to refrain, Sharif authorizes the tests. Codenamed {{w|Chagai-I}}, on May 28, Pakistan detonates its first nuclear devices at the Ras Koh test site in the southwestern {{w|Baluchistan}} province. The decision is driven by the desire to maintain a strategic balance with India. The total yield is approximately 9 kilotons, marking Pakistan's entry into the nuclear club.<ref name="nuclearmuseum"/> || {{w|Pakistan}}
 |-
-| 1998 (June 30) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Cyberattack}} || Hacktivist group {{w|milw0rm}} gains international attention by infiltrating India's primary nuclear research facility, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai. During the attack, they compromise the site and replace its content with a spoofed web page featuring an image of a mushroom cloud, along with the threatening message: "If a nuclear war does start, you will be the first to scream." This cyberattack highlights the vulnerability of critical infrastructure, particularly in the context of nuclear research facilities, and the potential for hackers to use digital means to convey political or ideological messages with significant global implications.<ref name="ifap.ru">{{cite web |title=Hacking Nuclear Command and Control |url=https://ifap.ru/pr/2009/n090730a.pdf |website=ifap.ru |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
+| 1998 (June 30) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Cyberattack}} || Hacktivist group {{w|milw0rm}} gains international attention by infiltrating India's primary nuclear research facility, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai. During the attack, they compromise the site and replace its content with a spoofed web page featuring an image of a mushroom cloud, along with the threatening message: "If a nuclear war does start, you will be the first to scream." This cyberattack highlights the vulnerability of critical infrastructure, particularly in the context of nuclear research facilities, and the potential for hackers to use digital means to convey political or ideological messages with significant global implications.<ref name="ifap.ru">{{cite web |title=Hacking Nuclear Command and Control |url=https://ifap.ru/pr/2009/n090730a.pdf |website=ifap.ru |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 |-
-| 1998 (June) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The New Agenda Coalition (NAC) is formed by Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, and South Africa, aiming to promote global nuclear disarmament as mandated by the nuclear [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT). The coalition emerges due to dissatisfaction with the lack of progress in nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation discussions within the NPT framework. They officially launched in Dublin with a Joint Declaration, advocating for the elimination of nuclear weapons. In 2000, the NAC would play a pivotal role in crafting the 13 Steps agreement during the NPT Review Conference, emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament independent of general disarmament and outlining practical steps for achieving it.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Implementation of the "13 Practical Steps on Nonproliferation and Disarmament" Agreed to at the 2000 NPT Review Conference {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/pressroom/2002-04/us-implementation-13-practical-steps-nonproliferation-disarmament-agreed-2000-npt |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Brazil}}, {{w|Egypt}}, {{w|Ireland}}, {{w|Mexico}}, {{w|New Zealand}}, {{w|South Africa}}
+| 1998 (June) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The New Agenda Coalition (NAC) is formed by Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, and South Africa, aiming to promote global nuclear disarmament as mandated by the nuclear [[w:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT). The coalition emerges due to dissatisfaction with the lack of progress in nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation discussions within the NPT framework. They officially launched in Dublin with a Joint Declaration, advocating for the elimination of nuclear weapons. In 2000, the NAC would play a pivotal role in crafting the 13 Steps agreement during the NPT Review Conference, emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament independent of general disarmament and outlining practical steps for achieving it.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Implementation of the "13 Practical Steps on Nonproliferation and Disarmament" Agreed to at the 2000 NPT Review Conference {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/pressroom/2002-04/us-implementation-13-practical-steps-nonproliferation-disarmament-agreed-2000-npt |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Brazil}}, {{w|Egypt}}, {{w|Ireland}}, {{w|Mexico}}, {{w|New Zealand}}, {{w|South Africa}}
 |-
-| 2000 (February 2) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Strategic Plans Division Force}} (SPD Force) is formed. It is a paramilitary organization in Pakistan established as part of the National Command Authority. It is responsible for safeguarding nuclear materials and providing security for Pakistan's tactical and strategic nuclear weapons stockpile. Led by Lieutenant-General Yusuf Jamal, it has around 60,000 personnel. The force is heavily armed to defend against potential threats to nuclear material-holding sites. SPD Force initially relied on Pakistan's Armed Forces for manpower but began hiring and training its own personnel at the Pakistan Centre of Excellence for Nuclear Security (PCENS). It also includes the Special Response Force (SRF), a special forces unit.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abbas |first1=Syed Ali |title=Pakistan’s Strategic Forces Command Structure and Responsibilities |url=https://defensetalks.com/pakistans-strategic-forces-command-structure-and-responsibilities/ |website=Global Defense Insight |access-date=21 September 2022 |date=30 November 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Pakistan}}
+| 2000 (February 2) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Strategic Plans Division Force}} (SPD Force) is formed. It is a paramilitary organization in Pakistan established as part of the National Command Authority. It is responsible for safeguarding nuclear materials and providing security for Pakistan's tactical and strategic nuclear weapons stockpile. Led by Lieutenant-General Yusuf Jamal, it has around 60,000 personnel. The force is heavily armed to defend against potential threats to nuclear material-holding sites. SPD Force initially relied on Pakistan's Armed Forces for manpower but began hiring and training its own personnel at the Pakistan Centre of Excellence for Nuclear Security (PCENS). It also includes the Special Response Force (SRF), a special forces unit.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abbas |first1=Syed Ali |title=Pakistan’s Strategic Forces Command Structure and Responsibilities |url=https://defensetalks.com/pakistans-strategic-forces-command-structure-and-responsibilities/ |website=Global Defense Insight |access-date=21 September 2022 |date=30 November 2021}}</ref> || {{w|Pakistan}}
 |-
-| 2000 (May 22) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || States party to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) holds a review conference at the United Nations in New York. Despite concerns of disarray, the parties achieve consensus on a historic third document in the treaty's history. Initial fears of conference breakdown are fueled by slow progress in disarmament, unmet objectives set in 1995, and criticism from non-nuclear-weapon states, particularly aimed at the United States. Surprisingly, the conference concludes with a robust document, featuring stronger language on nuclear disarmament and universal adherence than ever before, marking an unexpected diplomatic success and highlighting key points of agreement and compromise.<ref>{{cite web |title=2000 NPT Review Conference Final Document {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2000-06/2000-npt-review-conference-final-document |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 2000 (May 22) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || States party to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) holds a review conference at the United Nations in New York. Despite concerns of disarray, the parties achieve consensus on a historic third document in the treaty's history. Initial fears of conference breakdown are fueled by slow progress in disarmament, unmet objectives set in 1995, and criticism from non-nuclear-weapon states, particularly aimed at the United States. Surprisingly, the conference concludes with a robust document, featuring stronger language on nuclear disarmament and universal adherence than ever before, marking an unexpected diplomatic success and highlighting key points of agreement and compromise.<ref>{{cite web |title=2000 NPT Review Conference Final Document {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2000-06/2000-npt-review-conference-final-document |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2000 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|National Nuclear Security Administration}} is established by the {{w|United States Congress}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=About NNSA |url=https://www.energy.gov/nnsa/about-nnsa |website=Energy.gov |access-date=22 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 2000 || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|National Nuclear Security Administration}} is established by the {{w|United States Congress}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=About NNSA |url=https://www.energy.gov/nnsa/about-nnsa |website=Energy.gov |access-date=22 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2000 || Prevention case || Intentional || Diplomacy || The {{w|Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement}} (PMDA) is signed, committing the US and Russia to dispose of at least 34 metric tons of weapon-grade plutonium. A subsequent Plutonium Disposition Protocol, signed in 2010, ensures irreversible arms reductions by transparently disposing of this plutonium in civil power reactors, preventing its reuse for military purposes. The 2010 Protocol would update the PMDA, addressing financial viability issues in Russia's nuclear energy strategy.<ref>{{cite web |title=2000 Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/04/140097.htm |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=5 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 2000 || Prevention  || Intentional || Diplomacy || The {{w|Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement}} (PMDA) is signed, committing the US and Russia to dispose of at least 34 metric tons of weapon-grade plutonium. A subsequent Plutonium Disposition Protocol, signed in 2010, ensures irreversible arms reductions by transparently disposing of this plutonium in civil power reactors, preventing its reuse for military purposes. The 2010 Protocol would update the PMDA, addressing financial viability issues in Russia's nuclear energy strategy.<ref>{{cite web |title=2000 Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/04/140097.htm |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=5 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2000 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || {{w|Philip E. Tetlock}} is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for successfully developing a semantic measure of cognitive complexity predictive of foreign policy decisions and for applying psychological analysis and knowledge to nuclear policy problems."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 2000 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || {{w|Philip E. Tetlock}} is awarded the William and Katherine Estes Award "for successfully developing a semantic measure of cognitive complexity predictive of foreign policy decisions and for applying psychological analysis and knowledge to nuclear policy problems."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 2001 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|World Nuclear Association}} is established<ref>{{cite web |title=Women in Nuclear Global |url=https://win-global.org/about/presidents/agneta_rising |website=WiN Global |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> as an international organization promoting nuclear power and supporting companies within the global nuclear industry. Its membership encompasses all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to electricity generation. Responsible for 70% of the world's nuclear power and a significant portion of uranium production, the Association's mission includes facilitating technical, commercial, and policy interactions among members, as well as promoting public understanding of nuclear technology. The Association also emphasizes its commitment to nuclear disarmament and operates with a Charter of Ethics. Its activities involve industry interaction, meetings, representation at international forums, and public information dissemination through various channels. ||
+| 2001 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|World Nuclear Association}} is established<ref>{{cite web |title=Women in Nuclear Global |url=https://win-global.org/about/presidents/agneta_rising |website=WiN Global |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> as an international organization promoting nuclear power and supporting companies within the global nuclear industry. Its membership encompasses all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to electricity generation. Responsible for 70% of the world's nuclear power and a significant portion of uranium production, the Association's mission includes facilitating technical, commercial, and policy interactions among members, as well as promoting public understanding of nuclear technology. The Association also emphasizes its commitment to nuclear disarmament and operates with a Charter of Ethics. Its activities involve industry interaction, meetings, representation at international forums, and public information dissemination through various channels. ||
 |-
-| 2001 || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency}} (NISA) is established<ref>{{cite web |title=RIETI - History of the Policies of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency |url=https://www.rieti.go.jp/en/projects/program/pg-09/003.html |website=www.rieti.go.jp |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> in Japan as a regulatory body responsible for nuclear safety oversight under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). However, NISA would face criticism for its perceived conflict of interest, being part of the same ministry that promoted nuclear power. This criticism would further intensify following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. As a result, in 2012, NISA would be dissolved and replaced by the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) under the Ministry of the Environment. The NRA would take on the task of overseeing nuclear safety and addressing the shortcomings identified during the Fukushima disaster. || {{w|Japan}}
+| 2001 || Prevention || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency}} (NISA) is established<ref>{{cite web |title=RIETI - History of the Policies of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency |url=https://www.rieti.go.jp/en/projects/program/pg-09/003.html |website=www.rieti.go.jp |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> in Japan as a regulatory body responsible for nuclear safety oversight under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). However, NISA would face criticism for its perceived conflict of interest, being part of the same ministry that promoted nuclear power. This criticism would further intensify following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. As a result, in 2012, NISA would be dissolved and replaced by the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) under the Ministry of the Environment. The NRA would take on the task of overseeing nuclear safety and addressing the shortcomings identified during the Fukushima disaster. || {{w|Japan}}
 |-
-| 2002 (May 24) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty}} is signed as a treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Text of Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty |url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/05/20020524-3.html |website=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> Añso known as the Moscow Treaty, it mandates that the United States and Russia reduce their strategic nuclear weapons to between 1,700 and 2,200 warheads by December 31, 2012. The treaty would enter into force on June 1, 2003, and lapse on February 5, 2011, when the {{w|New START}} Treaty enters into force.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Arms Control: The Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31448.html#:~:text=On%20May%2024%2C%202002%2C%20President,warheads%20by%20December%2031%2C%202012. |website=www.everycrsreport.com |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
+| 2001 || Prevention || Intentional || Organization || The {{w|Nuclear Threat Initiative}} is formed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Threat Initiative {{!}} American organization {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nuclear-Threat-Initiative |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=5 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is a nonprofit, nonpartisan global security organization focused on reducing nuclear and biological threats.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nuclear Threat Initiative - Home |url=https://www.nti.org/ |website=The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=18 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2002 (November) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation}} (also known as the Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC)) is established as an arrangement to prevent the proliferation of {{w|ballistic missile}}s.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (HCoC) {{!}} HCoC |url=https://www.hcoc.at/ |website=www.hcoc.at |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation.png|thumb|center|150px]]
+| 2001 (September) || Risk || Intentional (terrorist) || Notable case || {{w|Al-Qaeda}} considers flying airplanes into nuclear facilities in the United States as part of the {{w|September 11 attacks}}<ref>Holt and Andrews 2007</ref><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2003 (January 11) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} (setback) || North Korea announces its withdrawal from the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet on DPRK Nuclear Safeguards |url=https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/dprk/fact-sheet-on-dprk-nuclear-safeguards#:~:text=North%20Korea%20announced%20its%20withdrawal,by%20the%20UN%20Security%20Council. |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=28 September 2022 |language=en |date=25 July 2014}}</ref> Not all states, however, recognize the legality of this withdrawal from the treaty.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
