Difference between revisions of "Timeline of chemical risk"

Latest revision as of 12:17, 23 September 2024

This is a timeline of chemical risk, which encompasses the potential harm from exposure to hazardous chemicals, whether from intentional or unintentional sources. Unintentional chemical risks arise from accidents, spills, or mishandling of chemicals, leading to exposure that can affect human health, the environment, and property. Intentional chemical risks include those posed by chemical terrorism or warfare, where hazardous substances are deliberately used to cause harm or disruption. Managing chemical risk involves assessing the toxicity of substances, exposure routes, and implementing safety measures and emergency protocols to mitigate both accidental and deliberate threats.

Big picture

Time period	Development summary	More details
Pre-18th century	Early exploration and unawareness	During this era, there is a limited understanding of chemical risks as ancient civilizations encounter hazards without systematic awareness. The use of chemicals in traditional practices and alchemical experiments characterize this period.
18th – 19th century	Industrial Revolution and uncontrolled expansion	The Industrial Revolution brings rapid industrialization and the introduction of numerous new chemicals. However, the lack of safety measures leads to accidents and health issues. Industrial processes expand without comprehensive safety regulations during this time. Instances like the Hoechst aniline cancer cases (1895) mark early recognition of industrial chemicals' health impacts.
Early 20th century - Mid-20th century	Rise of industrial toxicology and pollution concerns	Advances in toxicology emerge, driven by industrial growth. The mid-20th century witnesses increased awareness of air and water pollution, leading to regulatory efforts. Silent Spring (1962) highlights pesticide risks, emphasizing ecological concerns.
Mid-20th century - Late 20th century	Environmental Movement and Regulatory Responses	The 1960s environmental movement prompts regulatory actions worldwide. Major incidents, like the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984), underscores industrial accidents' catastrophic potential. Global cooperation, exemplified by the 1985 Vienna Convention, addressed ozone layer threats.
Late 20th century - Present	Terrorism's intersection with chemical Risk	The late 20th century sees a shift with terrorism incorporating chemical threats. Instances like the Tokyo subway sarin attack (1995) introduce deliberate chemical risks. The 21st century witnesses a convergence of accidental, environmental, and terrorist-related chemical concerns.

Summary by decade

Time period	Development summary	More details
1950s		Experts at both national and international levels extensively deliberate on the escalating issues of air pollution, the existence of pesticide residues and toxic dyes in food, and general concerns regarding pesticides.^[1]^:12-13
1960s		There is a notable increase in environmental awareness, marked by the rise of a growing environmental movement worldwide and heightened governmental efforts to monitor and regulate pollution.^[1]^:12