+| 2002 (May 24) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty}} is signed as a treaty between the United States and the Russian Federation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Text of Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty |url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/05/20020524-3.html |website=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> Añso known as the Moscow Treaty, it mandates that the United States and Russia reduce their strategic nuclear weapons to between 1,700 and 2,200 warheads by December 31, 2012. The treaty would enter into force on June 1, 2003, and lapse on February 5, 2011, when the {{w|New START}} Treaty enters into force.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Arms Control: The Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31448.html#:~:text=On%20May%2024%2C%202002%2C%20President,warheads%20by%20December%2031%2C%202012. |website=www.everycrsreport.com |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 2003 (May) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Proliferation Security Initiative}} (PSI) is launched as a global effort aimed at preventing the trafficking of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials to and from states and non-state actors of proliferation concern. PSI participants commit to interdicting transfers, exchanging information, strengthening legal authorities, and supporting interdiction efforts. The initiative addresses concerns about WMD falling into the hands of terrorists and emphasizes flexibility, voluntary cooperation, and collective action. The United States actively supports PSI, contributing various resources and expertise to enhance partner nations' capabilities and combat WMD proliferation effectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Proliferation Security Initiative |url=https://www.state.gov/proliferation-security-initiative/#:~:text=About%20the%20Proliferation%20Security%20Initiative,state%20actors%20of%20proliferation%20concern. |website=United States Department of State |access-date=7 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> ||
+| 2002 (August) || Risk || Intentional || Nuclear weapon program || The {{w|National Council of Resistance of Iran}}, the political wing of the terrorist organization Mujahideen-e Khalq (MeK), holds a press conference and declares Iran has built nuclear facilities near {{w|Natanz}} and Arak.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kerr |first1=Paul K. |title=Iran¿s Nuclear Program: Tehran¿s Compliance with International Obligations |date=2011 |publisher=DIANE Publishing |isbn=978-1-4379-2281-3 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=5l_ltuNpitAC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=In+2002%2C+the+NCRI+exposed+that+%E2%80%9CTehran+had+built+nuclear-related+facilities.%E2%80%9D&ots=3FbdTDMFsB&sig=ACfU3U0p_UXGzKI2ywSiWDhqRROoY9qsgg&hl=en#v=onepage&q=In%202002%2C%20the%20NCRI%20exposed%20that%20%E2%80%9CTehran%20had%20built%20nuclear-related%20facilities.%E2%80%9D&f=false |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}
 |-
-| 2003 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || The {{w|Project on Nuclear Issues}} (PONI) is established as a program under the {{w|Center for Strategic and International Studies}} (CSIS) with the purpose to train nuclear professionals. In response to evolving global security dynamics, PONI focuses on outreach, mentorship, research, and debate. The project addresses the evolving landscape of global security, particularly in the realm of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cancian |first1=Mark F. |title=Project on Nuclear Issues |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/project-nuclear-issues-3 |website=csis.org |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en |date=1 May 2017}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 2002 (November) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation}} (also known as the Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC)) is established as an arrangement to prevent the proliferation of {{w|ballistic missile}}s.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (HCoC) {{!}} HCoC |url=https://www.hcoc.at/ |website=www.hcoc.at |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> || [[File:Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation.png|thumb|center|150px]]
 |-
-| 2003 (December 19) || Prevention case || Intentional || Nuclear program shutdown || Libyan leader {{w|Muammar Gaddafi}} makes the decision to decommission his country's nuclear weapons program. This decision comes after years of negotiations and international pressure. As part of this process, Libya agrees to dismantle its nuclear weapons program and to allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify and monitor the disarmament. In exchange for this action, Libya received sanctions relief and an opportunity to re-engage with the international community. This move was seen as a significant step towards non-proliferation efforts and regional stability.<ref name=Leigh/><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Lybia}}
+| 2003 (January 11) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} (setback) || North Korea announces its withdrawal from the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet on DPRK Nuclear Safeguards |url=https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/dprk/fact-sheet-on-dprk-nuclear-safeguards#:~:text=North%20Korea%20announced%20its%20withdrawal,by%20the%20UN%20Security%20Council. |website=www.iaea.org |access-date=28 September 2022 |language=en |date=25 July 2014}}</ref> Not all states, however, recognize the legality of this withdrawal from the treaty.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
 |-
-| 2003 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || Walter Enders and Todd Sandler are awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} for their joint work on transnational terrorism using game theory and time series analysis to document the cyclic and shifting nature of terrorist attacks in response to defensive counteractions." <ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 2003 (May) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Anti-nuclear movement}} || The {{w|Proliferation Security Initiative}} (PSI) is launched as a global effort aimed at preventing the trafficking of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials to and from states and non-state actors of proliferation concern. PSI participants commit to interdicting transfers, exchanging information, strengthening legal authorities, and supporting interdiction efforts. The initiative addresses concerns about WMD falling into the hands of terrorists and emphasizes flexibility, voluntary cooperation, and collective action. The United States actively supports PSI, contributing various resources and expertise to enhance partner nations' capabilities and combat WMD proliferation effectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Proliferation Security Initiative |url=https://www.state.gov/proliferation-security-initiative/#:~:text=About%20the%20Proliferation%20Security%20Initiative,state%20actors%20of%20proliferation%20concern. |website=United States Department of State |access-date=7 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2004 (April 24) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations Security Council}} adopts [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540|Resolution 1540]] to address the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).<ref>{{cite web|title=1540 Committee|url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/1540/about-1540-committee/general-information.shtml|access-date=2021-02-11|website={{w|United Nations}}|language=EN|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220050416/https://www.un.org/en/sc/1540/about-1540-committee/general-information.shtml}}</ref> This resolution imposes obligations under Chapter VII of the UN Charter for all member states to enact legal and regulatory measures against the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, biological, and radiological weapons, as well as their means of delivery. Notably, it recognizes the threat posed by non-state actors and obliges states to modify their internal legislation accordingly. The resolution establishes the 1540 Committee to oversee its implementation, emphasizing collaboration and participation rather than sanctions enforcement.<ref name="rfa">{{Cite web |url=https://www.un.org/sc/1540/requestsforassistance.shtml |title=Home {{!}} 1540 Committee {{!}} United Nations<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=5 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205073017/http://www.un.org/sc/1540/requestsforassistance.shtml}}</ref> It marks a departure from previous nonproliferation arrangements by imposing universal and mandatory obligations. ||
+| 2003 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization ([[w:Nonprofit organization|nonprofit)]] || The {{w|Project on Nuclear Issues}} (PONI) is established as a program under the {{w|Center for Strategic and International Studies}} (CSIS) with the purpose to train nuclear professionals. In response to evolving global security dynamics, PONI focuses on outreach, mentorship, research, and debate. The project addresses the evolving landscape of global security, particularly in the realm of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cancian |first1=Mark F. |title=Project on Nuclear Issues |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/project-nuclear-issues-3 |website=csis.org |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en |date=1 May 2017}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2005 (April 1) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Nuclear Decommissioning Authority}} (NDA) is established as a Non-Departmental Public Body (NDPB) under the Energy Act (2004) to oversee the safe, secure, cost-effective decommissioning and cleanup of the UK's nuclear legacy sites, with a focus on protecting people and the environment. Mandated by the Energy Act, the NDA is required to review its Strategy at least every 5 years. The current consultation outcome reflects the NDA's updated Strategy, outlining its strategic direction and long-term objectives in managing nuclear decommissioning efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/231625/1416.pdf |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 2003 (August) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Following {{w|North Korea}}'s withdrawal from the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|China}}, {{w|Japan}}, the {{w|United States}}, and both Koreas initiate the six-party talks. In September 2005, the talks would achieve a breakthrough with a joint statement where North Korea commits to forsake nuclear activities and rejoin the NPT, receiving security assurances and energy aid in return. Progress includes disabling the Yongbyon plutonium reactor in 2007 and admitting IAEA inspectors, earning North Korea fuel oil. However, in April 2009, amid heightened tensions, North Korea would declare its release from commitments made under the six-party talks.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
 |-
-| 2005 (April 15) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (national) || The {{w|Domestic Nuclear Detection Office}} (DNDO) is established<ref>{{cite web |title=- THE DOMESTIC NUCLEAR DETECTION OFFICE: CAN IT OVERCOME PAST PROBLEMS AND CHART A NEW DIRECTION? |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg66034/html/CHRG-111hhrg66034.htm |website=www.govinfo.gov |access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> by the United States to enhance the nation's capability to detect and respond to unauthorized attempts involving nuclear or radiological material.<ref>{{cite web |title=Domestic Nuclear Detection Office {{!}} Homeland Security |url=https://www.dhs.gov/domestic-nuclear-detection-office |website=www.dhs.gov |access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> It coordinates federal efforts against nuclear and radiological terrorism, developing the global nuclear detection architecture strategy. DNDO conducts research, testing, and evaluation of detection technologies, acquires necessary systems, and provides threat assessments, technical support, and training. Criticized for unsuccessful programs like the Advanced Spectroscopic Portal Monitor and Cargo Advanced Automated Radiography System, DNDO would face accusations of mismanagement and misleading Congress. In December 2017, it would become part of the Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction office.<ref>{{cite web |title=Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office {{!}} Homeland Security |url=https://www.dhs.gov/countering-weapons-mass-destruction-office |website=www.dhs.gov |access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 2003 (December 19) || Prevention  || Intentional || Nuclear program shutdown || Libyan leader {{w|Muammar Gaddafi}} makes the decision to decommission his country's nuclear weapons program. This decision comes after years of negotiations and international pressure. As part of this process, Libya agrees to dismantle its nuclear weapons program and to allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify and monitor the disarmament. In exchange for this action, Libya received sanctions relief and an opportunity to re-engage with the international community. This move was seen as a significant step towards non-proliferation efforts and regional stability.<ref name=Leigh/><ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|Lybia}}
+|-
+| 2003 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || Walter Enders and Todd Sandler are awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} for their joint work on transnational terrorism using game theory and time series analysis to document the cyclic and shifting nature of terrorist attacks in response to defensive counteractions." <ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+|-
+| 2004 (January) || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || Pakistani nuclear physicist {{w|Abdul Qadeer Khan}}, a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear program, confesses to transferring nuclear technology to {{w|Libya}}, {{w|Iran}}, and {{w|North Korea}}. This disclosure exposes a clandestine network engaged in illegal nuclear technology trade. The network, commonly known as the "Khan" network, is international and non-hierarchical, involving individuals and companies worldwide. It aims to provide turn-key gas centrifuge facilities, especially to Libya. The network's audacious plans includes supplying 10,000 centrifuges, detailed project designs, and even information for building nuclear weapons. The revelation underscores flaws in global nonproliferation efforts, prompting calls for improved export controls and safeguards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Uncovering the Nuclear Black Market |url=https://isis-online.org/publications/southasia/nuclear_black_market.html |website=isis-online.org |access-date=18 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Pakistan}}, {{w|Libya}}, {{w|Iran}}, {{w|North Korea}}
+|-
+| 2004 (April 24) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations Security Council}} adopts [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540|Resolution 1540]] to address the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).<ref>{{cite web|title=1540 Committee|url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/1540/about-1540-committee/general-information.shtml|access-date=2021-02-11|website={{w|United Nations}}|language=EN|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220050416/https://www.un.org/en/sc/1540/about-1540-committee/general-information.shtml}}</ref> This resolution imposes obligations under Chapter VII of the UN Charter for all member states to enact legal and regulatory measures against the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, biological, and radiological weapons, as well as their means of delivery. Notably, it recognizes the threat posed by non-state actors and obliges states to modify their internal legislation accordingly. The resolution establishes the 1540 Committee to oversee its implementation, emphasizing collaboration and participation rather than sanctions enforcement.<ref name="rfa">{{Cite web |url=https://www.un.org/sc/1540/requestsforassistance.shtml |title=Home {{!}} 1540 Committee {{!}} United Nations<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=5 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205073017/http://www.un.org/sc/1540/requestsforassistance.shtml}}</ref> It marks a departure from previous nonproliferation arrangements by imposing universal and mandatory obligations. ||
+|-
+| 2004 || Prevention || Intentional || Notable warning || U.S. nuclear terrorism expert {{w|Graham Allison}} bets some of his colleagues that terrorists would explode a nuclear bomb somewhere in the world by 2014. As he would write afterward, “I was happy to lose those bets.”"<ref>Graham Allison, “Nuclear Terrorism: Did We Beat the Odds or Change Them?,” PRISM 7, no. 3 (2018): 2–21.</ref><ref name=Leigh/> ||
+|-
+| 2004 || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, and Amy Sands publish ''{{w|The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism}}'', which evaluates the intentions and capabilities of terrorist groups in obtaining and deploying nuclear weapons, creating and detonating improvised nuclear devices, targeting nuclear power plants and related facilities, and constructing and using radiological weapons, commonly known as "dirty bombs."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Four Faces of Nuclear Terror: And the Need for a Prioritized Response |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/world/four-faces-nuclear-terror-and-need-prioritized-response |website=Foreign Affairs |access-date=23 November 2023 |date=1 May 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Four-Faces-of-Nuclear-Terrorism/Ferguson-Potter/p/book/9780415952446 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |access-date=23 November 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 2005 (April 1) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Nuclear Decommissioning Authority}} (NDA) is established as a Non-Departmental Public Body (NDPB) under the Energy Act (2004) to oversee the safe, secure, cost-effective decommissioning and cleanup of the UK's nuclear legacy sites, with a focus on protecting people and the environment. Mandated by the Energy Act, the NDA is required to review its Strategy at least every 5 years. The current consultation outcome reflects the NDA's updated Strategy, outlining its strategic direction and long-term objectives in managing nuclear decommissioning efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/231625/1416.pdf |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+|-
+| 2005 (April 15) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (national) || The {{w|Domestic Nuclear Detection Office}} (DNDO) is established<ref>{{cite web |title=- THE DOMESTIC NUCLEAR DETECTION OFFICE: CAN IT OVERCOME PAST PROBLEMS AND CHART A NEW DIRECTION? |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg66034/html/CHRG-111hhrg66034.htm |website=www.govinfo.gov |access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> by the United States to enhance the nation's capability to detect and respond to unauthorized attempts involving nuclear or radiological material.<ref>{{cite web |title=Domestic Nuclear Detection Office {{!}} Homeland Security |url=https://www.dhs.gov/domestic-nuclear-detection-office |website=www.dhs.gov |access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> It coordinates federal efforts against nuclear and radiological terrorism, developing the global nuclear detection architecture strategy. DNDO conducts research, testing, and evaluation of detection technologies, acquires necessary systems, and provides threat assessments, technical support, and training. Criticized for unsuccessful programs like the Advanced Spectroscopic Portal Monitor and Cargo Advanced Automated Radiography System, DNDO would face accusations of mismanagement and misleading Congress. In December 2017, it would become part of the Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction office.<ref>{{cite web |title=Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office {{!}} Homeland Security |url=https://www.dhs.gov/countering-weapons-mass-destruction-office |website=www.dhs.gov |access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2005 || Risk case || Intentional || Policy || The {{w|Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations}} is discovered. It outlines conditions under which U.S. commanders can request the use of nuclear weapons. It is revised to align with the preemptive attack principles of the {{w|Bush doctrine}}. Eight scenarios are cited for requesting nuclear weapon use, including countering WMD threats, preventing biological attacks, striking enemy WMD facilities, halting overwhelming conventional enemy forces, ending a war favorably, ensuring the success of U.S. and international operations, deterring WMD use, and responding to enemy-supplied WMD. The doctrine stresses the integration of conventional and nuclear attacks for efficient force use but acknowledged the serious consequences of nuclear weapon use. In 2010, President Barack Obama would announce a stricter nuclear strike policy in a Nuclear Posture Review.<ref>{{cite news
+| 2005 || Risk || Intentional || Policy || The {{w|Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations}} is discovered. It outlines conditions under which U.S. commanders can request the use of nuclear weapons. It is revised to align with the preemptive attack principles of the {{w|Bush doctrine}}. Eight scenarios are cited for requesting nuclear weapon use, including countering WMD threats, preventing biological attacks, striking enemy WMD facilities, halting overwhelming conventional enemy forces, ending a war favorably, ensuring the success of U.S. and international operations, deterring WMD use, and responding to enemy-supplied WMD. The doctrine stresses the integration of conventional and nuclear attacks for efficient force use but acknowledged the serious consequences of nuclear weapon use. In 2010, President Barack Obama would announce a stricter nuclear strike policy in a Nuclear Posture Review.<ref>{{cite news
 | title = Pentagon Revises Nuclear Strike Plan
 | author = Walter Pincus
@@ Line 405: / Line 574: @@
 }}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2005 (July 18) || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Binational cooperation || U.S. President George W. Bush and India's Prime Minister Manmohan Singh sign the {{w|India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement}}.<ref>{{cite web
+| 2005 (July 18) || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Binational cooperation || U.S. President George W. Bush and India's Prime Minister Manmohan Singh sign the {{w|India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement}}.<ref>{{cite web
   |last       = Sultan
   |first      = Maria
@@ Line 424: / Line 593: @@
    }}</ref> || {{w|India}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2005 (September 14) || Prevention case || Intentional (terrorist) || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The [[w:Nuclear Terrorism Convention|International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism]] is signed. Later called Nuclear Terrorism Convention, it originates from a proposal by the Russian Federation to address gaps in countering nuclear terrorism beyond the 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM). The convention defines nuclear terrorism as the use or threat to use nuclear materials, installations, or devices for harmful purposes and obligates parties to cooperate in preventing and prosecuting such acts. Despite concerns, including issues related to the use of nuclear weapons, the convention becomes the first anti-terrorism treaty adopted since the 9/11 attacks, strengthening the international legal framework against terrorist acts. It would enter into force on July 7, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=United Nations Treaty Collection |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-15&chapter=18&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en |website=treaties.un.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Convention on the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/international-convention-suppression-acts-nuclear-terrorism/#:~:text=The%20convention%20obligates%20the%20parties,to%20them%20by%20third%20parties. |website=nti.org |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 2005 (August 8) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Regulatory compliance}} violation || Iran begins producing {{w|uranium hexafluoride}} at its [[w:Isfahan Nuclear Technology/Research Center|Isfahan facility]]. As a result, {{w|France}}, {{w|Germany}}, and the {{w|United Kingdom}} halt negotiations with Tehran. On September 24, the IAEA adopts a resolution finding Iran in noncompliance with its safeguards agreement by a vote of 22-1 with 12 members abstaining. The resolution says that the nature of Iran’s nuclear activities and the lack of assurance in their peaceful nature fall under the purview of the {{w|United Nations Security Council}}, paving the way for a future referral.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|Iran}}
 |-
-| 2005 (September 19) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|North Korea}} commits to abandoning its nuclear weapons and programs and returning to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} and to the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} safeguards in an agreement of the six-party talks on North Korean denuclearization.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
+| 2005 (September 14) || Prevention  || Intentional (terrorist) || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The [[w:Nuclear Terrorism Convention|International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism]] is signed. Later called Nuclear Terrorism Convention, it originates from a proposal by the Russian Federation to address gaps in countering nuclear terrorism beyond the 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM). The convention defines nuclear terrorism as the use or threat to use nuclear materials, installations, or devices for harmful purposes and obligates parties to cooperate in preventing and prosecuting such acts. Despite concerns, including issues related to the use of nuclear weapons, the convention becomes the first anti-terrorism treaty adopted since the 9/11 attacks, strengthening the international legal framework against terrorist acts. It would enter into force on July 7, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=United Nations Treaty Collection |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-15&chapter=18&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en |website=treaties.un.org |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Convention on the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/international-convention-suppression-acts-nuclear-terrorism/#:~:text=The%20convention%20obligates%20the%20parties,to%20them%20by%20third%20parties. |website=nti.org |access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2006 (February) || Risk case || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|Oleg Khinsagov}}, a Russian national, is apprehended in Georgia, accompanied by three Georgian accomplices. They are found in possession of 79.5 grams of highly enriched uranium (HEU) with a concentration of 89 percent. This incident would raise concerns about the illicit trafficking of nuclear materials and the potential risks associated with the unauthorized possession of such dangerous substances.<ref name="harvard2011">{{cite web|url=http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/Joint-Threat-Assessment%20ENG%2027%20May%202011.pdf|title=The U.S.-Russia Joint Threat Assessment on Nuclear Terrorism|year=2011|publisher=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University|access-date=July 26, 2012|author=Bunn, Matthew, Colonel Yuri Morozov, Rolf Mowatt-Larssen, Simon Saradzhyan, William Tobey, Colonel General (ret.) Viktor I. Yesin, and Major General (ret.) Pavel S. Zolotarev}}</ref> || {{w|Georgia}}, {{w|Russia}}
+| 2005 (September 19) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || {{w|North Korea}} commits to abandoning its nuclear weapons and programs and returning to the {{w|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}} and to the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}} safeguards in an agreement of the six-party talks on North Korean denuclearization.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
 |-
-| 2006 (April 11) || Risk case || Intentional || International resolution || Iran declares its first successful enrichment of uranium to about 3.5 percent at the Natanz plant. On June 6, 2006, the P5+1 (China, France, Germany, Russia, UK, US) proposes an offer to Iran, aiming to halt its enrichment efforts. The UN Security Council on July 31, 2006, adopts Resolution 1696, making the IAEA's demands for Iran's suspension of enrichment legally binding. In August, Iran responds to the P5+1 proposal with reservations. By December 23, 2006, the Security Council enforces Resolution 1737, imposing sanctions on Iran for its refusal to halt enrichment, prohibiting technology transfers, and freezing assets of organizations and individuals linked to Iran's nuclear and missile programs.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|Iran}}
+| 2006 (February) || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|Oleg Khinsagov}}, a Russian national, is apprehended in Georgia, accompanied by three Georgian accomplices. They are found in possession of 79.5 grams of highly enriched uranium (HEU) with a concentration of 89 percent. This incident would raise concerns about the illicit trafficking of nuclear materials and the potential risks associated with the unauthorized possession of such dangerous substances.<ref name="harvard2011">{{cite web|url=http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/Joint-Threat-Assessment%20ENG%2027%20May%202011.pdf|title=The U.S.-Russia Joint Threat Assessment on Nuclear Terrorism|year=2011|publisher=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University|access-date=July 26, 2012|author=Bunn, Matthew, Colonel Yuri Morozov, Rolf Mowatt-Larssen, Simon Saradzhyan, William Tobey, Colonel General (ret.) Viktor I. Yesin, and Major General (ret.) Pavel S. Zolotarev}}</ref> || {{w|Georgia}}, {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 2006 (June 13) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Autorité de sûreté nucléaire}} (ASN), or Nuclear Safety Authority, is established in France through law 2006-686.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN): Communicating nuclear safety and radiation protection regulations |url=https://www.ibexa.co/success-stories/autorite-de-surete-nucleaire |website=www.ibexa.co |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It replaces the General Direction for Nuclear Safety and Radioprotection. The ASN is an independent administrative authority responsible for regulating nuclear safety and radiation protection. Its role is to ensure the safety of nuclear activities and protect workers, the public, patients, and the environment from associated risks. It also contributes to public information. The ASN would gain international attention during the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and would face challenges related to nuclear safety issues and steel quality concerns. ||
+| 2006 (April 11) || Risk || Intentional || International resolution || Iran declares its first successful enrichment of uranium to about 3.5 percent at the Natanz plant. On June 6, 2006, the P5+1 (China, France, Germany, Russia, UK, US) proposes an offer to Iran, aiming to halt its enrichment efforts. The UN Security Council on July 31, 2006, adopts Resolution 1696, making the IAEA's demands for Iran's suspension of enrichment legally binding. In August, Iran responds to the P5+1 proposal with reservations. By December 23, 2006, the Security Council enforces Resolution 1737, imposing sanctions on Iran for its refusal to halt enrichment, prohibiting technology transfers, and freezing assets of organizations and individuals linked to Iran's nuclear and missile programs.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|Iran}}
 |-
-| 2006 || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || A significant milestone in Central Asia is achieved with the Treaty of Semipalatinsk, following nine years of negotiations. The treaty is facilitated by the independence gained by {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, and {{w|Uzbekistan}}, after the USSR's collapse, which formerly controlled the region. Previously, the USSR extensively used the area for various nuclear-related activities, such as testing, missile trials, nuclear fuel processing, and weapon stockpiling. The establishment of the treaty zone becomes even more notable, given the region's history of hosting over 700 tactical nuclear weapons and returning over 1,400 former Soviet strategic nuclear weapons to Russia before Kazakhstan joined the NPT in 1995.<ref>{{cite web |title=Disarmament forum |url=https://unidir.org/files/publication/pdfs/nuclear-weapon-free-zones-en-314.pdf |website=unidir.org |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, {{w|Uzbekistan}}
+| 2006 (June 13) || Prevention || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Autorité de sûreté nucléaire}} (ASN), or Nuclear Safety Authority, is established in France.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN): Communicating nuclear safety and radiation protection regulations |url=https://www.ibexa.co/success-stories/autorite-de-surete-nucleaire |website=www.ibexa.co |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is an independent administrative authority established by the 2006 law on transparency and security in nuclear matters. Acting on behalf of the state, it oversees nuclear safety and radiation protection to safeguard workers, patients, the public, and the environment from risks associated with nuclear energy. ASN focuses on regulating, controlling, and informing the public regarding nuclear activities, excluding military ones. It evaluates and issues authorizations for the use of ionizing radiation sources, conducts inspections, and participates in national and international debates on nuclear safety.<ref>{{cite web |title=ASN, Autorité de Sûreté Nucléaire : présentation, informations, rôle, activités |url=https://www.connaissancedesenergies.org/fiche-pedagogique/asn-autorite-de-surete-nucleaire#:~:text=Cette%20autorit%C3%A9%20administrative%20ind%C3%A9pendante%20a,charge%20les%20activit%C3%A9s%20nucl%C3%A9aires%20militaires. |website=www.connaissancedesenergies.org |access-date=23 November 2023 |language=fr |date=24 November 2010}}</ref> || {{w|France}}
 |-
-| 2006 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Panel on Fissile Materials}} (IPFM) is established, consisting of nuclear experts from 17 countries including the United States, Russia, and China.<ref name=about>{{cite web |url=http://fissilematerials.org/ipfm/about.html |title=About IPFM - International Panel on Fissile Materials |publisher=IPFM |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref> The panel's primary goal is to promote international efforts in securing and reducing stocks of highly enriched uranium and plutonium, essential materials for nuclear weapons, while limiting their further production.<ref name="International Pan">{{cite web |title=International Panel on Fissile Materials - The Program on Science and Global Security |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629114726/http://www.princeton.edu/sgs/publications/ipfm/ |website=web.archive.org |access-date=2 October 2023 |date=29 June 2017}}</ref> Co-chaired by experts from {{w|Princeton University}} and {{w|Nagasaki University}}, the IPFM produces an annual Global Fissile Material Report detailing global stocks and production of fissile materials. The panel contributes to nuclear non-proliferation efforts by providing valuable information and analysis on fissile materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fissilematerials.org/ipfm/members.html |title=Members |website=International Panel on Fissile Materials |date=3 August 2016 |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="International Pan"/> ||
+| 2006 || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || A significant milestone in Central Asia is achieved with the Treaty of Semipalatinsk, following nine years of negotiations. The treaty is facilitated by the independence gained by {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, and {{w|Uzbekistan}}, after the USSR's collapse, which formerly controlled the region. Previously, the USSR extensively used the area for various nuclear-related activities, such as testing, missile trials, nuclear fuel processing, and weapon stockpiling. The establishment of the treaty zone becomes even more notable, given the region's history of hosting over 700 tactical nuclear weapons and returning over 1,400 former Soviet strategic nuclear weapons to Russia before Kazakhstan joined the NPT in 1995.<ref>{{cite web |title=Disarmament forum |url=https://unidir.org/files/publication/pdfs/nuclear-weapon-free-zones-en-314.pdf |website=unidir.org |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, {{w|Uzbekistan}}
 |-