Full timeline

Year	Risk type	Event type	Agent	Details	Country/location
1675 (August 27)	Intentional (prevention)	International treaty	Poison bullets	The Strasbourg Agreement is established between France and Germany, marking the first international treaty to restrict chemical weapons. This agreement specifically prohibits the use of poison bullets, reflecting early efforts to prevent the use of chemical warfare. The treaty signifies a pivotal moment in international law, aiming to protect combatants and civilians from the devastating effects of chemical agents in conflict.^[2]	France, Germany (Holy Roman Empire)
1771	Non-intentional	Scientific development	Hydrofluoric acid	Swedish pharmaceutical chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele first synthesizes hydrofluoric acid. He discovers it while investigating fluorite (calcium fluoride).^[3]^[4] A very poisonous, highly irritating and corrosive substance^[5], hydrofluoric acid would be researched as a chemical agent.^[6]
1855	Non-intentional	Literature	Hazardous vapors	Belgian pharmacist Léon Peeters publishes a brochure titled Salubrité publique: Guérison radicale de la maladie des pommes de terre et d’autres végétaux, attributing the devastating potato plant epidemic of the late 1840s to hazardous vapors from the chemical industry. Peeters suggests that these vapors caused widespread famine in Europe and posed risks to small children through airborne poisons. The ensuing protests and expert testimonies reveal a blend of chemical and toxicological perspectives regarding gases like hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, alongside traditional beliefs in the roles of miasmas and contagions in public hygiene.^[1]^:9	Belgium, Europe
1865	Non-intentional (research)	Scientific development	Hazardous vapors	Hermann Eulenberg, a German state physician, publishes a comprehensive textbook on hazardous vapors, synthesizing their effects on human health and vegetation. This work followed public concern sparked by Léon Peeters' 1855 brochure, which linked a potato plant epidemic to harmful emissions from the chemical industry. Eulenberg's 500-page text categorizes suffocating and toxic gases into narcotic, irritating, and biolytic types, while also addressing gaseous miasmas and their epidemic consequences. This publication is significant in the development of public health and toxicology, laying foundational insights that would evolve into environmental toxicology.^[1]^:10	Germany
1880	Both	Concept development	Multiple	The "minimal lethal dose" emerges as a crucial concept in toxicology during a period when industry begins playing a prominent role in the field. As the number of industry-produced chemicals surges, their often-unknown toxicological properties pose health risks to workers. Industrial toxicology gains prominence, and a paradigm shift occurrs, shaping the overall understanding of poisons. The concept of the "minimal lethal dose" becomes integral, serving as a quantitative measure to compare the toxicity of distinct acute poisons. This notion marks a significant step in quantifying the harmful effects of chemicals and establishing threshold values to assess their impact.^[1]^:11
1890		International regulation	Multiple	The Berne Convention establishes the first international regulation governing the transportation of hazardous goods by rail. This landmark agreement aims to enhance safety standards and ensure the responsible handling of dangerous materials during rail transport. By setting guidelines for the movement of such goods, the convention marks a significant step towards international cooperation in managing chemical risks and protecting public safety in the burgeoning industrial age.^[1]^:30 As of November 2022, the Berne Convention would be ratified by 181 states out of 195 countries in the world, most of which are also parties to the Paris Act of 1971.^[7]^[8]	Swotzerland
1895	Non-intentional	Notable case	Aniline	Dr. Ludwig Rehn reports cases of bladder tumors among workers in the magenta department of a German aniline dyeworks. This discovery, presented at the Congress of the German Society of Surgery, marks one of the earliest instances of industrial carcinoma diagnosis. The affected workers were exposed to magenta, a chemical produced from aniline, for almost four decades. Subsequently, similar cases emerge in other aniline dyeworks, leading to the term "aniline cancer." This event highlights the link between industrial chemicals and cancer, foreshadowing future findings of carcinogenic properties in various industrial substances.^[1]^:1	Germany
1912	Non-intentional	Notable case	Multiple	Swiss urologist S. G. Leuenberger documents instances of bladder cancer in eighteen dye factory employees in Basel, home to CIBA and Geigy. Analyzing death records from 1901 to 1910, Leuenberger determines that mortality rates from urinary passage tumors are thirty-three times higher among dye factory workers compared to those in different occupations.^[1]^:142	Switzerland
1916 (March)	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Porton Down is established in the UK to provide a scientific foundation for the British military's use of chemical warfare. This initiative is a direct response to Germany's deployment of chemical agents in 1915 during World War I. Porton Down aims to conduct research and develop effective chemical weapons and countermeasures, reflecting the growing importance of scientific inquiry in modern warfare and the need to address the challenges posed by chemical agents on the battlefield.^[9]	United Kingdom
1917-1918	Intentional	Facility	Multiple	The Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) constructs large-scale production plants primarily at Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland, which later would become part of the Aberdeen Proving Ground. At Edgewood Arsenal, three main plants become operational, producing chlorine, chloropicrin, mustard gas, and phosgene. Additionally, three shell-filling plants are set up to fill various types of projectiles with chemical agents.^[10] Renamed several times, the facility is now known as Edgewood Chemical Biological Center.	United States
1918 (May)	Intentional	Facility	Multiple	The United States Army Gas School is established at Camp A.A. Humphreys in Virginia, and begins instructing commissioned and noncommissioned officers in chemical warfare. The camp would transition to Fort Belvoir in 1935. Fort Belvoir, now a significant U.S. Army installation and census-designated place in Fairfax County, Virginia, encompasses the main base, Davison Army Airfield, and Fort Belvoir North. The shift from Camp A.A. Humphreys to Fort Belvoir marks a historical and operational evolution in military training and infrastructure.^[11]^[12]	United States
1918 (June 28)	Intentional	Organization	Multiple	The Chemical Warfare Service is established by General Order as a division of the U.S. Army. It would focus on defense against and utilization of nuclear, radiological, biological, and chemical weapons. It is formed to centralize efforts related to gas offenses. The Chemical Corps would oversee the development of offensive munitions.^[13]^[14]	United States
1919 (June 28)	Intentional	International treaty	Multiple	The Treaty of Versailles bans Germany from manufacturing or stockpiling chemical weapons (among many things). This treaty, concluding World War I, aims to limit Germany's military capabilities and prevent the resurgence of chemical warfare. By explicitly addressing chemical weapons, the treaty reflects the international community's commitment to disarmament and the desire to mitigate the devastating impacts of chemical agents experienced during the war.^[15]^[16]^[17]	Germany
1925 (June 17)	Intentional	International legislation and agreements	Multiple	The Geneva Protocol is created, with the purpose to prohibit the use of chemical and bacteriological methods of warfare. This protocol marks the first international endeavor to restrict the utilization of biological agents in warfare.^[18]^:p14^[19]
1925	Non-intentional	Literature	Fertilizers and pesticides	John Hepburn publishes Crop Production, Poisoned Food, and Public Health, in which he contends that the utilization of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture constitute a significant factor contributing to cancer. He perceives cancer as a contagious ailment. This argument is associated with concerns about chemical risk, highlighting the potential dangers posed by the use of specific chemicals in agriculture and their potential impact on public health, particularly in terms of cancer development.^[1]^:10
Early 1930s	Intentional		Mustard gas	The Rawalpindi experiments begin as a series of experiments conducted on hundreds of Indian soldiers using Mustard gas by scientists from Porton Down, a British military research facility. These experiments would occur before and during World War II at a military installation in Rawalpindi, which is now located in Pakistan.^[20]^[21]	Pakistan
1930s	Non-intentional	Scientific development	Tabun	A German scientist creates Tabun, the first nerve agent, while attempting to develop a more potent pesticide. The German army would weaponize Tabun as a chemical weapon, and it would be followed by the development of Sarin and Soman in the late 1930s to early 1940s. American scientists would designate these agents as "G" agents, leading to Tabun being labeled GA, Sarin as GB, and Soman as GD. In the 1950s, more stable variants known as the V agents, including VX (Venom X) would be developed by the British in 1952, emerged. VX, characterized by increased stability, can persist in the environment for several weeks after release.^[22]^:120-121
1936 (December23)	Non-intentional	Scientific development	G-series nerve agents	The first class of nerve agents, the G-series, is accidentally discovered in Germany by a research team headed by Gerhard Schrader working for IG Farben. This significant development in chemical warfare results from research into pesticides, leading to the identification of highly toxic compounds. The discovery marks a pivotal moment in the history of chemical agents, as the G-series would later be used in military applications, raising ethical concerns about their effects and the potential for mass destruction.^[23]^[24]	Germany
1943	Intentional (Prevention)	Organization	Multiple	The United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense (USAMRICD) is established to conduct research and development related to chemical defense and the medical management of chemical exposures. This institute aims to enhance the military's preparedness against chemical threats, particularly during World War II. USAMRICD focuses on studying the effects of chemical agents, developing protective measures, and improving medical treatment protocols, reflecting the growing recognition of chemical warfare's impact on soldiers and the need for effective countermeasures.^[25]	United States
1948–1975	Intentional	Operation	Multiple	The Edgewood Arsenal human experiments are conducted by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps as a secretive human subject research at Maryland's Edgewood Arsenal facility. The research aims to assess the effects of low-dose chemical warfare agents on military personnel and to test protective gear, drugs, and vaccines. A subset of these studies, known as the "Medical Research Volunteer Program" (1956-1975), focused on psychochemical warfare, including the development of more effective interrogation methods, in response to intelligence needs.^[26]	United States
1950	Both		Organization	The International Air Transport Association (IATA) issues its first list of recommendations for the air transport of dangerous goods. This initiative aims to enhance safety standards and regulatory compliance in the air transport of hazardous materials. The recommendations outline guidelines for packaging, labeling, and handling dangerous goods, reflecting the growing need for safety in the expanding global air transport industry. A revised edition of these guidelines would be released in 1956, further improving protocols for managing hazardous materials in aviation.^[1]^:31
1952	Non-intentional		Multiple	The ILO Chemical Industries Committee proposes five basic symbols for hazardous materials: liquids spilling (corrosion), bomb (explosion), flame (fire), skull and crossbones (poison), and trefoil (radioactivity). The UN Economic and Social Council would adopt this ILO system in 1958.^[1]^:32-33
1957	Both	Material regulation	Multiple	The European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road is adopted, representing the initial international agreement to regulate the road transport of hazardous materials. It would undergo regular updates and revisions over the following decades to accommodate evolving standards and ensure the safe international transportation of dangerous goods by road.^[1]^:31
1957	Intentional	Operation	Zinc cadmium sulfide	Operation LAC is launched to assess the release of aerosols from airplanes. The first experiment involves a region spanning from South Dakota to Minnesota, and subsequent tests extend to areas between Ohio and Texas and from Michigan to Kansas. The results of these experiments demonstrate the feasibility of large-scale deployment of a bioweapon from the air, as some test particles are found to travel distances of up to 1200 miles. This raises serious concerns about the potential implications of aerial bioweapon deployment and underscored the significance of biorisk management and international security measures.^[18]^:p15	United States
1961			Multiple	The Berne Convention is revised to update regulations concerning the transportation of hazardous goods. This revision aims to enhance safety standards and improve the protocols for handling dangerous materials, reflecting advancements in transportation practices and a growing awareness of public safety concerns. The updated convention facilitates international cooperation in managing the risks associated with hazardous goods, reinforcing the commitment to safe and responsible transport in an increasingly interconnected world.^[1]^:31
1962 (May)	Intentional		Multiple	The Joint Chiefs of Staff creates the Deseret Test Center at Fort Douglas, Utah, a decommissioned army base.^[27] DTC is tasked with overseeing chemical and biological weapons testing. This initiative, known as Project 112, would conduct various tests in land-based, Arctic, and tropical environments, ending in 1972. The testing locations include diverse settings such as land areas and barges in the Pacific Ocean.^[28]^[29]	United States
1962	Non-intentional	Literature	Multiple	Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring, which focuses on the harmful impacts of pesticides, specifically DDT, on birds. The publication played a key role in the 1972 ban of DDT in the United States. Widely recognized for its influence, the book is credited with catalyzing the environmental movement and fostering a heightened concern for the enhanced regulation and management of pesticides and other chemicals.^[30]	United States
1965				The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), later known as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), plays a pivotal role in developing the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code. This code is designed to enhance the safety of maritime transport by providing comprehensive guidelines for the handling, packaging, and labeling of dangerous goods transported by sea. The establishment of the IMDG Code reflects the growing recognition of the need for standardized practices to mitigate risks associated with hazardous materials in maritime shipping, ensuring the protection of people and the environment.^[1]^:31