-| 2006 (July 16) || Prevention case || Intentional (terrorist) || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Presidents {{w|George W. Bush}} and {{w|Vladimir Putin}} jointly announce the organization of the {{w|Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism}} (GICNT). This international organization, co-chaired by the United States and Russia, involves 89 countries committed to nuclear security principles against terrorism. GICNT's goals include preventing terrorist acquisition of nuclear materials, strengthening security at nuclear facilities, detecting and preventing illicit trafficking of radioactive substances, and ensuring proper response and investigation in case of nuclear terrorism incidents. The initiative promotes cooperation, information sharing, and the development of legal frameworks. GICNT would evolve over the years, adding key coordinators, endorsing countries, and contributing to global efforts against nuclear terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear forensics as nuclear material analysis for security purposes |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2017-07/eunpc_no_60.pdf |website=sipri.org |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
+| 2006 || Prevention || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Panel on Fissile Materials}} (IPFM) is established, consisting of nuclear experts from 17 countries including the United States, Russia, and China.<ref name=about>{{cite web |url=http://fissilematerials.org/ipfm/about.html |title=About IPFM - International Panel on Fissile Materials |publisher=IPFM |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref> The panel's primary goal is to promote international efforts in securing and reducing stocks of highly enriched uranium and plutonium, essential materials for nuclear weapons, while limiting their further production.<ref name="International Pan">{{cite web |title=International Panel on Fissile Materials - The Program on Science and Global Security |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629114726/http://www.princeton.edu/sgs/publications/ipfm/ |website=web.archive.org |access-date=2 October 2023 |date=29 June 2017}}</ref> Co-chaired by experts from {{w|Princeton University}} and {{w|Nagasaki University}}, the IPFM produces an annual Global Fissile Material Report detailing global stocks and production of fissile materials. The panel contributes to nuclear non-proliferation efforts by providing valuable information and analysis on fissile materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fissilematerials.org/ipfm/members.html |title=Members |website=International Panel on Fissile Materials |date=3 August 2016 |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="International Pan"/> ||
 |-
-| 2006 (September 8) || Prevention case || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The Central Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (CANWFZ) treaty is signed by {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, and {{w|Uzbekistan}}. It prohibits the manufacture, acquisition, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons. Ratified by all five states, it would become effective on March 21, 2009. The zone aims to enhance regional security, address environmental concerns, and promote stability and development. Verification is conducted by the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}}, with commitments to safeguards and nuclear protection standards. Notably, CANWFZ is the only zone bordered by nuclear-weapon states and where nuclear weapons were deployed in the past. The idea originated in a 1997 conference, and the {{w|Semipalatinsk Test Site}} in Kazakhstan serves as the signing location.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Central Asia {{!}} United Nations Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones |url=https://www.un.org/nwfz/content/treaty-nuclear-weapon-free-zone-central-asia |website=www.un.org |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, {{w|Uzbekistan}}
+| 2006 (June 1) || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || The Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission, chaired by Dr. Hans Blix, publishes ''Weapons of Terror: Freeing the World of Nuclear, Biological And Chemical Arms''  In this report, which presents 60 recommendations on what the world community can and should do to avoid nuclear war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sweden) |first1=Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission (Stockholm |last2=Blix |first2=Hans |title=Weapons of Terror: Freeing the World of Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Arms |date=2006 |publisher=WMDC |isbn=978-91-38-22582-0 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Weapons_of_Terror.html?id=PQqR58E9cgcC&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2006 (October 9) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|North Korea}} conducts its first nuclear test with an estimated yield of about one kiloton.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
+| 2006 (July 16) || Prevention || Intentional (terrorist) || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Presidents {{w|George W. Bush}} and {{w|Vladimir Putin}} jointly announce the organization of the {{w|Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism}} (GICNT). This international organization, co-chaired by the United States and Russia, involves 89 countries committed to nuclear security principles against terrorism. GICNT's goals include preventing terrorist acquisition of nuclear materials, strengthening security at nuclear facilities, detecting and preventing illicit trafficking of radioactive substances, and ensuring proper response and investigation in case of nuclear terrorism incidents. The initiative promotes cooperation, information sharing, and the development of legal frameworks. GICNT would evolve over the years, adding key coordinators, endorsing countries, and contributing to global efforts against nuclear terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear forensics as nuclear material analysis for security purposes |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2017-07/eunpc_no_60.pdf |website=sipri.org |access-date=21 September 2022}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
+|-
+| 2006 (September 8) || Prevention  || Intentional  || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The Central Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (CANWFZ) treaty is signed by {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, and {{w|Uzbekistan}}. It prohibits the manufacture, acquisition, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons. Ratified by all five states, it would become effective on March 21, 2009. The zone aims to enhance regional security, address environmental concerns, and promote stability and development. Verification is conducted by the {{w|International Atomic Energy Agency}}, with commitments to safeguards and nuclear protection standards. Notably, CANWFZ is the only zone bordered by nuclear-weapon states and where nuclear weapons were deployed in the past. The idea originated in a 1997 conference, and the {{w|Semipalatinsk Test Site}} in Kazakhstan serves as the signing location.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Central Asia {{!}} United Nations Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones |url=https://www.un.org/nwfz/content/treaty-nuclear-weapon-free-zone-central-asia |website=www.un.org |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Kazakhstan}}, {{w|Kyrgyzstan}}, {{w|Tajikistan}}, {{w|Turkmenistan}}, {{w|Uzbekistan}}
+|-
+| 2006 (October 9) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|North Korea}} conducts its first nuclear test with an estimated yield of about one kiloton.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
 |-
 | 2006 (November 1) || Adverse consequence || Intentional || High-profile assassination || Former Russian intelligence officer {{w|Alexander Litvinenko}} falls critically ill after meeting with two ex-KGB officers, Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovtun, in London. Litvinenko had accused the Russian government of orchestrating his persecution due to his revelations about the FSB's alleged involvement in various incidents, including bombings and assassinations. He had also exposed the connections between the Russian mafia in Europe and the government. His illness worsens, and he is hospitalized, eventually dying on November 23. His death is attributed to being the first confirmed case of lethal polonium-210-induced acute radiation syndrome. Litvinenko's public accusations against Putin would lead to global media coverage and diplomatic tensions between the UK and Russia.<ref>{{cite web |title=First murder by radiation |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-murder-by-radiation |website=guinnessworldrecords.com |access-date=2 October 2023|quote="On 23 November 2006, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Litvinenko, a retired member of the Russian security services (FSB), died from radiation poisoning in London, UK, becoming the first known victim of lethal Polonium 210-induced acute radiation syndrome.''</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Harding |first1=Luke |title=Alexander Litvinenko: the man who solved his own murder"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Harding |first1=Luke |title=Alexander Litvinenko: the man who solved his own murder |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/19/alexander-litvinenko-the-man-who-solved-his-own-murder |website=The Guardian |access-date=8 September 2023 |date=19 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia Fatally Poisoned A Prominent Defector In London, A Court Concludes |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/09/21/1039224996/russia-alexander-litvinenko-european-court-human-rights-putin |website=npr |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 2006 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || American political scientist {{w|Robert Jervis}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for showing, scientifically and in policy terms, how cognitive psychology, politically contextualized, can illuminate strategies for the avoidance of nuclear war."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 2006 || Prevention  || Intentional || Individual recognition || American political scientist {{w|Robert Jervis}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for showing, scientifically and in policy terms, how cognitive psychology, politically contextualized, can illuminate strategies for the avoidance of nuclear war."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
 |-
 | 2007 (January 15) || Prevention? || Intentional ({{w|state terrorism}}) || High-profile assassination || {{w|Ardeshir Hosseinpour}}, an Iranian professor and authority on electromagnetism, becomes the first victim of a series of targeted [[w:Assassination of Iranian nuclear scientists|killings against the country's nuclear scientists]]. He is killed either through gas poisoning or exposure to radiation, in the city of Shiraz. The same or similar fate would happen to {{w|Masoud Ali Mohammadi}} (killed in 2010), {{w|Majid Shahriari}} (killed in 2010), {{w|Fereydoun Abbasi}} (wounded in 2010), {{w|Darioush Rezaeinejad}} (killed in 2011), {{w|Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan}} (killed in 2012), and {{w|Mohsen Fakhrizadeh}} (killed in 2020). In almost all cases, Iran would attribute the attacks to Israel and/or the United States. The motivations behind these targeted killings would be often linked to Iran's nuclear program, and the deaths would heighten tensions between Iran and the implicated countries. Israel would typically neither confirm nor deny involvement, while U.S. officials would deny any role in the assassinations.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Assassinations of Iran's Top Nuclear Scientists |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/extremism-watch_history-assassinations-irans-top-nuclear-scientists/6199135.html |website=Voice of America |access-date=11 November 2023 |language=en |date=3 December 2020}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}, {{w|Israel}}
 |-
-| 2007 || Risk case || Intentional (terrorist) || Attack on nuclear plant || An armed attack on the {{w|Pelindaba}} nuclear facility in South Africa occurs when four armed men break in and head towards a control room in the eastern block, and manage to deactivate several layers of security, including a 10,000-volt electrical fence, suggesting insider knowledge of the system.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Pelindaba Break-In of 2007 |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2019/ph241/greene1/ |website=large.stanford.edu |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pretoria News |url=http://www.pretorianews.co.za/?fSectionId=&fArticleId=vn20071109061218448C528585 |website=www.iol.co.za |access-date=9 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This incident highlights that even single points have security weaknesses and can be subject to concerted attacks.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|South Africa}}
+| 2007 || Prevention || Intentional || Research || Members of the original group of nuclear winter scientists collectively perform a new comprehensive quantitative assessment utilizing the latest computer and climate models. They conclude that even a small-scale, regional nuclear war could kill as many people as died in all of {{w|World War II}} and seriously disrupt the global climate for a decade or more, harming nearly everyone on Earth.<ref name="Bostrom"/> ||
 |-
-| 2007 || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons}} (ICAN) is launched as a global coalition with a mission to eliminate nuclear weapons through the enactment of international laws banning them. ICAN would play a pivotal role in the United Nations' Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons and would be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2017. Formed from the initiative of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, ICAN would grow to include over 450 partner organizations across 100 countries. It focuses on raising awareness, conducting research on the humanitarian impact of nuclear weapons, and advocating for international legislation against them, ultimately aiming to stigmatize, prohibit, and eliminate these weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) {{!}} History, Nobel Peace Prize, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Campaign-to-Abolish-Nuclear-Weapons |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=8 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> ||
+| 2007 || Risk || Intentional (terrorist) || Attack on nuclear plant || An armed attack on the {{w|Pelindaba}} nuclear facility in South Africa occurs when four armed men break in and head towards a control room in the eastern block, and manage to deactivate several layers of security, including a 10,000-volt electrical fence, suggesting insider knowledge of the system.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Pelindaba Break-In of 2007 |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2019/ph241/greene1/ |website=large.stanford.edu |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pretoria News |url=http://www.pretorianews.co.za/?fSectionId=&fArticleId=vn20071109061218448C528585 |website=www.iol.co.za |access-date=9 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This incident highlights that even single points have security weaknesses and can be subject to concerted attacks.<ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|South Africa}}
 |-
-| 2007 (September) || Prevention case || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || Israeli aircraft destroys Syria's al-Kibar reactor, a secret facility supplied by {{w|North Korea}} for {{w|plutonium production}}. The attack occurs just as the reactor was nearing operational status.<ref name="Mirbach"/><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|Israel}}, {{w|Syria}}, {{w|North Korea}}
+| 2007 || Prevention || Intentional || Organization (international) || The {{w|International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons}} (ICAN) is launched as a global coalition with a mission to eliminate nuclear weapons through the enactment of international laws banning them. ICAN would play a pivotal role in the United Nations' Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons and would be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2017. Formed from the initiative of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, ICAN would grow to include over 450 partner organizations across 100 countries. It focuses on raising awareness, conducting research on the humanitarian impact of nuclear weapons, and advocating for international legislation against them, ultimately aiming to stigmatize, prohibit, and eliminate these weapons.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) {{!}} History, Nobel Peace Prize, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Campaign-to-Abolish-Nuclear-Weapons |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=8 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2008 || Prevention case || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|World Institute for Nuclear Security}} (WINS) is established as an international non-governmental organization based in Vienna, Austria. Its mission is to promote best security practices among those responsible for managing the security of radioactive material. WINS provides a variety of services, including workshops, training courses, and round-table discussions worldwide, focusing on nuclear security management at the operational level. The organization offers the WINS Academy, the world's first international certification program for nuclear security management. It also publishes numerous documents on nuclear material management in its Knowledge Centre and offers evaluation services to help organizations assess their security programs' effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web |title=6-year Review of WINS’ Achievements |url=https://www.wins.org/files/wins_6years_report_web.pdf |website=wins.org |access-date=22 September 2022}}</ref> ||