1969	Intentional (prevention)		Multiple	U.S. President Richard Nixon gives his speech Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs, declaring an end to the U.S. offensive biological weapons program, upholding a no-first-use policy for chemical weapons, and excluding toxins, herbicides, and riot-control agents from the definition of chemical and biological weapons. Nixon expresses support for a minimal defense-focused research program, vows continued vigilance over other nations' biological programs, and articulates a desire to foster peace and understanding globally.^[31]	United States
1971		Organization	Multiple	OECD member countries, recognizing the need for international cooperation on chemicals, establish a Chemicals Group within the OECD. This decision is motivated by several factors, including the presence of major chemical-producing nations among OECD members, a shared "like-mindedness" facilitating agreements, the flexibility to make agreements legally or politically binding through OECD Council Acts, the ability to convene national experts, and the organization's multidisciplinary nature enabling beneficial interactions with various policy areas. The OECD provides a platform to address specialized scientific issues, serving as an interface between government regulators and scientists.^[30]
1971	Intentional	Facility	Multiple	Chemical weapons start being stockpiled on Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System facility. This U.S. military installation is designated for the storage and eventual disposal of chemical agents, reflecting the ongoing Cold War tensions and the need for secure management of these hazardous materials. The facility would play a crucial role in the United States' chemical weapons program, emphasizing the complexities of disarmament and the challenges associated with safely handling and eliminating chemical warfare agents.^[32]	United States
1972	Both	International treaty	Multiple	The Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals (BCH Code) is established. It precedes the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code), which applies to chemical tankers built after July 1, 1986. The BCH Code regulates chemical tankers built before that date. It sets standards for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous chemicals, aiming to mitigate risks to the ship, crew, and environment. The BCH Code categorizes chemicals based on their hazards and prescribes safety measures accordingly, ensuring compliance with the safety and environmental standards under the SOLAS Convention. BCH Code would undergo amendments between 1972 and 1983.^[33]^[34]^[35]^[1]^:31
1974	Non-intentional	Scientfic development	Chlorofluorocarbons	American chemist F. Sherwood Rowland and Mexican chemist Mario Molina publish a groundbreaking article in the scientific journal Nature, providing compelling evidence of the threats posed by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to the stratospheric ozone layer. Their research demonstrates the harmful impact of these chemicals on the Earth's protective ozone layer. This work would become pivotal in raising awareness about the environmental risks associated with CFCs, as it would contribute significantly to the understanding of their role in ozone depletion. The recognition of their pioneering contributions would come in 1995 when Rowland, Molina, and Paul Crutzen are jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. The acknowledgment highlights the critical importance of their research in the field of atmospheric chemistry and its implications for global chemical risk, particularly in the context of ozone layer protection.^[30]	United States
1975 (April 8)	Intentional	National policy	Chemical herbicides	Executive Order 11850 is issued by United States President Gerald Ford, establishing the renunciation of certain uses of chemical herbicides and riot control agents in war as a national policy of the United States. It permits the use of herbicides for vegetation control within U.S. bases and installations and allows the use of riot control agents in specific defensive military situations to save lives. The order mandates that the Secretary of Defense ensures compliance with these policies and prohibits the use of such agents in war without prior presidential approval. This executive action aims to regulate the use of chemical agents in military operations and safeguard against their indiscriminate use.^[36]	United States
1975	Intentional	Terrorism (state-sponsored)	Parathion, thallium, multiple	During the Rhodesian conflict, the minority white community in Rhodesia face challenges from native African nationalists. Stretched thin, Rhodesian forces adopt unconventional methods, employing commercially available poisons like parathion and thallium. They contaminate clothing, water sources, and food, resulting in an estimated 1,500–2,500 guerilla deaths, with numerous civilians affected. Facing native African nationalist insurgents, the Rhodesian forces struggled due to limited resources. Rhodesia's chemical warfare, marked by low-tech methods, demonstrate a brutal, yet unconventional approach to counter the growing power of the insurgent forces.^[37]	Zimbabwe (Rhodesia)
1975	Non-intentional		Multiple	The World Health Organization implements a categorization system for pesticides, considering factors such as their physical forms (solid, liquid, aerosol) and their potential harm in terms of acute and dermal toxicity to rats. This classification aims to systematically organize pesticides, facilitating the assessment of their risks.^[1]^:26
1976 (July 10)	Non-intentional	Industrial accident	2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin	The Seveso disaster occurs at a chemical plant in Meda, Italy. A reactor explosion at the Icmesa Chemical Company releases a toxic cloud of dioxin and other pollutants, causing severe damage to crops, soil, and the environment within an 18 km radius. It results in numerous injuries, including 417 cases of chloracne, liver diseases, and abortions for high-risk pregnancies. The disaster prompted significant environmental legislation, leading to the adoption of the "Seveso Directive" by the European Union in 1982 to prevent similar catastrophes.^[38]^[39]^[40]	Italy
1977	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Suxamethonium chloride	Arnfinn Nesset, the proprietor of a nursing home for the elderly in Norway, faces a notorious criminal case involving the conviction of murdering 22 of his patients. Nesset employed a sinister method, injecting them with curacit, a substance derived from curare. This toxic compound is known for its paralyzing effects on the nervous system and was used by Nesset to carry out his heinous acts of intentional harm. The trial and conviction of Nesset draws considerable attention, raising serious concerns about the safety and vulnerability of elderly residents in care facilities.^[41]^:22	Norway
Early 1980s	Intentional	Biological warfare program	Multiple	Project Coast starts operating as South Africa's covert Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW) program. Operational until early 1990s, the program would be found to have developed lethal chemical and biological weapons, including sterilization toxins and concealed poisons, targeting African National Congress political leaders and black township populations. Project Coast would be accused of contaminating water supplies with cholera, aiding Rhodesian troops with anthrax and cholera, and employing toxic agents for political assassinations. Investigations would lead to dismissals and document destruction, with South Africa officially maintaining the program's defensive nature, despite international concerns.^[42]	South Africa
1984 (December 2–3)	Non-intentional	Chemical accident	Methyl isocyanate	The Bhopal Disaster occurs at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, India. It is one of worst industrial disasters in history. Over 35 tons of toxic gases, including at least 24 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC), leak from the plant, resulting in immediate deaths of at least 3,800 people and causing significant morbidity and premature death for many thousands more. The aftermath of the disaster would lead to chronic health issues among survivors, with ongoing environmental contamination at the site. Towards the 21st century, the site remains uncleared, and contamination persists, with groundwater and well-water testing in 1999 revealing mercury levels far exceeding safe limits.^[43]^[44]	India
1985	Non-intentional	International treaty	Multiple	The 1985 United Nations Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is held as an international treaty aimed at addressing the environmental and health risks associated with the release of certain chemicals known to deplete the ozone layer. It is a landmark agreement that addresses chemical risks associated with ozone depletion.^[45]^[46]^[47]	Austria
1987	Non-intentional	Notable case	Mycotoxins	Approximately 100 individuals in India become ill after consuming wheat products contaminated with mycotoxins, which are a result of heavy rains affecting crop quality. This incident highlights the public health risks associated with mycotoxin contamination in food supplies, emphasizing the need for improved agricultural practices and monitoring systems to ensure food safety. The outbreak serves as a reminder of the potential dangers posed by environmental factors on food quality and human health.^[22]^:155	India
1988	Both	Literature (journal)	Multiple	Chemical Research in Toxicology is first issued by the American Chemical Society. It is a peer-reviewed journal. It would be indexed in databases like CAS, SCOPUS, and PubMed. Edited by Lawrence J. Marnett, it covers toxicology, medicinal chemistry, and multidisciplinary chemistry. It releases articles, communications, reviews, chemical profiles, and perspectives on advances in toxicology. The journal aims to present research on the chemical basis of toxicological responses, emphasizing rigorous chemical standards and modern analytical techniques. It covers various aspects including identification of toxic agents, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, and effects like mutagenicity and carcinogenicity.^[48]	United States
1990	Intentional		Chlorine gas	During the Sri Lankan Civil War, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) separatists are credited with the first non-state use of chemical weapons during their assault on the East Kiran base of the Sri Lanka Army using commercial chlorine gas.^[49]	Sri Lanka
1993 (January 13)	Intentional (prevention)	International treaty	Multiple	The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is introduced. It's a global treaty aimed at banning the development, production, possession, and use of chemical weapons during warfare. The Convention is formulated by the United Nations Conference on Disarmament and approved by the UN General Assembly in 1992. It would be subsequently signed by 130 countries during a three-day conference in Paris. CWC would take effect on April 29, 1997.^[50]^[51]
1994			Multiple	The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) initiates a harmonization effort, collaborating with both OECD member nations and several non-member economies. The objective is to standardize the criteria for classifying human health and environmental hazards. Concurrently, a United Nations expert group and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) addresses physical hazards and hazard communication. The outcomes of the OECD's endeavors, presented in 2001, serves as the foundation for the establishment of the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) in 2002.^[30]
1997	Intentional		Phosgene, chlorine,hydrogen cyanide	Al Qaeda first starts researching and experimenting with chemical weapons in Afghanistan, testing phosgene, chlorine and hydrogen cyanide. This initiative marks a significant shift in the group's focus on developing capabilities for unconventional warfare. The experimentation highlights the potential threat posed by terrorist organizations seeking to utilize chemical agents, raising alarms about the risks of chemical terrorism and the necessity for enhanced security measures and counter-terrorism efforts.^[52]
1999	Non-intentional	Health disaster	Dioxin	The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident occurs when accidental dioxin-contaminated polychlorinated biphenyls are added to recycled fat in animal feeds, affecting over 2500 farms. A monitoring program finds a single PCB oil source (50 kg) with 1g TEQ dioxins. Chickens and reproduction animals show higher concentrations, indicating chick edema disease. Despite some food products exceeding recommended values by over 100 times, adverse effects on the general population are unlikely. The incident exposes metabolic differences in farm animals' PCBs and dioxins elimination. The crisis leads to a major food crisis, political resignations, and international actions, impacting global trade and causing economic losses. The incident highlights the potential dangers of chemical contamination in the food chain, demonstrating the risks associated with the mishandling and introduction of hazardous chemicals into agricultural processes.^[53]^[54]^[55]	Belgium
2000	Intentional	Literature	Multiple	United States chemical and biological weapons expert Jonathan B. Tucker publishes Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, which delves into the alarming potential for chemical and biological weapons (CBW) terrorism. The book addresses the concerns of policymakers, scholars, and the media regarding the global spread of knowledge and technology relevant to CBW terrorism. It assesses terrorist groups and individuals capable of acquiring and using CBW agents, their motivations, and the likely types of toxic agents and delivery methods. Through in-depth case studies of twelve such entities from 1946 to 1998, researched from primary sources, the book identifies patterns of behavior associated with CBW terrorism. These insights aim to inform prudent and cost-effective strategies for prevention and response.^[56]	United States
2002	Non-intentional		Multiple	The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) is developed under UN auspices after the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit. The GHS, codified in the "Purple Book" at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, becomes a component of the Strategic Approach on International Chemicals Management. The GHS adoption would be gradual, with Japan and New Zealand adopting it in 2008, and the EU ratifying a new legislation based on GHS in 2009. The GHS would be practically introduced by the end of 2010 for substances and before June 2015 for mixtures.^[1]^:34-35 By harmonizing the classification criteria and labeling requirements for chemicals, the GHS aims to improve communication of chemical hazards and risks to workers, consumers, and the environment.
2020 (May 7)	Non-intentional	Accident	Styrene	The Visakhapatnam gas leak occurs at an LG Polymers Private Limited plant in Andhra Pradesh, leading to eight fatalities and over a thousand hospitalizations. Styrene is confirmed to be the leaked gas due to insufficient maintenance. LG Chem cites inadequate maintenance, stagnation, and temperature changes within storage tanks as causes. Styrene, widely used in resin and plastic production, poses health risks to the central nervous system. Despite dissipating from air within days, it persists in soil and water. The incident highlights the dangers of industrial negligence and underscores the need for stringent safety measures.^[57]	India
2015				The United Nations adopts the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes a specific goal related to chemical safety. This agenda emphasizes the importance of ensuring the sound management of chemicals and waste to protect human health and the environment. By integrating chemical safety into broader sustainable development efforts, the agenda highlights the need for global cooperation in minimizing the risks associated with hazardous substances, promoting safe practices, and fostering a healthier, more sustainable future.^[58]^[59]

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References

↑ ^1.00 ^1.01 ^1.02 ^1.03 ^1.04 ^1.05 ^1.06 ^1.07 ^1.08 ^1.09 ^1.10 ^1.11 ^1.12 ^1.13 ^1.14 ^1.15 ^1.16 Homburg, Ernst; Vaupel, Elisabeth (1 August 2019). Hazardous Chemicals: Agents of Risk and Change, 1800-2000. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78920-320-2.
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↑ ^22.0 ^22.1 Melnick, Alan (3 December 2007). Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism: Emergency Preparedness and Response for the Primary Care Physician. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-47232-4.
↑ "Gerhard Schrader: Father of the Nerve Agents". healthandenvironment.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ "Nerve Agent". chemeurope.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ "History". mrdc.health.mil. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ "The Edgewood Experiments". archive.org. 21 February 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
↑ Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up, (Google Books), Routledge, 1994, p. 232-33
↑ "Biological warfare programs" (PDF). nsarchive2.gwu.edu. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
↑ "Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs)". health.mil. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 ^30.2 ^30.3 "40 Years of Chemical Safety at the OECD: Quality and Efficiency" (PDF). oecd.org. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
↑ "Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs. | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
↑ "JACADS | Region 9: Waste | US EPA". archive.epa.gov. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
↑ "International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)". imo.org. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
↑ "Carriage of chemicals by ship". imo.org. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
↑ "SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTS LISTED IN CHAPTER 18 OF THE INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (IBC CODE)." (PDF). classnk.or.jp. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
↑ "Executive Orders | National Archives". www.archives.gov. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
↑ "Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare 1975-1980 (Book Review)". PRISM | National Defense University. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
↑ Eskenazi, Brenda; Warner, Marcella; Brambilla, Paolo; Signorini, Stefano; Ames, Jennifer; Mocarelli, Paolo (December 2018). "The Seveso accident: A look at 40 years of health research and beyond". Environment International. 121: 71–84. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.051.
↑ "Seveso chemical disaster". Environment & Society Portal. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
↑ Centemeri, Laura (1 December 2010). "Seveso : el desastre y la Directiva". Laboreal (in español). doi:10.4000/laboreal.8950. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
↑ Anderson, Burt; Friedman, Herman; Bendinelli, Mauro (26 May 2007). Microorganisms and Bioterrorism. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-28159-9.
↑ "What Happened In South Africa? | Plague War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
↑ Broughton, Edward (December 2005). "The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review". Environmental Health. 4 (1). doi:10.1186/1476-069X-4-6.
↑ "Summary of "Clouds of Injustice Bhopal Disaster 20 years on"" (PDF). amnesty.org. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
↑ "Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer". treaties.un.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ genevaenvironmentnetwork.org https://www.genevaenvironmentnetwork.org/resources/updates/international-day-for-the-preservation-of-the-ozone-layer/. Retrieved 23 September 2024. Text "title>International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer " ignored (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
↑ "Summary of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ "Chemical Research in Toxicology | EVISA's Journals Database". speciation.net. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
↑ "The First Non-State Use of a Chemical Weapon in Warfare: The Tamil Tigers' Assault on East Kiran". Small Wars and Insurgencies. 20 (3-4): 463–477. 2009. doi:10.1080/09592310903026969. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ "1993 Chemical Weapons Convention". International Committee of the Red Cross. 8 September 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
↑ "History". OPCW. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
↑ "IS, al-Qaeda, and how jihad uses chemical weapons". BBC News. 16 September 2015.
↑ "Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium". World Socialist Web Site. 8 June 1999. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
↑ "The Belgian Dioxin Crisis and Its Effects on Agricultural Production and Exports" (PDF). ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
↑ Bernard, Alfred; Broeckaert, Fabrice; De Poorter, Geert; De Cock, Ann; Hermans, Cédric; Saegerman, Claude; Houins, Gilbert (January 2002). "The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation". Environmental Research. 88 (1): 1–18. ISSN 0013-9351. doi:10.1006/enrs.2001.4274.
↑ Tucker, Jonathan B. (28 February 2000). "Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons". books.google.com.ar. MIT Press. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
↑ "Vizag Gas Leak - Styrene Gas". Unacademy. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
↑ "Beyond 2020: Chemical Safety and Agenda 2030" (PDF). ipen.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
↑ "Chemistry and the Sustainable Development Goals". acs.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[Homburg-1] 1.00 ^1.01 ^1.02 ^1.03 ^1.04 ^1.05 ^1.06 ^1.07 ^1.08 ^1.09 ^1.10 ^1.11 ^1.12 ^1.13 ^1.14 ^1.15 ^1.16 Homburg, Ernst; Vaupel, Elisabeth (1 August 2019). Hazardous Chemicals: Agents of Risk and Change, 1800-2000. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78920-320-2.

[2] "History". OPCW. Retrieved 12 April 2024.

[3] Schwerin, Daniel L.; Hatcher, Jason D. (2024). "Hydrofluoric Acid Burns". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

[4] Ayotte, Patrick; Hébert, Martin; Marchand, Patrick (8 November 2005). "Why is hydrofluoric acid a weak acid?". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 123 (18). doi:10.1063/1.2090259.

[5] "Hydrofluoric Acid and Hydrogen Fluoride". purdue.edu. Retrieved 10 April 2024.

[6] "CDC Caustics | Emergency Preparedness & Response". emergency.cdc.gov. 15 May 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2024.

[7] "WIPO Lex". wipolex.wipo.int. Retrieved 2021-09-01.

[8] Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Status October 1, 2020 (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. 2020.

[9] "Porton_Down". www.bionity.com. Retrieved 13 February 2024.

[10] "History of United States' Involvement in Chemical Warfare – DoD Recovered Chemical Warfare Material (RCWM) Program". www.denix.osd.mil. Retrieved 12 April 2024.

[11] "The U.S. 5th. Division and Gas Warfare, 1918.". apps.dtic.mil. Retrieved 17 April 2024.

[12] "Camp A.A. Humphreys ⋆ Veteran Voices Military Research ⋆ World War I". Veteran Voices Military Research. Retrieved 20 April 2024.

[13] "Records of the Chemical Warfare Service". www.archives.gov. Retrieved 11 April 2024.

[14] "The U.S. Army Chemical Corps: Past, Present, and Future". The Army Historical Foundation. 28 January 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2024.

[15] "Poison Gas and Germ Warfare" (PDF). fsi-live.s3.us-west-1.amazonaws.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[16] "Biological Weapons". state.gov. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[17] "Customary International Humanitarian Law: Rule 74". ihl-databases.icrc.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[Ryan-18] 18.0 ^18.1 Ryan, Jeffrey R. (2016). "Seeds of Destruction". Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: 3–29. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-802029-6.00001-3.

[Frischknecht-19] Frischknecht, Friedrich (June 2003). "The history of biological warfare". EMBO Reports. 4 (Suppl 1): S47–S52. ISSN 1469-221X. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor849.

[20] "UK tested poison gas on Indian soldiers - USATODAY.com". usatoday30.usatoday.com. Retrieved 28 February 2019.

[21] Surhone, Lambert M.; Tennoe, Mariam T.; Henssonow, Susan F. (9 March 2011). Rawalpindi Experiments (in português). Betascript Publishing. ISBN 978-613-5-14708-7.