+| 2007 || Prevention || Intentional (terrorist) || Literature || {{w|Michael A. Levi}} publishes ''{{w|On Nuclear Terrorism}}'', which delves into the subject of nuclear terrorism, examining the decisions a terrorist leader might make when attempting a nuclear attack. Levi highlights numerous obstacles that such a plot might face, leading to various potential ways it could be thwarted. Professor John Mueller's 2010 book, ''Atomic Obsession: Nuclear Alarmism From Hiroshima to Al-Qaeda'', further explores this theme. Michael Levi is a senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, specializing in energy and environmental issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kazi |first1=Reshmi |title=On Nuclear Terrorism by Michael Levi: Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2007, pp. 210 |journal=Strategic Analysis |date=17 June 2009 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=620–622 |doi=10.1080/09700160902958186}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Levi |first1=Michael |title=On Nuclear Terrorism |url=https://www.amazon.com/-/es/Michael-Levi/dp/0674026497 |website=amazon.com |access-date=23 November 2023 |date=30 November 2007}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2008 (July 9) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (binational) || The {{w|International Commission on Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament}} (ICNND) is established as a collaborative effort between the Australian and Japanese governments. Proposed by Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and agreed upon by Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda, the Commission aims to address nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament challenges. ICNND aims to reinvigorate global efforts on nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament. The commission's report, ''Eliminating Nuclear Threats - A Practical Agenda for Global Policymakers'', launched on December 15, 2009, seeks to guide policymakers. The ICNND actively uses social networks to spread information about non-proliferation, emphasizing the importance of global awareness and support for de-escalation of nuclear threats.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Commission on Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament |url=http://www.icnnd.org/ |website=www.icnnd.org |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Australia}}, {{w|Japan}}
+| 2007 (September) || Prevention || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || Israeli aircraft destroys Syria's al-Kibar reactor, a secret facility supplied by {{w|North Korea}} for {{w|plutonium production}}. The attack occurs just as the reactor was nearing operational status.<ref name="Mirbach"/><ref name="Stulberg"/> || {{w|Israel}}, {{w|Syria}}, {{w|North Korea}}
+|-
+| 2007 (November) || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || {{w|Jonathan Schell}} publishes ''{{w|The Seventh Decade}}'' in which he scrutinizes emerging nuclear perils. Schell highlights the United States' adoption of fresh nuclear policies during the Bush administration, including a first-strike approach and novel nuclear weaponry development. He argues that these changes triggered arms proliferation in countries like Iran and North Korea, intensified worldwide nuclear arms trade, and heightened the risk of nuclear terrorism. The book provocatively examines the evolving landscape of nuclear security, delving into the implications of these policy shifts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Martin |title=Smoking Guns and Mushroom Clouds |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/books/review/Walker-t.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=23 November 2023 |date=25 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Foreign Affairs - Book Review - The Seventh Decade: The New Shape of Nuclear Danger - Jonathan Schell |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906125317/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20080501fashortreview87323/jonathan-schell/the-seventh-decade-the-new-shape-of-nuclear-danger.html |website=web.archive.org |access-date=23 November 2023 |date=6 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Book Review: The Seventh Decade » pa |url=http://www.politicalaffairs.net/book-review-the-seventh-decade/ |website=www.politicalaffairs.net |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+|-
+| 2008 || Prevention  || Comprehensive || Organization (international) || The {{w|World Institute for Nuclear Security}} (WINS) is established as an international non-governmental organization based in Vienna, Austria. Its mission is to promote best security practices among those responsible for managing the security of radioactive material. WINS provides a variety of services, including workshops, training courses, and round-table discussions worldwide, focusing on nuclear security management at the operational level. The organization offers the WINS Academy, the world's first international certification program for nuclear security management. It also publishes numerous documents on nuclear material management in its Knowledge Centre and offers evaluation services to help organizations assess their security programs' effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web |title=6-year Review of WINS’ Achievements |url=https://www.wins.org/files/wins_6years_report_web.pdf |website=wins.org |access-date=22 September 2022}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2008 || Prevention  || Intentional || Literature || Michael Dobbs publishes ''One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War'', which describes what {{w|Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.}} called “the most dangerous moment in human history”.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dobbs |first1=Michael |title=One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War |date=2009 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-4000-7891-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/One_Minute_to_Midnight.html?id=INGx8xGDG44C&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2008 (July 9) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (binational) || The {{w|International Commission on Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament}} (ICNND) is established as a collaborative effort between the Australian and Japanese governments. Proposed by Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and agreed upon by Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda, the Commission aims to address nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament challenges. ICNND aims to reinvigorate global efforts on nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament. The commission's report, ''Eliminating Nuclear Threats - A Practical Agenda for Global Policymakers'', launched on December 15, 2009, seeks to guide policymakers. The ICNND actively uses social networks to spread information about non-proliferation, emphasizing the importance of global awareness and support for de-escalation of nuclear threats.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Commission on Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament |url=http://www.icnnd.org/ |website=www.icnnd.org |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Australia}}, {{w|Japan}}
+|-
+| 2008 || Risk || Intentional || Illegal nuclear trafficking || According to International Relations Professor Justin Hastings, when smuggling goods, illicit nonstate actors face a trade-off between the security and efficiency of the route. In the realm of nuclear risk, illicit nonstate actors involved in smuggling face a critical dilemma: balancing the security and efficiency of their transport routes. This trade-off underscores the challenge of moving nuclear materials covertly. Prioritizing security involves navigating discreet paths to evade detection and interception, while prioritizing efficiency necessitates swift transportation through potentially less secure routes. Striking the right balance is crucial, as heightened security measures may hinder efficiency, and overly efficient routes may compromise the overall security of smuggling operations. Understanding and addressing this trade-off is vital for counter-proliferation efforts and safeguarding against the illicit trafficking of nuclear materials.<ref name="Stulberg"/> ||
 |-
 | 2008 || December || Intentional || Organization (international) || [[w:Global Zero (campaign)|Global Zero]], a non-partisan international initiative, is launched by 100 opinion leaders in Paris. The organization aims to raise awareness about the urgent nuclear threat and advocate for the complete elimination of all nuclear weapons. Over its first 21 months, Global Zero would gather support from 300 political, military, business, and civic leaders, along with 400,000 citizens worldwide. They would develop the Global Zero Action Plan (GZAP) outlining a step-by-step process for nuclear disarmament and established 70 student chapters globally. Global Zero would organize international conferences, engage with governments, produce educational films, and garner celebrity support, becoming a prominent advocate for nuclear disarmament on the global stage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Zero {{!}} The Simons Foundation |url=https://www.thesimonsfoundation.ca/projects/global-zero |website=www.thesimonsfoundation.ca |access-date=7 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2009 (May 15) || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Binational cooperation || The {{w|France–Pakistan Atomic Energy Framework}} is signed as a bilateral treaty focusing on nuclear energy cooperation.<ref name="BBC Pakistan, 2009">{{cite news|last=Staff reports|title=Pakistan in 'French nuclear deal'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8052587.stm|accessdate=17 September 2012|newspaper=BBC Pakistan, 2009|date= 15 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Francois Murphy |date=16 May 2009 |title=Pakistan Asserts French Backing; Cites Support for Nuclear Deal |newspaper=Boston Globe |url=http://www.nti.org/media/pdfs/pakistan_nuclear.pdf?_=1316466791 |accessdate=19 August 2023}}</ref> This agreement, distinct from the Indo-American nuclear deal, aims to enhance nuclear safety and technology in Pakistan. France agrees to assist in improving the safety of Pakistan's nuclear power installations under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, and to provide civilian-based nuclear technology.<ref name="BBC Pakistan, 2009"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-07-23 |title=France-Pakistan nuclear deal to focus on safety |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-41275220090723 |access-date=2022-04-06}}</ref> However, it differs from the Indo-US deal and focuses solely on "nuclear safety," as highlighted by the French Foreign Ministry.<ref name="NTI (The Hindu)">{{cite news|last=Staff|title=Back to Global Security Newswire Home About Global Security Newswire Contact Us France Plans No Civilian Nuclear Deal With Pakistan, Official Says|url=http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/france-plans-no-civilian-nuclear-deal-with-pakistan-official-says/|accessdate=19 August 2023|newspaper=NTI (The Hindu)|date=24 November 2009}}</ref> This framework marks a departure from France's prior nuclear cooperation with Pakistan, which faced international scrutiny due to concerns about proliferation.<ref name="Council on Foreign Relations">{{cite book|last=Tahrir-Khalil|first=Shirine R.|title=India, Pakistan and the United States|year=1997|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|location=New York|isbn=0-87609-199-0|pages=72–76|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srCLD-PXl-gC&q=france+pakistan+nuclear+deal&pg=PA72|accessdate=17 September 2012|chapter-format=google book|chapter=Preventing Proliferation}}</ref><ref name="BBC Pakistan, 2009"/> || {{w|France}}, {{w|Pakistan}}
+| 2009 (May 15) || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Binational cooperation || The {{w|France–Pakistan Atomic Energy Framework}} is signed as a bilateral treaty focusing on nuclear energy cooperation.<ref name="BBC Pakistan, 2009">{{cite news|last=Staff reports|title=Pakistan in 'French nuclear deal'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8052587.stm|accessdate=17 September 2012|newspaper=BBC Pakistan, 2009|date= 15 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Francois Murphy |date=16 May 2009 |title=Pakistan Asserts French Backing; Cites Support for Nuclear Deal |newspaper=Boston Globe |url=http://www.nti.org/media/pdfs/pakistan_nuclear.pdf?_=1316466791 |accessdate=19 August 2023}}</ref> This agreement, distinct from the Indo-American nuclear deal, aims to enhance nuclear safety and technology in Pakistan. France agrees to assist in improving the safety of Pakistan's nuclear power installations under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, and to provide civilian-based nuclear technology.<ref name="BBC Pakistan, 2009"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-07-23 |title=France-Pakistan nuclear deal to focus on safety |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-41275220090723 |access-date=2022-04-06}}</ref> However, it differs from the Indo-US deal and focuses solely on "nuclear safety," as highlighted by the French Foreign Ministry.<ref name="NTI (The Hindu)">{{cite news|last=Staff|title=Back to Global Security Newswire Home About Global Security Newswire Contact Us France Plans No Civilian Nuclear Deal With Pakistan, Official Says|url=http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/france-plans-no-civilian-nuclear-deal-with-pakistan-official-says/|accessdate=19 August 2023|newspaper=NTI (The Hindu)|date=24 November 2009}}</ref> This framework marks a departure from France's prior nuclear cooperation with Pakistan, which faced international scrutiny due to concerns about proliferation.<ref name="Council on Foreign Relations">{{cite book|last=Tahrir-Khalil|first=Shirine R.|title=India, Pakistan and the United States|year=1997|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|location=New York|isbn=0-87609-199-0|pages=72–76|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srCLD-PXl-gC&q=france+pakistan+nuclear+deal&pg=PA72|accessdate=17 September 2012|chapter-format=google book|chapter=Preventing Proliferation}}</ref><ref name="BBC Pakistan, 2009"/> || {{w|France}}, {{w|Pakistan}}
+|-
+| 2009 (June 25) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || {{w|North Korea}} conducts its second {{w|nuclear test}}, an {{w|underground nuclear weapons testing}} estimated to have a yield of 2 to 6 kilotons.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
+|-
+| 2009 (September 24) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations Security Council Resolution 1887}} is adopted unanimously by the {{w|Security Council}} on nuclear issues.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
 |-
-| 2009 (September 24) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations Security Council Resolution 1887}} is adopted unanimously by the {{w|Security Council}} on nuclear issues.<ref name="Timeline of the NPT"/> ||
+| 2009 (October) || Prevention  || Intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Top Level Group}} (TLG) of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation is established in response to the increasing global focus on nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. Inspired by influential figures like Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, William Perry, and Senator Sam Nunn, as well as U.S. President Barack Obama's Prague speech in April 2009, the TLG comprises senior British parliamentarians who advocate for multilateral nuclear disarmament and security. The group emphasizes the importance of incremental steps while maintaining national and international security. Its members, prominent and experienced in politics, collaborate to influence UK government policies, support the ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) by the US, and advocate for the agreement of a Fissile Material Cut Off Treaty (FMCT). They engage in public and private events, meet with key decision-makers, and coordinate efforts with counterparts across Europe through the European Leadership Network.<ref>{{cite web |title=History and mission statement |url=https://www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org/networks/tlg/history-and-mission-statement/ |website=www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
-| 2009 (October) || Prevention case || Intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Top Level Group}} (TLG) of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation is established in response to the increasing global focus on nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. Inspired by influential figures like Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, William Perry, and Senator Sam Nunn, as well as U.S. President Barack Obama's Prague speech in April 2009, the TLG comprises senior British parliamentarians who advocate for multilateral nuclear disarmament and security. The group emphasizes the importance of incremental steps while maintaining national and international security. Its members, prominent and experienced in politics, collaborate to influence UK government policies, support the ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) by the US, and advocate for the agreement of a Fissile Material Cut Off Treaty (FMCT). They engage in public and private events, meet with key decision-makers, and coordinate efforts with counterparts across Europe through the European Leadership Network.<ref>{{cite web |title=History and mission statement |url=https://www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org/networks/tlg/history-and-mission-statement/ |website=www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org |access-date=6 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 2009 || Prevention || Intentional || Individual recognition || {{w|Graham Allison}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for illuminating alternative ways of thinking about political decision making with special relevance to crises, including nuclear crises, as demonstrated in his groundbreaking Essence of Decision and subsequent works."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 2010 (April 8) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|New START}} (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) is signed between the United States and the Russian Federation in Prague. This treaty, also known as Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms, would enter into force on February 5, 2011, following ratification by both parties. New START succeeds the Treaty of Moscow (SORT) and aims to reduce the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers, limit deployed warheads, and establish a new inspection and verification regime. However, on February 21, 2023, Russia would suspend its participation in New START, although it would not withdraw from the treaty.<ref>{{cite web |title=New START at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/NewSTART |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref>  || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
+| 2010 (April 8) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|New START}} (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) is signed between the United States and the Russian Federation in Prague. This treaty, also known as Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms, would enter into force on February 5, 2011, following ratification by both parties. New START succeeds the Treaty of Moscow (SORT) and aims to reduce the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers, limit deployed warheads, and establish a new inspection and verification regime. However, on February 21, 2023, Russia would suspend its participation in New START, although it would not withdraw from the treaty.<ref>{{cite web |title=New START at a Glance {{!}} Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/NewSTART |website=www.armscontrol.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref>  || {{w|United States}}, {{w|Russia}}