[Melnick-22] 22.0 ^22.1 Melnick, Alan (3 December 2007). Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism: Emergency Preparedness and Response for the Primary Care Physician. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-47232-4.

[23] "Gerhard Schrader: Father of the Nerve Agents". healthandenvironment.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[24] "Nerve Agent". chemeurope.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[25] "History". mrdc.health.mil. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[26] "The Edgewood Experiments". archive.org. 21 February 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.

[harris-27] Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up, (Google Books), Routledge, 1994, p. 232-33

[28] "Biological warfare programs" (PDF). nsarchive2.gwu.edu. Retrieved 23 February 2024.

[29] "Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs)". health.mil. Retrieved 23 February 2024.

[oecd.org-30] 30.0 ^30.1 ^30.2 ^30.3 "40 Years of Chemical Safety at the OECD: Quality and Efficiency" (PDF). oecd.org. Retrieved 27 January 2024.

[31] "Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs. | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 18 April 2024.

[32] "JACADS | Region 9: Waste | US EPA". archive.epa.gov. Retrieved 8 February 2024.

[33] "International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)". imo.org. Retrieved 20 April 2024.

[34] "Carriage of chemicals by ship". imo.org. Retrieved 20 April 2024.

[35] "SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTS LISTED IN CHAPTER 18 OF THE INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (IBC CODE)." (PDF). classnk.or.jp. Retrieved 20 April 2024.

[36] "Executive Orders | National Archives". www.archives.gov. Retrieved 17 April 2024.

[37] "Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare 1975-1980 (Book Review)". PRISM | National Defense University. Retrieved 6 October 2023.

[38] Eskenazi, Brenda; Warner, Marcella; Brambilla, Paolo; Signorini, Stefano; Ames, Jennifer; Mocarelli, Paolo (December 2018). "The Seveso accident: A look at 40 years of health research and beyond". Environment International. 121: 71–84. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.051.

[39] "Seveso chemical disaster". Environment & Society Portal. Retrieved 15 April 2024.

[40] Centemeri, Laura (1 December 2010). "Seveso : el desastre y la Directiva". Laboreal (in español). doi:10.4000/laboreal.8950. Retrieved 15 April 2024.

[Bendinelli-41] Anderson, Burt; Friedman, Herman; Bendinelli, Mauro (26 May 2007). Microorganisms and Bioterrorism. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-28159-9.

[42] "What Happened In South Africa? | Plague War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2023.

[43] Broughton, Edward (December 2005). "The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review". Environmental Health. 4 (1). doi:10.1186/1476-069X-4-6.

[44] "Summary of "Clouds of Injustice Bhopal Disaster 20 years on"" (PDF). amnesty.org. Retrieved 15 April 2024.

[45] "Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer". treaties.un.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[46] genevaenvironmentnetwork.org https://www.genevaenvironmentnetwork.org/resources/updates/international-day-for-the-preservation-of-the-ozone-layer/. Retrieved 23 September 2024. Text "title>International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer " ignored (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)

[47] "Summary of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[48] "Chemical Research in Toxicology | EVISA's Journals Database". speciation.net. Retrieved 20 April 2024.

[49] "The First Non-State Use of a Chemical Weapon in Warfare: The Tamil Tigers' Assault on East Kiran". Small Wars and Insurgencies. 20 (3-4): 463–477. 2009. doi:10.1080/09592310903026969. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[50] "1993 Chemical Weapons Convention". International Committee of the Red Cross. 8 September 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2024.

[51] "History". OPCW. Retrieved 14 April 2024.

[52] "IS, al-Qaeda, and how jihad uses chemical weapons". BBC News. 16 September 2015.

[53] "Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium". World Socialist Web Site. 8 June 1999. Retrieved 30 January 2024.

[54] "The Belgian Dioxin Crisis and Its Effects on Agricultural Production and Exports" (PDF). ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 30 January 2024.

[55] Bernard, Alfred; Broeckaert, Fabrice; De Poorter, Geert; De Cock, Ann; Hermans, Cédric; Saegerman, Claude; Houins, Gilbert (January 2002). "The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation". Environmental Research. 88 (1): 1–18. ISSN 0013-9351. doi:10.1006/enrs.2001.4274.

[56] Tucker, Jonathan B. (28 February 2000). "Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons". books.google.com.ar. MIT Press. Retrieved 16 April 2024.

[57] "Vizag Gas Leak - Styrene Gas". Unacademy. Retrieved 14 April 2024.

[58] "Beyond 2020: Chemical Safety and Agenda 2030" (PDF). ipen.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

[59] "Chemistry and the Sustainable Development Goals". acs.org. Retrieved 23 September 2024.