 |-
-| 2010 (April 12–13) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States hosts the inaugural [[w:2010 Nuclear Security Summit|Nuclear Security Summit]], convening 49 world leaders to enhance global cooperation and consensus towards nuclear security and disarmament. Despite underlying controversies, the summit produces a broad Communiqué committing to preventing nuclear terrorism and adopting a four-year timeline. Nations also agree on a voluntary Work Plan. The summit follows the {{w|New START}} Treaty and U.S. Nuclear Posture Review, signaling the U.S. commitment to nuclear security. The issue brief explores the summit's background, outcomes, and its ongoing significance in reinforcing international dedication to nuclear security amidst preparations for the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty's 2010 Review Conference.<ref>{{cite web |title=The April 2010 Nuclear Security Summit: One More Step Toward the Mountaintop |url=https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/april-2010-nuclear-security-summit/ |website=nti.org |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 2010 (April 12–13) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The United States hosts the inaugural [[w:2010 Nuclear Security Summit|Nuclear Security Summit]], convening 49 world leaders to enhance global cooperation and consensus towards nuclear security and disarmament. Despite underlying controversies, the summit produces a broad Communiqué committing to preventing nuclear terrorism and adopting a four-year timeline. Nations also agree on a voluntary Work Plan. The summit follows the {{w|New START}} Treaty and U.S. Nuclear Posture Review, signaling the U.S. commitment to nuclear security. The issue brief explores the summit's background, outcomes, and its ongoing significance in reinforcing international dedication to nuclear security amidst preparations for the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty's 2010 Review Conference.<ref>{{cite web |title=The April 2010 Nuclear Security Summit: One More Step Toward the Mountaintop |url=https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/april-2010-nuclear-security-summit/ |website=nti.org |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2010 (April 17–18) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Iran hosts the {{w|Tehran International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation}} conference in Tehran. The conference focuses on the theme "Nuclear Energy for All, Nuclear Weapons for No One." It takes place shortly after the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, DC, and is considered a counterpoint to that summit. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad called for the elimination of all nuclear weapons during the conference. The timing also coincides with the signing of the New START treaty between the US and Russia, which aimed to reduce nuclear weapons. Experts and officials from about 60 countries attend the conference, emphasizing Iran's stance on nuclear disarmament. ||
+| 2010 (April 17–18) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || Iran hosts the {{w|Tehran International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation}}, which brings together senior leaders and officials from over 50 countries to discuss approaches to non-proliferation and nuclear disarmament. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister {{w|Sergey Ryabkov}} emphasizes the importance of a balanced approach to the three pillars of the NPT: non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful uses of atomic energy. Discussions include Russia's nuclear disarmament efforts and the Treaty on Measures to Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. Ryabkov engages with Iranian and Chinese officials on issues related to Iran's nuclear program and preparations for the NPT Review Conference.<ref>{{cite web |title=On the Tehran International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation, April 17-18, 2010 |url=https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/international_safety/1694954/ |website=mid.ru |access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|China}}
 |-
-| 2010 (May 3–28) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|2010 NPT Review Conference}} for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) takes place at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. Ambassador Libran N. Cabactulan of the Philippines presides over the conference. The event aims to address various issues, including nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation, peaceful use of nuclear energy, regional disarmament, and engagement with civil society. The NPT, in force since 1970, promotes nuclear disarmament and peaceful nuclear technology. Despite previous conferences' challenges, the 2010 Review Conference seeks to strengthen the treaty's implementation and foster international cooperation, coinciding with other events like the New START treaty signing and nuclear security summit. ||
+| 2010 (May 3–28) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|2010 NPT Review Conference}} for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) takes place at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. Ambassador Libran N. Cabactulan of the Philippines presides over the conference.<ref name="Intro">[https://www.un.org/en/conf/npt/2010/ 2010 Review Conference] of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 3–29 May 2010.</ref><ref name="AcronymDay1">[https://www.un.org/en/conf/npt/2010/ Day 1 at the NPT: Transparency, bluster, and practical commitments], Rebecca Johnson, Acronym Institute.</ref> The event aims to address various issues, including nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation, peaceful use of nuclear energy, regional disarmament, and engagement with civil society. The NPT, in force since 1970, promotes nuclear disarmament and peaceful nuclear technology. Despite previous conferences' challenges, the 2010 Review Conference seeks to strengthen the treaty's implementation and foster international cooperation, coinciding with other events like the New START treaty signing and nuclear security summit.<ref>{{cite web |title=2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 3-28 May 2010 |url=https://www.un.org/en/conf/npt/2010/background.shtml |website=www.un.org |access-date=17 November 2023 |language=EN}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2010 (June) || Prevention case || Intentional || International resolution || A series of significant international sanctions are imposed on Iran. The {{w|United Nations Security Council}} passes [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1929|Resolution 1929]], which expands sanctions by prohibiting Iran from conducting nuclear-capable ballistic missile tests, imposing an arms embargo on major weapon transfers to Iran, and tightening proliferation-related sanctions. On June 24, the U.S. Congress adopts the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act, extending sanctions against firms investing in Iran's energy sector until 2016 and targeting companies selling refined petroleum to Iran. Subsequently, on July 26, the European Union also agrees to impose comprehensive sanctions on Iran, covering trade, financial services, energy, transport, and more, alongside visa bans and asset freezes.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|Iran}}
+| 2010 (June) || Prevention  || Intentional || International resolution || A series of significant international sanctions are imposed on Iran. The {{w|United Nations Security Council}} passes [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1929|Resolution 1929]], which expands sanctions by prohibiting Iran from conducting nuclear-capable ballistic missile tests, imposing an arms embargo on major weapon transfers to Iran, and tightening proliferation-related sanctions. On June 24, the U.S. Congress adopts the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act, extending sanctions against firms investing in Iran's energy sector until 2016 and targeting companies selling refined petroleum to Iran. Subsequently, on July 26, the European Union also agrees to impose comprehensive sanctions on Iran, covering trade, financial services, energy, transport, and more, alongside visa bans and asset freezes.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> || {{w|Iran}}
 |-
-| 2010 (September 16) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Cyberattack}} || The [[w:Malware|malicious]] {{w|computer worm}} {{w|Stuxnet}} computer virus is first identified by a security expert as a directed attack against an Iranian nuclear-related facility, likely to be an enrichment plant in {{w|Natanz}}.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> Although neither country would openly admit responsibility, the worm is widely understood to be a {{w|cyberweapon}} built jointly by the {{w|United States}} and {{w|Israel}} in a collaborative effort known as {{w|Operation Olympic Games}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Nate |title=Confirmed: US and Israel created Stuxnet, lost control of it |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/06/confirmed-us-israel-created-stuxnet-lost-control-of-it/ |website=Ars Technica |access-date=27 September 2022 |language=en-us |date=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stuxnet was work of U.S. and Israeli experts, officials say |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/stuxnet-was-work-of-us-and-israeli-experts-officials-say/2012/06/01/gJQAlnEy6U_story.html |website=washingtonpost |access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bergman |first1=Ronen |last2=Mazzetti |first2=Mark |title=The Secret History of the Push to Strike Iran |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/04/magazine/iran-strike-israel-america.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=27 September 2022 |date=4 September 2019}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}
+| 2010 (September 16) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Cyberattack}} || The [[w:Malware|malicious]] {{w|computer worm}} {{w|Stuxnet}} computer virus is first identified by a security expert as a directed attack against an Iranian nuclear-related facility, likely to be an enrichment plant in {{w|Natanz}}.<ref name="armscontrol.org"/> Although neither country would openly admit responsibility, the worm is widely understood to be a {{w|cyberweapon}} built jointly by the {{w|United States}} and {{w|Israel}} in a collaborative effort known as {{w|Operation Olympic Games}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Nate |title=Confirmed: US and Israel created Stuxnet, lost control of it |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/06/confirmed-us-israel-created-stuxnet-lost-control-of-it/ |website=Ars Technica |access-date=27 September 2022 |language=en-us |date=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stuxnet was work of U.S. and Israeli experts, officials say |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/stuxnet-was-work-of-us-and-israeli-experts-officials-say/2012/06/01/gJQAlnEy6U_story.html |website=washingtonpost |access-date=27 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bergman |first1=Ronen |last2=Mazzetti |first2=Mark |title=The Secret History of the Push to Strike Iran |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/04/magazine/iran-strike-israel-america.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=27 September 2022 |date=4 September 2019}}</ref> || {{w|Iran}}
 |-
 | 2011 (March) || Adverse consequence || Non-intentional || {{w|Nuclear accident}} || The {{w|Fukushima nuclear accident}} occurs as the second-worst nuclear accident in history after the {{w|Chernobyl disaster}}, resulted from damage to backup generators caused by a {{w|tsunami}} following the {{w|2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami}}. Despite successful reactor shutdowns, the loss of power leads to cooling system failures, causing partial meltdowns in reactors 1, 2, and 3. Explosions release radiation, prompting evacuations and a no-fly zone. Ongoing efforts to cool the reactors face challenges. The incident escalates to a [[w:International Nuclear Event Scale|level-7 nuclear emergency]], paralleling Chernobyl. Evacuation zones expand due to radiation concerns, and the region would face long-term uninhabitability. Later, some restrictions would be lifted, but challenges would persist, including a 2013 leak.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fukushima accident {{!}} Summary, Date, Effects, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Fukushima-accident |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=12 November 2023 |language=en |date=3 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|Japan}}
 |-
-| 2011 (April 20) || Prevention case || Intentional (terrorist) || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations Security Council}} passes [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1977|Resolution 1977]] (UNSCR 1977), reinforcing international measures against weapons of mass destruction (WMD) proliferation. The resolution extends the mandate of a key Committee established by UNSC Resolution 1540, emphasizing the commitment to preventing WMD spread. UNSCR 1977 urges member states to designate a Point of Contact for 1540 implementation. Since 2004, UNSCR 1540 obligates states to enact effective measures against WMD proliferation. The Committee, with a new ten-year mandate, collaborates globally and is supported by a Group of Experts. The resolution encourages partnerships with regional organizations and recognizes the importance of voluntary contributions.<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Security Council Resolution 1977 |url=https://www.state.gov/remarks-and-releases-bureau-of-international-security-and-nonproliferation/un-security-council-resolution-1977/#:~:text=On%20April%2020%2C%202011%2C%20the,and%20their%20means%20of%20delivery. |website=United States Department of State |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 2011 (April 20) || Prevention  || Intentional (terrorist) || International resolution || The {{w|United Nations Security Council}} passes [[w:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1977|Resolution 1977]] (UNSCR 1977), reinforcing international measures against weapons of mass destruction (WMD) proliferation. The resolution extends the mandate of a key Committee established by UNSC Resolution 1540, emphasizing the commitment to preventing WMD spread. UNSCR 1977 urges member states to designate a Point of Contact for 1540 implementation. Since 2004, UNSCR 1540 obligates states to enact effective measures against WMD proliferation. The Committee, with a new ten-year mandate, collaborates globally and is supported by a Group of Experts. The resolution encourages partnerships with regional organizations and recognizes the importance of voluntary contributions.<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Security Council Resolution 1977 |url=https://www.state.gov/remarks-and-releases-bureau-of-international-security-and-nonproliferation/un-security-council-resolution-1977/#:~:text=On%20April%2020%2C%202011%2C%20the,and%20their%20means%20of%20delivery. |website=United States Department of State |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2011 || Prevention  || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Office for Nuclear Regulation}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Energy Act: Nuclear Regulation |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/266849/ONR_Policy_Brief_RA.pdf |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |access-date=2 October 2023}}</ref> It is the UK's independent nuclear regulator, with the mission to protect society by securing safe nuclear operations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Office for Nuclear Regulation |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/office-for-nuclear-regulation#:~:text=The%20Office%20for%20Nuclear%20Regulation,Department%20for%20Work%20and%20Pensions. |website=GOV.UK |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+|-
+| 2012 (March 26–27) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}}  || The {{w|2012 Nuclear Security Summit}} is held in {{w|Seoul}}. It expands upon the Washington Summit, inviting six new countries: {{w|Azerbaijan}}, {{w|Denmark}}, {{w|Gabon}}, {{w|Hungary}}, {{w|Lithuania}}, and {{w|Romania}}. The summit, attended by 53 countries and 4 international organizations, focuses on combating nuclear terrorism, protecting nuclear materials and facilities, and preventing illicit trafficking of nuclear materials. The Seoul Communiqué identifies 11 priority areas, including minimizing highly enriched uranium use, ratifying the 2005 Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, improving nuclear safety and security synergy, securing spent nuclear fuel, and protecting radioactive sources. The summit introduces 'gift baskets,' resulting in over 100 new commitments for nuclear security.<ref>{{cite web |title=2012 - Seoul |url=https://www.nss2016.org/past-summits/2012 |website=The 2016 Nuclear Security Summit |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2012 (November) || Risk || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|South Korea}} reportedly stops {{w|North Korea}} attempting to sell graphite rods to {{w|Syria}}, which are believed to be intended for use in Syria's nuclear program. The sale does not go through, as {{w|South Korea}} intercepts the shipment and prevents it from reaching Syria.<ref name="www.armsco"/><ref>{{cite web |title=North Korea’s Weapons of Mass Destruction |url=https://www.iwp.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/North-Koreas-Weapons-of-Mass-Destruction.pdf |website=iwp.edu |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|Syria}}, {{w|South Korea}}
+|-
+| 2012 || Prevention  || Intentional || Literature || M.A. Harwell publishes ''Nuclear Winter: The Human and Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War'', which argues that comparatively little scientific research has been done about the envifonmental consequences of a nuclear war of the magnitude of the arsenal at the time could unleash.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harwell |first1=M. A. |title=Nuclear Winter: The Human and Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War |date=6 December 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4612-5288-7 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Nuclear_Winter.html?id=AZsKCAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2012 || Prevention || Intentional || Individual recognition || Robert Powell is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for sophisticated game theoretic models of conflict that illuminate the heart of the strategic dilemmas of nuclear deterrence, including the importance of private information."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+|-