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@@ Line 35: / Line 35: @@
 ! Year !! Risk type !! Event type !! Agent !! Details !! Country/location
 |-
-| 1675 (August 27) || Intentional (prevention) || International treaty || Poison bullets || The [[w:Strasbourg Agreement (1675)|Strasbourg Agreement]] is established between France and Germany. It is the first international agreement restricting the use of chemical weapons. Signed in {{w|Strasbourg}}, it prohibits the use of poison bullets.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.opcw.org/about-us/history |website=OPCW |access-date=12 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|France}}, {{w|Holy Roman Empire}}
+| 1675 (August 27) || Intentional (prevention) || International treaty || Poison bullets || The [[w:Strasbourg Agreement (1675)|Strasbourg Agreement]] is established between France and Germany, marking the first international treaty to restrict chemical weapons. This agreement specifically prohibits the use of poison bullets, reflecting early efforts to prevent the use of chemical warfare. The treaty signifies a pivotal moment in international law, aiming to protect combatants and civilians from the devastating effects of chemical agents in conflict.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.opcw.org/about-us/history |website=OPCW |access-date=12 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref> || {{w|France}}, {{w|Germany}} ({{w|Holy Roman Empire}})
 |-
 | 1771 || Non-intentional || Scientific development || {{w|Hydrofluoric acid}} || Swedish pharmaceutical chemist {{w|Carl Wilhelm Scheele}} first synthesizes {{w|hydrofluoric acid}}. He discovers it while investigating fluorite (calcium fluoride).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwerin |first1=Daniel L. |last2=Hatcher |first2=Jason D. |title=Hydrofluoric Acid Burns |journal=StatPearls |date=2024 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28722859/ |publisher=StatPearls Publishing}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ayotte |first1=Patrick |last2=Hébert |first2=Martin |last3=Marchand |first3=Patrick |title=Why is hydrofluoric acid a weak acid? |journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics |date=8 November 2005 |volume=123 |issue=18 |doi=10.1063/1.2090259}}</ref> A very poisonous, highly irritating and corrosive substance<ref>{{cite web |title=Hydrofluoric Acid and Hydrogen Fluoride |url=https://www.purdue.edu/ehps/rem/laboratory/HazMat/Chemical%20Materials/hf.html |website=purdue.edu |access-date=10 April 2024}}</ref>, hydrofluoric acid would be researched as a chemical agent.<ref>{{cite web |title=CDC Caustics {{!}} Emergency Preparedness & Response |url=https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/caustics/index.asp |website=emergency.cdc.gov |access-date=10 April 2024 |language=en-us |date=15 May 2019}}</ref> ||
@@ Line 41: / Line 41: @@
 | 1855 || Non-intentional || Literature || Hazardous vapors || Belgian pharmacist Léon Peeters publishes a brochure titled ''Salubrité publique: Guérison radicale de la maladie des pommes de terre et d’autres végétaux'', attributing the devastating potato plant epidemic of the late 1840s to hazardous vapors from the {{w|chemical industry}}. Peeters suggests that these vapors caused widespread famine in Europe and posed risks to small children through airborne poisons. The ensuing protests and expert testimonies reveal a blend of chemical and toxicological perspectives regarding gases like hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, alongside traditional beliefs in the roles of miasmas and contagions in public hygiene.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|9}} || {{w|Belgium}}, {{w|Europe}}
 |-
-| 1865 || Non-intentional (research) || Scientific development || Hazardous vapors || Hermann Eulenberg, a German state physician responsible for the Rhineland, synthesizes the impacts of hazardous vapors on human health and vegetation in a comprehensive textbook on noxious and poisonous gases. This publication follows protests and expert testimony triggered by Belgian pharmacist Léon Peeters' 1855 brochure linking a potato plant epidemic to dangerous vapors from the chemical industry. Eulenberg's textbook, spanning five hundred pages, adopts a primarily chemical perspective, distinguishing suffocating gases and three types of toxic gases (narcotic, irritating, biolytic) with distinct formulae. While emphasizing a chemical approach, the text also discusses gaseous miasmas and their epidemic consequences, reflecting the complex views on (gaseous) poisons prevalent in the mid-nineteenth century. This work serves as a milestone at the intersection of public health and toxicology, providing insights into "external" industrial hygiene that later evolves into environmental toxicology.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|10}} || {{w|Germany}}
+| 1865 || Non-intentional (research) || Scientific development || Hazardous vapors || Hermann Eulenberg, a German state physician, publishes a comprehensive textbook on hazardous vapors, synthesizing their effects on human health and vegetation. This work followed public concern sparked by Léon Peeters' 1855 brochure, which linked a potato plant epidemic to harmful emissions from the chemical industry. Eulenberg's 500-page text categorizes suffocating and toxic gases into narcotic, irritating, and biolytic types, while also addressing gaseous miasmas and their epidemic consequences. This publication is significant in the development of public health and toxicology, laying foundational insights that would evolve into environmental toxicology.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|10}} || {{w|Germany}}
 |-
 | 1880 || Both || Concept development || Multiple || The "minimal lethal dose" emerges as a crucial concept in {{w|toxicology}} during a period when industry begins playing a prominent role in the field. As the number of industry-produced chemicals surges, their often-unknown toxicological properties pose health risks to workers. Industrial toxicology gains prominence, and a paradigm shift occurrs, shaping the overall understanding of poisons. The concept of the "minimal lethal dose" becomes integral, serving as a quantitative measure to compare the toxicity of distinct acute poisons. This notion marks a significant step in quantifying the harmful effects of chemicals and establishing threshold values to assess their impact.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|11}} ||
 |-
-| 1890 || || International regulation || Multiple || The Berne Convention marks the first international regulation of the transportation of hazardous goods by rail.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|30}} ||
+| 1890 || || International regulation || Multiple || The {{w|Berne Convention}} establishes the first international regulation governing the transportation of hazardous goods by rail. This landmark agreement aims to enhance safety standards and ensure the responsible handling of dangerous materials during rail transport. By setting guidelines for the movement of such goods, the convention marks a significant step towards international cooperation in managing chemical risks and protecting public safety in the burgeoning industrial age.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|30}} As of November 2022, the Berne Convention would be ratified by 181 states out of 195 countries in the world, most of which are also parties to the Paris Act of 1971.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WIPO Lex|url=https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/treaties/textdetails/12800|access-date=2021-09-01|website=wipolex.wipo.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/treaties/en/documents/pdf/berne.pdf|title=Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Status October 1, 2020|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|year=2020}}</ref> || {{w|Swotzerland}}
 |-
 | 1895 || Non-intentional || Notable case || {{w|Aniline}} || Dr. Ludwig Rehn reports cases of bladder tumors among workers in the magenta department of a German aniline dyeworks. This discovery, presented at the Congress of the German Society of Surgery, marks one of the earliest instances of industrial carcinoma diagnosis. The affected workers were exposed to magenta, a chemical produced from {{w|aniline}}, for almost four decades. Subsequently, similar cases emerge in other aniline dyeworks, leading to the term "aniline cancer." This event highlights the link between industrial chemicals and cancer, foreshadowing future findings of carcinogenic properties in various industrial substances.<ref name="Homburg">{{cite book |last1=Homburg |first1=Ernst |last2=Vaupel |first2=Elisabeth |title=Hazardous Chemicals: Agents of Risk and Change, 1800-2000 |date=1 August 2019 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78920-320-2 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Hazardous_Chemicals.html?id=bX2MDwAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|1}} || {{w|Germany}}
@@ Line 51: / Line 51: @@
 | 1912 || Non-intentional || Notable case || Multiple || Swiss urologist S. G. Leuenberger documents instances of bladder cancer in eighteen dye factory employees in Basel, home to CIBA and Geigy. Analyzing death records from 1901 to 1910, Leuenberger determines that mortality rates from urinary passage tumors are thirty-three times higher among dye factory workers compared to those in different occupations.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|142}} || {{w|Switzerland}}
 |-
-| 1916 (March) || Intentional || [[w:Category:Biological warfare facilities|Biological warfare facility]] || Multiple || {{w|Porton Down}} is established to provide a proper scientific basis for the British use of chemical warfare, in response to the German use of such methods in 1915.<ref>{{cite web |title=Porton_Down |url=https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Porton_Down.html#:~:text=Porton%20Down%20was%20set%20up,Downs%20at%20Porton%20and%20Idmiston. |website=www.bionity.com |access-date=13 February 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
+| 1916 (March) || Intentional || [[w:Category:Biological warfare facilities|Biological warfare facility]] || Multiple || {{w|Porton Down}} is established in the UK to provide a scientific foundation for the British military's use of chemical warfare. This initiative is a direct response to Germany's deployment of chemical agents in 1915 during {{w|World War I}}. Porton Down aims to conduct research and develop effective chemical weapons and countermeasures, reflecting the growing importance of scientific inquiry in modern warfare and the need to address the challenges posed by chemical agents on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web |title=Porton_Down |url=https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Porton_Down.html#:~:text=Porton%20Down%20was%20set%20up,Downs%20at%20Porton%20and%20Idmiston. |website=www.bionity.com |access-date=13 February 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United Kingdom}}
 |-
 | 1917-1918 || Intentional || Facility || Multiple || The Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) constructs large-scale production plants primarily at [[w:Edgewood Chemical Activity|Edgewood Arsenal]] in {{w|Maryland}}, which later would become part of the Aberdeen Proving Ground. At Edgewood Arsenal, three main plants become operational, producing chlorine, chloropicrin, mustard gas, and phosgene. Additionally, three shell-filling plants are set up to fill various types of projectiles with chemical agents.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of United States’ Involvement in Chemical Warfare – DoD Recovered Chemical Warfare Material (RCWM) Program |url=https://www.denix.osd.mil/rcwmprogram/history/ |website=www.denix.osd.mil |access-date=12 April 2024}}</ref> Renamed several times, the facility is now known as {{w|Edgewood Chemical Biological Center}}. || {{w|United States}}
@@ Line 59: / Line 59: @@
 | 1918 (June 28) || Intentional || Organization || Multiple || The {{w|Chemical Warfare Service}} is established by General Order as a division of the U.S. Army. It would focus on defense against and utilization of nuclear, radiological, biological, and chemical weapons. It is formed to centralize efforts related to gas offenses. The Chemical Corps would oversee the development of offensive munitions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Records of the Chemical Warfare Service |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/175.html#:~:text=Established:%20As%20a%20technical%20service%20of%20the,consolidating%20scattered%20functions%20relating%20to%20gas%20offense |website=www.archives.gov |access-date=11 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The U.S. Army Chemical Corps: Past, Present, and Future |url=https://armyhistory.org/the-u-s-army-chemical-corps-past-present-and-future/#:~:text=Back%20in%20the%20States%2C%20the%20War%20Department,the%20development%20of%20offensive%20munitions%20and%20defensive |website=The Army Historical Foundation |access-date=11 April 2024 |date=28 January 2015}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1919 (June 28) || Intentional || International treaty || Multiple || The {{w|Treaty of Versailles}} bans {{w|Germany}} from manufacturing or stockpiling {{w|chemical weapon}}s (among many things). ||