+| 2013 (February 12) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear test}} || The Korean Central News Agency announces that North Korea successfully detonated a nuclear device at its underground test site. The explosive yield is estimated at approximately 15 kilotons. North Korea claims the device was ‘miniaturized’, a term commonly used to refer to a warhead light enough to fit on the tip of a ballistic missile.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
+|-
+| 2014 (July) || Risk || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || Sunni Islamist political and military organization {{w|Hamas}} launches unsuccessful rocket attacks against {{w|Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center}}.<ref name="Mirbach"/> || {{w|Israel}}
+|-
+| 2014 || Prevention || Intentional || Research || A study finds that even a regional nuclear war, involving fewer than a hundred weapons being detonated, could cause a global nuclear famine.<ref name=Leigh/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=Michael J. |last2=Toon |first2=Owen B. |last3=Lee‐Taylor |first3=Julia |last4=Robock |first4=Alan |title=Multidecadal global cooling and unprecedented ozone loss following a regional nuclear conflict |journal=Earth's Future |date=April 2014 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=161–176 |doi=10.1002/2013EF000205 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2013EF000205 |language=en |issn=2328-4277}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2015 (July 14) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action}} (known commonly as the Iran nuclear deal or Iran deal) is agreed upon in Vienna, between Iran and the P5+1 group (China, France, Russia, UK, US, plus Germany) and the European Union. Iran agrees to restrict its nuclear program and allow strict monitoring to prevent weapon development. In return, the US and other parties lift sanctions on Iran's economy. However, in 2018, US President Donald J. Trump would withdraw from the deal and re-impose sanctions, citing concerns. The JCPOA aims to limit Iran's enrichment program in exchange for sanctions relief and international oversight. The withdrawal would lead to tensions and uncertainties about the agreement's future.<ref name=Leigh/> || {{w|Iran}}, {{w|China}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Germany}}
+|-
+| 2016 (March 31–April 1) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|2016 Nuclear Security Summit}} takes place in Washington, D.C. This is the fourth summit in a series that began in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kim |first1=Patricia M. |last2=Turpin |first2=Matthew |last3=Jr |first3=Joseph S. Nye |last4=Weiss |first4=Jessica Chen |last5=Jo |first5=Eun A. |last6=Hass |first6=Ryan |last7=Kimball |first7=Emilie |title=Everything you need to know about the 2016 Nuclear Security Summit |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-nuclear-security-summit/#:~:text=The%202016%20Nuclear%20Security%20Summit%20(NSS)%20is%20being%20held%20March,plans%20for%20the%20five%20main |website=Brookings |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> Notably absent are leaders from {{w|Russia}}, {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|Iran}}, and {{w|Belarus}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=ISIS threat raises stakes for US Nuclear Security Summit|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/isis-threat-raises-stakes-for-us-nuclear-security-summit|accessdate=8 September 2023|agency=AFP|date=March 30, 2016}}</ref> However, the summit sees significant participation from Asian leaders, including {{w|India}} and {{w|Singapore}}, indicating growing concerns about terrorist threats to nuclear facilities. Various countries make commitments to reduce highly enriched uranium stockpiles, while Japan agrees to ship additional separated plutonium to the U.S. Canada pledges $42 million for nuclear security, and a strengthened nuclear security agreement is approved. This summit would be declared the last of its kind.<ref>{{cite web |title=World leaders urge action against terrorism at Nuclear Security Summit |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/world-leaders-urge-action-against-terrorism-at-nuclear-security-summit |website=PBS NewsHour |access-date=8 September 2023 |language=en-us |date=2 April 2016}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2017 (July 7) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons}} (TPNW) is adopted during a United Nations conference held in New York, emerging amid dissatisfaction with the 2015 NPT Review Conference. Effective since January 22, 2021, it prohibits the development, testing, possession, and use of nuclear weapons. As of 2022, the treaty lacks a verification regime, relies on existing safeguards agreements, and allows amendments with a two-thirds majority. The first Meeting of the States Parties in 2022 addressed global concerns, condemning nuclear threats and adopting the "Vienna Declaration."<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-on-the-prohibition-of-nuclear-weapons/ |website=nti.org |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Signature and ratification status |url=https://www.icanw.org/signature_and_ratification_status |website=ICAN |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ||
+|-
+| 2017 || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || United States military analyst {{w|Daniel Ellsberg}} publishes ''The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner'', attempting to reveal his shocking firsthand account of the [[w:Nuclear weapons of the United States|Nuclear program of the United States]] in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellsberg |first1=Daniel |title=The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner |date=5 December 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-60819-674-6 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=I3gvDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2011 || Prevention case || Non-intentional || Organization (national) || The {{w|Office for Nuclear Regulation}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=Energy Act: Nuclear Regulation |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/266849/ONR_Policy_Brief_RA.pdf |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |access-date=2 October 2023}}</ref> It is the UK's independent nuclear regulator, with the mission to protect society by securing safe nuclear operations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Office for Nuclear Regulation |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/office-for-nuclear-regulation#:~:text=The%20Office%20for%20Nuclear%20Regulation,Department%20for%20Work%20and%20Pensions. |website=GOV.UK |access-date=26 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 2018 (June 12) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || A meeting occurrs between {{w|Kim Jong-un}} and United States President {{w|Donald Trump}} in Singapore, centering on denuclearization of the Korean peninsula and enhancing bilateral ties. They ink a shared declaration to create "fresh US-DPRK relations," form a stable and enduring peace structure on the Korean peninsula, and locate POW/MIA remains. Kim also pledges to progress towards complete denuclearization, while Trump vowed security assurances for North Korea.<ref name="President Trump and Chairman Kim">{{Cite web|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/|title=Joint Statement of President Donald J. Trump of the United States of America and Chairman Kim Jong Un of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at the Singapore Summit|date=June 12, 2018|publisher=The White House|access-date=February 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120200840/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/|archive-date=January 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint Statement of President Donald J. Trump of the United States of America and Chairman Kim Jong Un of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at the Singapore Summit – The White House |url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/ |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov |archive-date=2021-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120200840/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/}}</ref> || {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2012 (March 26–27) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}}  || The {{w|2012 Nuclear Security Summit}} is held in {{w|Seoul}}. It expands upon the Washington Summit, inviting six new countries: {{w|Azerbaijan}}, {{w|Denmark}}, {{w|Gabon}}, {{w|Hungary}}, {{w|Lithuania}}, and {{w|Romania}}. The summit, attended by 53 countries and 4 international organizations, focuses on combating nuclear terrorism, protecting nuclear materials and facilities, and preventing illicit trafficking of nuclear materials. The Seoul Communiqué identifies 11 priority areas, including minimizing highly enriched uranium use, ratifying the 2005 Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, improving nuclear safety and security synergy, securing spent nuclear fuel, and protecting radioactive sources. The summit introduces 'gift baskets,' resulting in over 100 new commitments for nuclear security.<ref>{{cite web |title=2012 - Seoul |url=https://www.nss2016.org/past-summits/2012 |website=The 2016 Nuclear Security Summit |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> ||
+| 2018 || Prevention || Intentional || Individual recognition || {{w|Etel Solingen}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for providing the first systematic analysis in contemporary international relations connecting political economy, globalization, and nuclear choices on the one hand with domestic politics and nuclear behavior on the other."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 2012 (November) || Risk case || Intentional || Illicit nuclear trafficking || {{w|South Korea}} reportedly stops {{w|North Korea}} attempting to sell graphite rods to {{w|Syria}}, which are believed to be intended for use in Syria's nuclear program. The sale does not go through, as {{w|South Korea}} intercepts the shipment and prevents it from reaching Syria.<ref name="www.armsco"/><ref>{{cite web |title=North Korea’s Weapons of Mass Destruction |url=https://www.iwp.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/North-Koreas-Weapons-of-Mass-Destruction.pdf |website=iwp.edu |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> || {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|Syria}}, {{w|South Korea}}
+| 2018 || Prevention || Intentional || Literature || Mark Wolverton publishes ''Burning the Sky: Operation Argus and the Untold Story of the Cold War Nuclear Tests in Outer Space''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wolverton |first1=Mark |title=Burning the Sky: Operation Argus and the Untold Story of the Cold War Nuclear Tests in Outer Space |date=27 November 2018 |publisher=Abrams |isbn=978-1-4683-1418-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Burning_the_Sky.html?id=5TqEDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|United States}} ({{w|Abrams Books}})
 |-
-| 2012 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || Robert Powell is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for sophisticated game theoretic models of conflict that illuminate the heart of the strategic dilemmas of nuclear deterrence, including the importance of private information."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 2019 (June) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear proliferation}} || As of date, {{w|North Korea}} is estimated to have 20-30 warheads, and the fissile material for an estimated 30-60 nuclear weapons.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
 |-
-| 2014 (July) || Risk case || Intentional || Attack on nuclear plant || Sunni Islamist political and military organization {{w|Hamas}} launches unsuccessful rocket attacks against {{w|Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center}}.<ref name="Mirbach"/> || {{w|Israel}}
+| 2019 (October) || Risk || Intentional || {{w|Cyberattack}} || India's {{w|Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant}} (KKNPP) experiences a cyberattack, initially denied by authorities, exposing a lack of cybersecurity awareness. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited later confirms the breach, revealing vulnerabilities in the air-gap approach, which falsely assumed complete isolation. The attack used the Dtrack malware, potentially linked to {{w|North Korea}}. India's response includes cybersecurity measures, but the incident highlights the lag in critical infrastructure cybersecurity. The KKNPP hack underscores the importance of modern cybersecurity protocols for safeguarding nuclear facilities and emphasizes the need for increased vigilance in protecting critical infrastructure worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wall |first1=Tyler |title=Throwback attack: An Indian nuclear power plant falls victim to outdated policies |url=https://www.industrialcybersecuritypulse.com/facilities/throwback-attack-an-indian-nuclear-power-plant-falls-victim-to-outdated-policies/#:~:text=In%202019%2C%20a%20nuclear%20power,to%20any%20other%20outside%20networks. |website=Industrial Cybersecurity Pulse |access-date=22 November 2023 |date=4 August 2022}}</ref> || {{w|India}}, {{w|South Korea}}
 |-
-| 2015 (July 14) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action}} (known commonly as the Iran nuclear deal or Iran deal) is agreed upon in Vienna, between Iran and the P5+1 group (China, France, Russia, UK, US, plus Germany) and the European Union. Iran agrees to restrict its nuclear program and allow strict monitoring to prevent weapon development. In return, the US and other parties lift sanctions on Iran's economy. However, in 2018, US President Donald J. Trump would withdraw from the deal and re-impose sanctions, citing concerns. The JCPOA aims to limit Iran's enrichment program in exchange for sanctions relief and international oversight. The withdrawal would lead to tensions and uncertainties about the agreement's future.<ref name=Leigh/> || {{w|Iran}}, {{w|China}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|Germany}}
+| 2020 (January 23) || Prevention  || Intentional || Probability || The {{w|Doomsday Clock}} moves to 100 seconds to midnight, the closest it has ever been in its 73-year history.<ref>{{cite web |title='If there's ever a time to wake up, it's now': Doomsday Clock moves 20-seconds closer to midnight |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-24/doomsday-clock-moves-closest-to-midnight-in-73-year-history/11896294 |website=ABC News |access-date=27 June 2022 |language=en-AU |date=23 January 2020}}</ref> ||
 |-
-| 2016 (March 31–April 1) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|2016 Nuclear Security Summit}} takes place in Washington, D.C. This is the fourth summit in a series that began in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kim |first1=Patricia M. |last2=Turpin |first2=Matthew |last3=Jr |first3=Joseph S. Nye |last4=Weiss |first4=Jessica Chen |last5=Jo |first5=Eun A. |last6=Hass |first6=Ryan |last7=Kimball |first7=Emilie |title=Everything you need to know about the 2016 Nuclear Security Summit |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-nuclear-security-summit/#:~:text=The%202016%20Nuclear%20Security%20Summit%20(NSS)%20is%20being%20held%20March,plans%20for%20the%20five%20main |website=Brookings |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> Notably absent are leaders from {{w|Russia}}, {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|Iran}}, and {{w|Belarus}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=ISIS threat raises stakes for US Nuclear Security Summit|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/isis-threat-raises-stakes-for-us-nuclear-security-summit|accessdate=8 September 2023|agency=AFP|date=March 30, 2016}}</ref> However, the summit sees significant participation from Asian leaders, including {{w|India}} and {{w|Singapore}}, indicating growing concerns about terrorist threats to nuclear facilities. Various countries make commitments to reduce highly enriched uranium stockpiles, while Japan agrees to ship additional separated plutonium to the U.S. Canada pledges $42 million for nuclear security, and a strengthened nuclear security agreement is approved. This summit would be declared the last of its kind.<ref>{{cite web |title=World leaders urge action against terrorism at Nuclear Security Summit |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/world-leaders-urge-action-against-terrorism-at-nuclear-security-summit |website=PBS NewsHour |access-date=8 September 2023 |language=en-us |date=2 April 2016}}</ref> ||
+| 2020 (June) || Risk || || Research || The {{w|Stockholm International Peace Research Institute}} publishes a study examining how advances in {{w|artificial intelligence}} impact nuclear weapons and doctrines. The report highlights the potential effects on strategic stability and increased nuclear weapon risks. It emphasizes the historical link between AI and nuclear weapons, stressing machine learning's role in modernizing nuclear systems. It underlines technical limitations and risks in adopting AI. The summary notes AI's strategic priority for nuclear-armed states, including the United States, China, Russia, etc., and emphasizes the importance of communication and transparency to manage associated risks. Existing arms control measures, such as no-first-use doctrines, are suggested to mitigate AI-related risks in the military and nuclear sphere. The report recommends a step-by-step approach, including raising awareness, transparency, collaborative problem-solving, and discussions on concrete limits for AI use in the nuclear context.<ref>{{cite web |title=ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, STRATEGIC STABILITY AND NUCLEAR RISK |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/artificial_intelligence_strategic_stability_and_nuclear_risk.pdf |website=sipri.org |access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}, {{w|China}}, {{w|Russia}}, etc
 |-
-| 2017 (July 7) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons}} (TPNW) is adopted during a United Nations conference held in New York, emerging amid dissatisfaction with the 2015 NPT Review Conference. Effective since January 22, 2021, it prohibits the development, testing, possession, and use of nuclear weapons. As of 2022, the treaty lacks a verification regime, relies on existing safeguards agreements, and allows amendments with a two-thirds majority. The first Meeting of the States Parties in 2022 addressed global concerns, condemning nuclear threats and adopting the "Vienna Declaration."<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-on-the-prohibition-of-nuclear-weapons/ |website=nti.org |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Signature and ratification status |url=https://www.icanw.org/signature_and_ratification_status |website=ICAN |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ||