+| 1919 (June 28) || Intentional || International treaty || Multiple || The {{w|Treaty of Versailles}} bans {{w|Germany}} from manufacturing or stockpiling {{w|chemical weapon}}s (among many things). This treaty, concluding {{w|World War I}}, aims to limit Germany's military capabilities and prevent the resurgence of chemical warfare. By explicitly addressing chemical weapons, the treaty reflects the international community's commitment to disarmament and the desire to mitigate the devastating impacts of chemical agents experienced during the war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poison Gas and Germ Warfare |url=https://fsi-live.s3.us-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/Bunn_Banning_Poison_Gas_and_Germ_Warfare.pdf |website=fsi-live.s3.us-west-1.amazonaws.com |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biological Weapons |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/4784.htm |website=state.gov |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Customary International Humanitarian Law: Rule 74 |url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/v2/rule74 |website=ihl-databases.icrc.org |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
 |-
 | 1925 (June 17) || Intentional || International legislation and agreements || Multiple || The {{w|Geneva Protocol}} is created, with the purpose to prohibit the use of chemical and bacteriological methods of warfare. This protocol marks the first international endeavor to restrict the utilization of biological agents in warfare.<ref name="Ryan">{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Jeffrey R. |title=Seeds of Destruction |journal=Biosecurity and Bioterrorism |date=2016 |pages=3–29 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-802029-6.00001-3 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7149987/}}</ref>{{rp|p14}}<ref name="Frischknecht">{{cite journal |last1=Frischknecht |first1=Friedrich |title=The history of biological warfare |journal=EMBO Reports |date=June 2003 |volume=4 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S47–S52 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor849 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326439/ |issn=1469-221X}}</ref> ||
@@ Line 69: / Line 69: @@
 | 1930s || Non-intentional || Scientific development || {{w|Tabun}} || A German scientist creates {{w|Tabun}}, the first nerve agent, while attempting to develop a more potent pesticide. The German army would weaponize Tabun as a chemical weapon, and it would be followed by the development of Sarin and Soman in the late 1930s to early 1940s. American scientists would designate these agents as "G" agents, leading to Tabun being labeled GA, Sarin as GB, and Soman as GD. In the 1950s, more stable variants known as the V agents, including VX (Venom X) would be developed by the British in 1952, emerged. VX, characterized by increased stability, can persist in the environment for several weeks after release.<ref name="Melnick">{{cite book |last1=Melnick |first1=Alan |title=Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism: Emergency Preparedness and Response for the Primary Care Physician |date=3 December 2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-47232-4 |url=https://books.google.com.ar/books/about/Biological_Chemical_and_Radiological_Ter.html?id=JCU9KV00aCkC&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|120-121}} ||
 |-
-| 1936 (December23) || Non-intentional || Scientific development || G-series {{w|nerve agent}}s || The first class of {{w|nerve agent}}s, the G-series, is accidentally discovered in Germany by a research team headed by {{w|Gerhard Schrader}} working for {{w|IG Farben}}. || {{w|Germany}}
+| 1936 (December23) || Non-intentional || Scientific development || G-series {{w|nerve agent}}s || The first class of {{w|nerve agent}}s, the G-series, is accidentally discovered in Germany by a research team headed by {{w|Gerhard Schrader}} working for {{w|IG Farben}}. This significant development in chemical warfare results from research into pesticides, leading to the identification of highly toxic compounds. The discovery marks a pivotal moment in the history of chemical agents, as the G-series would later be used in military applications, raising ethical concerns about their effects and the potential for mass destruction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gerhard Schrader: Father of the Nerve Agents |url=https://www.healthandenvironment.org/environmental-health/social-context/history/gerhard-schrader-father-of-the-nerve-agents |website=healthandenvironment.org |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nerve Agent |url=https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Nerve_agent.html |website=chemeurope.com |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> || {{w|Germany}}
 |-
-| 1943 || Intentional (Prevention) || Organization || Multiple || The {{w|United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense}} is established.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://mrdc.health.mil/index.cfm/about/history |website=mrdc.health.mil |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1943 || Intentional (Prevention) || Organization || Multiple || The {{w|United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense}} (USAMRICD) is established to conduct research and development related to chemical defense and the medical management of chemical exposures. This institute aims to enhance the military's preparedness against chemical threats, particularly during {{w|World War II}}. USAMRICD focuses on studying the effects of chemical agents, developing protective measures, and improving medical treatment protocols, reflecting the growing recognition of chemical warfare's impact on soldiers and the need for effective countermeasures.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://mrdc.health.mil/index.cfm/about/history |website=mrdc.health.mil |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
 | 1948–1975 || Intentional || Operation || Multiple || The {{w|Edgewood Arsenal human experiments}} are conducted by the [[w:Chemical Corps|U.S. Army Chemical Corps]] as a secretive human subject research at Maryland's Edgewood Arsenal facility. The research aims to assess the effects of low-dose chemical warfare agents on military personnel and to test protective gear, drugs, and vaccines. A subset of these studies, known as the "Medical Research Volunteer Program" (1956-1975), focused on psychochemical warfare, including the development of more effective interrogation methods, in response to intelligence needs.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Edgewood Experiments |url=https://archive.org/details/ksdfalvbcouz9cvtr3kbj4sywjboust282gi6ron |website=archive.org |access-date=17 April 2024 |date=21 February 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1950 || Both || || Organization || The International Air Transport Association (IATA) initiates the issuance of the first list of recommendations for the air transport of dangerous goods. A revised edition would be released in 1956.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}}  ||
+| 1950 || Both || || Organization || The {{w|International Air Transport Association}} (IATA) issues its first list of recommendations for the air transport of dangerous goods. This initiative aims to enhance safety standards and regulatory compliance in the air transport of hazardous materials. The recommendations outline guidelines for packaging, labeling, and handling dangerous goods, reflecting the growing need for safety in the expanding global air transport industry. A revised edition of these guidelines would be released in 1956, further improving protocols for managing hazardous materials in aviation.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}}  ||
 |-
 | 1952 || Non-intentional || || Multiple || The ILO Chemical Industries Committee proposes five basic symbols for hazardous materials: liquids spilling (corrosion), bomb (explosion), flame (fire), skull and crossbones (poison), and trefoil (radioactivity). The UN Economic and Social Council would adopt this ILO system in 1958.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|32-33}}  ||
@@ Line 83: / Line 83: @@
 | 1957 || Intentional || Operation || Zinc cadmium sulfide || {{w|Operation LAC}} is launched to assess the release of aerosols from airplanes. The first experiment involves a region spanning from {{w|South Dakota}} to {{w|Minnesota}}, and subsequent tests extend to areas between {{w|Ohio}} and {{w|Texas}} and from {{w|Michigan}} to {{w|Kansas}}. The results of these experiments demonstrate the feasibility of large-scale deployment of a bioweapon from the air, as some test particles are found to travel distances of up to 1200 miles. This raises serious concerns about the potential implications of aerial bioweapon deployment and underscored the significance of biorisk management and international security measures.<ref name="Ryan"/>{{rp|p15}} || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1961 || || || Multiple || The Berne Convention is revised.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}} ||
+| 1961 || || || Multiple || The Berne Convention is revised to update regulations concerning the transportation of hazardous goods. This revision aims to enhance safety standards and improve the protocols for handling dangerous materials, reflecting advancements in transportation practices and a growing awareness of public safety concerns. The updated convention facilitates international cooperation in managing the risks associated with hazardous goods, reinforcing the commitment to safe and responsible transport in an increasingly interconnected world.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}} ||
 |-
 | 1962 (May) || Intentional || || Multiple || The Joint Chiefs of Staff creates the {{w|Deseret Test Center}} at {{w|Fort Douglas, Utah}}, a decommissioned army base.<ref name=harris>[[w:Sheldon H. Harris|Harris, Sheldon H.]] ''Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up'', ([https://books.google.com/books?id=X0QOAAAAQAAJ&dq=Deseret+Test+Center&pg=PA232 Google Books]), Routledge, 1994, p. 232-33</ref> DTC is tasked with overseeing chemical and biological weapons testing. This initiative, known as {{w|Project 112}}, would conduct various tests in land-based, Arctic, and tropical environments, ending in 1972. The testing locations include diverse settings such as land areas and barges in the Pacific Ocean.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biological warfare programs |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB58/RNCBW_USABWP.pdf |website=nsarchive2.gwu.edu |access-date=23 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) |url=https://www.health.mil/Reference-Center/Fact-Sheets/2002/10/09/Red-Cloud |website=health.mil |access-date=23 February 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
@@ Line 89: / Line 89: @@
 | 1962 || Non-intentional || Literature || Multiple || {{w|Rachel Carson}} publishes ''Silent Spring'', which focuses on the harmful impacts of pesticides, specifically DDT, on birds. The publication played a key role in the 1972 ban of DDT in the United States. Widely recognized for its influence, the book is credited with catalyzing the environmental movement and fostering a heightened concern for the enhanced regulation and management of pesticides and other chemicals.<ref name="oecd.org">{{cite web |title=40 Years of Chemical Safety at the OECD: Quality and Efficiency |url=https://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/48153344.pdf |website=oecd.org |access-date=27 January 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1965 || || || || The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization and the International Maritime Organization play a key role in developing the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}} ||