+| 2021 (July) || Prevention  || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|United States–Russia Strategic Stability Dialogue}} (SSD) is initiated as a vital effort to curtail the risk of nuclear conflict between the United States and Russia. Prompted by a June 2021 meeting between Presidents Joe Biden and Vladimir Putin, the SSD aims to establish stability that counters arms race dynamics and mitigates crises in which nuclear weapons might be employed. The dialogue encompasses plenary sessions and specialized working groups, addressing nuclear disarmament and cybersecurity of nuclear systems. Notably, the inaugural plenary meeting takes place in {{w|Geneva}}. An extraordinary meeting held in January 2022 discusses missile locations and addressed the Russo-Ukrainian crisis, reinforcing the significance of this strategic dialogue.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bilateral strategic stability: What the United States should discuss with Russia. And China. - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201064844/https://thebulletin.org/2021/10/bilateral-strategic-stability-what-the-united-states-should-discuss-with-russia-and-china/ |website=web.archive.org |access-date=23 September 2022 |date=1 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U.S.-Russia Strategic Stability Dialogue {{!}} Baltic Rim Economies |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204003615/https://sites.utu.fi/bre/u-s-russia-strategic-stability-dialogue/ |website=web.archive.org |access-date=23 September 2022 |date=4 February 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2018 (June 12) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || A meeting occurrs between {{w|Kim Jong-un}} and United States President {{w|Donald Trump}} in Singapore, centering on denuclearization of the Korean peninsula and enhancing bilateral ties. They ink a shared declaration to create "fresh US-DPRK relations," form a stable and enduring peace structure on the Korean peninsula, and locate POW/MIA remains. Kim also pledges to progress towards complete denuclearization, while Trump vowed security assurances for North Korea.<ref name="President Trump and Chairman Kim">{{Cite web|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/|title=Joint Statement of President Donald J. Trump of the United States of America and Chairman Kim Jong Un of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at the Singapore Summit|date=June 12, 2018|publisher=The White House|access-date=February 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120200840/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/|archive-date=January 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint Statement of President Donald J. Trump of the United States of America and Chairman Kim Jong Un of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at the Singapore Summit – The White House |url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/ |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov |archive-date=2021-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120200840/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/}}</ref> || {{w|North Korea}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 2021 || Risk || Intentional || Statistics || As of date, humanity has about 13,410 nuclear weapons, thousands of which are on [[w:De-alerting|hair-trigger alert]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Status of World Nuclear Forces|url= https://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/ |website=Federation of American Scientists|access-date=26 June 2022}}</ref> || [[w:List of states with nuclear weapons|Countries with nuclear weapons]]
 |-
-| 2018 || Prevention case || Intentional || Recognition of individuals || {{w|Etel Solingen}} is awarded the {{w|William and Katherine Estes Award}} "for providing the first systematic analysis in contemporary international relations connecting political economy, globalization, and nuclear choices on the one hand with domestic politics and nuclear behavior on the other."<ref name="www.nasonline.org"/> ||
+| 2022 (January 3) || Prevention || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The leaders of the five nuclear-weapon states - {{w|China}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}, and the {{w|United States}} - gather in {{w|Hiroshima}} and issue a [[w:Joint Statement of the Leaders of the Five Nuclear-Weapon States on Preventing Nuclear War and Avoiding Arms Races|joint statement]] emphasizing their commitment to preventing nuclear war and avoiding arms races. They emphasize the importance of the 77-year record of non-use of nuclear weapons and expresse concern over Russia's nuclear rhetoric and actions. The leaders call for continued reduction in global nuclear arsenals, upholding the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), and transparency in nuclear weapons reporting. They also urge negotiations for a treaty banning fissile material production and emphasize the importance of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). The G7 remain committed to non-proliferation and disarmament education and outreach efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Joint Statement—Group of Seven (G-7) Nations Leaders' Hiroshima Vision on Nuclear Disarmament {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/joint-statement-group-seven-g-7-nations-leaders-hiroshima-vision-nuclear-disarmament |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|China}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 2019 (June) || Risk case || Intentional || {{w|Nuclear proliferation}} || As of date, {{w|North Korea}} is estimated to have 20-30 warheads, and the fissile material for an estimated 30-60 nuclear weapons.<ref name="www.armsco"/> || {{w|North Korea}}
+| 2022 (February) || Risk || Intentional || Risk spike || {{w|Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine}} raises concerns as the potential use of nuclear weapons rises, with statements from senior Russian politicians, including President {{w|Vladimir Putin}}, suggesting a willingness to escalate to nuclear conflict.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gressel |first1=Gustav |title=Shadow of the bomb: Russia’s nuclear threats |url=https://ecfr.eu/article/shadow-of-the-bomb-russias-nuclear-threats/ |website=ECFR |access-date=29 December 2023 |date=7 July 2022}}</ref> Putin orders Russia's nuclear forces on "special mode of combat duty,"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Roth |first1=Andrew |last2=Walker |first2=Shaun |last3=Rankin |first3=Jennifer |last4=Borger |first4=Julian |title=Putin signals escalation as he puts Russia’s nuclear force on high alert |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/27/vladimir-putin-puts-russia-nuclear-deterrence-forces-on-high-alert-ukraine |website=The Guardian |access-date=29 December 2023 |date=28 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia won't use tactical nuclear weapons in Ukraine, says ambassador to UK |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61618902 |website=bbc.com |access-date=29 December 2023 |date=28 May 2022}}</ref> and test launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles are conducted.<ref>{{cite web |title=Russia to deploy new intercontinental nuclear missiles by autumn |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/23/russia-to-deploy-sarmat-missiles-in-major-nuclear-upgrade |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=29 December 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pentagon says Russia notified U.S. ahead of "routine" ICBM test-launch |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/pentagon-says-russia-notified-us-ahead-routine-icbm-test-launch-2022-04-20/ |website=reuters.com |access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> Threats and comments regarding the use of nuclear weapons in various scenarios spark discussions about the risk of nuclear escalation during the conflict. The situation is further complicated by the occupation of the {{w|Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant}}, heightening fears of a nuclear disaster.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.N. nuclear watchdog calls for a 'security protection zone' around the Russian-held Zaporizhzhia power plant |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/un-nuclear-watchdog-calls-security-protection-zone-russian-held-zapori-rcna46446 |website=NBC News |access-date=29 December 2023 |language=en |date=7 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Diaz-Maurin |first1=François |title=A nuclear safety expert's view on the crisis at the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant |url=https://thebulletin.org/2022/09/a-nuclear-safety-experts-view-on-the-crisis-at-the-zaporizhzhia-nuclear-power-plant/ |website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |access-date=29 December 2023 |date=2 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=‘Russian nuclear terror’: Ukraine atomic plant attacked again |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/7/fears-of-disaster-after-ukrainian-nuclear-plant-struck-again |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=29 December 2023 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}, {{w|Ukraine}}
 |-
-| 2021 (July) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The {{w|United States–Russia Strategic Stability Dialogue}} (SSD) is initiated as a vital effort to curtail the risk of nuclear conflict between the United States and Russia. Prompted by a June 2021 meeting between Presidents Joe Biden and Vladimir Putin, the SSD aims to establish stability that counters arms race dynamics and mitigates crises in which nuclear weapons might be employed. The dialogue encompasses plenary sessions and specialized working groups, addressing nuclear disarmament and cybersecurity of nuclear systems. Notably, the inaugural plenary meeting takes place in {{w|Geneva}}. An extraordinary meeting held in January 2022 discusses missile locations and addressed the Russo-Ukrainian crisis, reinforcing the significance of this strategic dialogue.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bilateral strategic stability: What the United States should discuss with Russia. And China. - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201064844/https://thebulletin.org/2021/10/bilateral-strategic-stability-what-the-united-states-should-discuss-with-russia-and-china/ |website=web.archive.org |access-date=23 September 2022 |date=1 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U.S.-Russia Strategic Stability Dialogue {{!}} Baltic Rim Economies |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204003615/https://sites.utu.fi/bre/u-s-russia-strategic-stability-dialogue/ |website=web.archive.org |access-date=23 September 2022 |date=4 February 2022}}</ref> || {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 2022 (August 15) || Prevention || Intentional || Research || A {{w|Rutgers University}}-led global study on the aftermath of a full-scale U.S.-Russia nuclear war warns that over 5 billion people could die from hunger due to widespread starvation. The research, which considers the impact of sun-blocking soot from nuclear detonations on crop production, reveals a 7% global caloric production decline within five years even in a localized India-Pakistan war. A U.S.-Russia conflict could cause a 90% decline, leading to severe disruptions in global food markets. The study emphasizes the need for prevention, as adaptation measures like food waste reduction offer limited impact in the face of nuclear war, projecting catastrophic consequences.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear War Would Cause a Global Famine and Kill Billions, Rutgers-Led Study Finds |url=https://www.rutgers.edu/news/nuclear-war-would-cause-global-famine-and-kill-billions-rutgers-led-study-finds |website=www.rutgers.edu |access-date=29 December 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xia |first1=Lili |last2=Robock |first2=Alan |last3=Scherrer |first3=Kim |last4=Harrison |first4=Cheryl S. |last5=Bodirsky |first5=Benjamin Leon |last6=Weindl |first6=Isabelle |last7=Jägermeyr |first7=Jonas |last8=Bardeen |first8=Charles G. |last9=Toon |first9=Owen B. |last10=Heneghan |first10=Ryan |title=Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection |journal=Nature Food |date=August 2022 |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=586–596 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0}}</ref> || Worldwide, {{w|Russia}}, {{w|United States}}, {{w|India}}, {{w|Pakistan}}
 |-
-| 2022 (January 3) || Prevention case || Intentional || {{w|Diplomacy}} || The leaders of the five nuclear-weapon states - {{w|China}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}, and the {{w|United States}} - gather in {{w|Hiroshima}} and issue a [[w:Joint Statement of the Leaders of the Five Nuclear-Weapon States on Preventing Nuclear War and Avoiding Arms Races|joint statement]] emphasizing their commitment to preventing nuclear war and avoiding arms races. They emphasize the importance of the 77-year record of non-use of nuclear weapons and expresse concern over Russia's nuclear rhetoric and actions. The leaders call for continued reduction in global nuclear arsenals, upholding the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), and transparency in nuclear weapons reporting. They also urge negotiations for a treaty banning fissile material production and emphasize the importance of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). The G7 remain committed to non-proliferation and disarmament education and outreach efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Joint Statement—Group of Seven (G-7) Nations Leaders' Hiroshima Vision on Nuclear Disarmament {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/joint-statement-group-seven-g-7-nations-leaders-hiroshima-vision-nuclear-disarmament |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref> || {{w|China}}, {{w|France}}, {{w|Russia}}, the {{w|United Kingdom}}, {{w|United States}}
+| 2022 (September 30) || Prevention || Intentional || Research || A report by NATO's Strategic Warfare Development Command discusses the potential impact of emerging technologies, particularly {{w|quantum computing}} and {{w|artificial intelligence}}, on {{w|intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance}} in the context of {{w|nuclear deterrence}}. It presents a hypothetical scenario involving {{w|China}}'s integration of quantum-enhanced AI into its nuclear systems and addresses the challenges and risks associated with these technologies, such as escalation, disinformation, and cognitive biases in nuclear decision-making. The text emphasizes {{w|NATO}}'s race to harness these technologies for defensive purposes and highlights the transformative effects of quantum and AI on military capabilities, information protection, and decision-making processes, particularly within the framework of nuclear deterrence.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quantum Computing and Artificial Intelligence Expected to Revolutionize ISR |url=https://www.act.nato.int/article/quantum-computing-and-artificial-intelligence-expected-to-revolutionize-isr/ |website=act.nato.int |access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>
 |-
 |}
@@ Line 522: / Line 733: @@
 === Google trends===
-The chart shows Google Trends data for "nuclear risk" (search term), from January 1 2004, to October 2023, when the screenshot was taken. See absolute maximum at the time of the {{w|Fukushima nuclear accident}} in March 2011, as well as local maximum in March 2022, during the {{w|Russian invasion of Ukraine}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Trends |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=nuclear%20risk&hl=en |website=Google Trends |access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>
+The chart below shows Google Trends data for "nuclear risk" (search term), from January 1 2004, to October 2023, when the screenshot was taken. See absolute maximum at the time of the {{w|Fukushima nuclear accident}} in March 2011, as well as local maximum in March 2022, during the {{w|Russian invasion of Ukraine}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Trends |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=all&q=nuclear%20risk&hl=en |website=Google Trends |access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>
 [[File:Nuclear-risk-google-pics.jpg|thumb|center|800px]]
@@ Line 533: / Line 744: @@
 * ''The Nuclear Renaissance and International Security'', by Adam N. Stulberg and Matthew Fuhrmann.<ref name="Stulberg">{{cite book |last1=Stulberg |first1=Adam N. |last2=Fuhrmann |first2=Matthew |title=The Nuclear Renaissance and International Security |date=23 January 2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8530-3 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ilTYOo6kdSYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Nuclear+Renaissance+and+International+Security&hl=en#v=onepage&q=The%20Nuclear%20Renaissance%20and%20International%20Security&f=false |language=en}}</ref>
-* ''Nuclear Deviance: Stigma Politics and the Rules of the Nonproliferation Game''by Michal Smetana,<ref name="Smetana">{{cite book |last1=Smetana |first1=Michal |title=Nuclear Deviance: Stigma Politics and the Rules of the Nonproliferation Game |date=1 August 2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-24225-1 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=TbOmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296&dq=Michal+Smetana+-+Nuclear+Deviance_+Stigma+Politics+and+the+Rules+of+the+Nonproliferation+Game-Palgrave+Macmillan&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Michal%20Smetana%20-%20Nuclear%20Deviance_%20Stigma%20Politics%20and%20the%20Rules%20of%20the%20Nonproliferation%20Game-Palgrave%20Macmillan&f=false |language=en}}</ref>
+* ''Nuclear Deviance: Stigma Politics and the Rules of the Nonproliferation Game'', by Michal Smetana,<ref name="Smetana">{{cite book |last1=Smetana |first1=Michal |title=Nuclear Deviance: Stigma Politics and the Rules of the Nonproliferation Game |date=1 August 2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-24225-1 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=TbOmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296&dq=Michal+Smetana+-+Nuclear+Deviance_+Stigma+Politics+and+the+Rules+of+the+Nonproliferation+Game-Palgrave+Macmillan&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Michal%20Smetana%20-%20Nuclear%20Deviance_%20Stigma%20Politics%20and%20the%20Rules%20of%20the%20Nonproliferation%20Game-Palgrave%20Macmillan&f=false |language=en}}</ref>
 * International Cooperation for Enhancing Nuclear Safety, Security, Safeguards and Non-proliferation–60 Years of IAEA and EURATOM, by Luciano Maiani, Said Abousahl, and Wolfango Plastino.<ref name="Maiani"/>