+| 1965 || || || || The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), later known as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), plays a pivotal role in developing the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code. This code is designed to enhance the safety of maritime transport by providing comprehensive guidelines for the handling, packaging, and labeling of dangerous goods transported by sea. The establishment of the IMDG Code reflects the growing recognition of the need for standardized practices to mitigate risks associated with hazardous materials in maritime shipping, ensuring the protection of people and the environment.<ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}} ||
 |-
 | 1969 || Intentional (prevention) || || Multiple || U.S. President Richard Nixon gives his speech {{w|Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs}}, declaring an end to the U.S. offensive biological weapons program, upholding a no-first-use policy for chemical weapons, and excluding toxins, herbicides, and riot-control agents from the definition of chemical and biological weapons. Nixon expresses support for a minimal defense-focused research program, vows continued vigilance over other nations' biological programs, and articulates a desire to foster peace and understanding globally.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs. {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-chemical-and-biological-defense-policies-and-programs |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu |access-date=18 April 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
@@ Line 95: / Line 95: @@
 | 1971 || || Organization || Multiple || OECD member countries, recognizing the need for international cooperation on chemicals, establish a Chemicals Group within the OECD. This decision is motivated by several factors, including the presence of major chemical-producing nations among OECD members, a shared "like-mindedness" facilitating agreements, the flexibility to make agreements legally or politically binding through OECD Council Acts, the ability to convene national experts, and the organization's multidisciplinary nature enabling beneficial interactions with various policy areas. The OECD provides a platform to address specialized scientific issues, serving as an interface between government regulators and scientists.<ref name="oecd.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 1971 || Intentional || Facility || Multiple || Chemical weapons start being stockpiled on {{w|Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System}} facility.<ref>{{cite web |title=JACADS {{!}} Region 9: Waste {{!}} US EPA |url=https://archive.epa.gov/region9/features/jacads/web/html/background.html |website=archive.epa.gov |access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1971 || Intentional || Facility || Multiple || Chemical weapons start being stockpiled on {{w|Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System}} facility. This U.S. military installation is designated for the storage and eventual disposal of chemical agents, reflecting the ongoing Cold War tensions and the need for secure management of these hazardous materials. The facility would play a crucial role in the United States' chemical weapons program, emphasizing the complexities of disarmament and the challenges associated with safely handling and eliminating chemical warfare agents.<ref>{{cite web |title=JACADS {{!}} Region 9: Waste {{!}} US EPA |url=https://archive.epa.gov/region9/features/jacads/web/html/background.html |website=archive.epa.gov |access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
 | 1972 || Both || International treaty || Multiple || The Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals (BCH Code) is established. It precedes the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code), which applies to chemical tankers built after July 1, 1986. The BCH Code regulates chemical tankers built before that date. It sets standards for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous chemicals, aiming to mitigate risks to the ship, crew, and environment. The BCH Code categorizes chemicals based on their hazards and prescribes safety measures accordingly, ensuring compliance with the safety and environmental standards under the SOLAS Convention. BCH Code would undergo amendments between 1972 and 1983.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code) |url=https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/IBCCode.aspx |website=imo.org |access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Carriage of chemicals by ship |url=https://www.imo.org/es/OurWork/Environment/Paginas/ChemicalPollution-Default.aspx#:~:text=Chemicals%20carried%20in%20bulk&text=The%20IBC%20Code%20sets%20out,predecessor%20of%20the%20IBC%20Code. |website=imo.org |access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTS LISTED IN CHAPTER 18 OF THE INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (IBC CODE). |url=https://www.classnk.or.jp/hp/pdf/activities/statutory/ism/flag/cayman/CAY-SN-06-2011.pdf#:~:text=1.1%20Chapter%2018%20of%20the%20International%20Code,to%20warrant%20the%20application%20of%20the%20Code. |website=classnk.or.jp |access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref><ref name="Homburg"/>{{rp|31}} ||
 |-
-| 1974 || Non-intentional || Research || {{w|Chlorofluorocarbons}} || American chemist {{w|F. Sherwood Rowland}} and Mexican chemist {{w|Mario Molina}} publish a groundbreaking article in the scientific journal ''[[w:Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', providing compelling evidence of the threats posed by {{w|chlorofluorocarbons}} (CFCs) to the stratospheric {{w|ozone layer}}. Their research demonstrates the harmful impact of these chemicals on the Earth's protective ozone layer. This work would become pivotal in raising awareness about the environmental risks associated with CFCs, as it would contribute significantly to the understanding of their role in ozone depletion. The recognition of their pioneering contributions would come in 1995 when Rowland, Molina, and Paul Crutzen are jointly awarded the {{w|Nobel Prize for Chemistry}}. The acknowledgment highlights the critical importance of their research in the field of atmospheric chemistry and its implications for global chemical risk, particularly in the context of ozone layer protection.<ref name="oecd.org"/> || {{w|United States}}
+| 1974 || Non-intentional || Scientfic development || {{w|Chlorofluorocarbons}} || American chemist {{w|F. Sherwood Rowland}} and Mexican chemist {{w|Mario Molina}} publish a groundbreaking article in the scientific journal ''[[w:Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', providing compelling evidence of the threats posed by {{w|chlorofluorocarbons}} (CFCs) to the stratospheric {{w|ozone layer}}. Their research demonstrates the harmful impact of these chemicals on the Earth's protective ozone layer. This work would become pivotal in raising awareness about the environmental risks associated with CFCs, as it would contribute significantly to the understanding of their role in ozone depletion. The recognition of their pioneering contributions would come in 1995 when Rowland, Molina, and Paul Crutzen are jointly awarded the {{w|Nobel Prize for Chemistry}}. The acknowledgment highlights the critical importance of their research in the field of atmospheric chemistry and its implications for global chemical risk, particularly in the context of ozone layer protection.<ref name="oecd.org"/> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
 | 1975 (April 8) || Intentional || National policy || Chemical herbicides || {{w|Executive Order 11850}} is issued by United States President {{w|Gerald Ford}}, establishing the renunciation of certain uses of chemical herbicides and riot control agents in war as a national policy of the United States. It permits the use of herbicides for vegetation control within U.S. bases and installations and allows the use of riot control agents in specific defensive military situations to save lives. The order mandates that the Secretary of Defense ensures compliance with these policies and prohibits the use of such agents in war without prior presidential approval. This executive action aims to regulate the use of chemical agents in military operations and safeguard against their indiscriminate use.<ref>{{cite web |title=Executive Orders {{!}} National Archives |url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11850.html |website=www.archives.gov |access-date=17 April 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
@@ Line 115: / Line 115: @@
 | 1984 (December 2–3) || Non-intentional || {{w|Chemical accident}} || {{w|Methyl isocyanate}} || The {{w|Bhopal Disaster}} occurs at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, India. It is one of worst industrial disasters in history. Over 35 tons of toxic gases, including at least 24 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC), leak from the plant, resulting in immediate deaths of at least 3,800 people and causing significant morbidity and premature death for many thousands more. The aftermath of the disaster would lead to chronic health issues among survivors, with ongoing environmental contamination at the site. Towards the 21st century, the site remains uncleared, and contamination persists, with groundwater and well-water testing in 1999 revealing mercury levels far exceeding safe limits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Broughton |first1=Edward |title=The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review |journal=Environmental Health |date=December 2005 |volume=4 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/1476-069X-4-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Summary of “Clouds of Injustice Bhopal Disaster 20 years on” |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/asa201042004en.pdf |website=amnesty.org |access-date=15 April 2024}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
 |-
-| 1985 || Non-intentional || International treaty || Multiple || The 1985 United Nations Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is held as an international treaty aimed at addressing the environmental and health risks associated with the release of certain chemicals known to deplete the ozone layer. It is a landmark agreement that addresses chemical risks associated with ozone depletion. || {{w|Austria}}
+| 1985 || Non-intentional || International treaty || Multiple || The 1985 United Nations Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is held as an international treaty aimed at addressing the environmental and health risks associated with the release of certain chemicals known to deplete the ozone layer. It is a landmark agreement that addresses chemical risks associated with ozone depletion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer |url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=treaty&mtdsg_no=xxvii-2&chapter=27&clang=_en |website=treaties.un.org |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title>International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer |url=https://www.genevaenvironmentnetwork.org/resources/updates/international-day-for-the-preservation-of-the-ozone-layer/ |website=genevaenvironmentnetwork.org |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Summary of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/vienna-convention-for-the-protection-of-the-ozone-layer.html |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> || {{w|Austria}}
 |-
-| 1987 || Non-intentional || Notable case || {{w|Mycotoxins}} || Around 100 individuals in India fall ill due to the consumption of wheat products contaminated with mycotoxins, a result of heavy rains.<ref name="Melnick"/>{{rp|155}} || {{w|India}}
+| 1987 || Non-intentional || Notable case || {{w|Mycotoxins}} || Approximately 100 individuals in India become ill after consuming wheat products contaminated with mycotoxins, which are a result of heavy rains affecting crop quality. This incident highlights the public health risks associated with mycotoxin contamination in food supplies, emphasizing the need for improved agricultural practices and monitoring systems to ensure food safety. The outbreak serves as a reminder of the potential dangers posed by environmental factors on food quality and human health.<ref name="Melnick"/>{{rp|155}} || {{w|India}}
 |-
 | 1988 || Both || Literature (journal) || Multiple || ''{{w|Chemical Research in Toxicology}}'' is first issued by the {{w|American Chemical Society}}. It is a peer-reviewed journal. It would be indexed in databases like CAS, SCOPUS, and PubMed. Edited by Lawrence J. Marnett, it covers toxicology, medicinal chemistry, and multidisciplinary chemistry. It releases articles, communications, reviews, chemical profiles, and perspectives on advances in toxicology. The journal aims to present research on the chemical basis of toxicological responses, emphasizing rigorous chemical standards and modern analytical techniques. It covers various aspects including identification of toxic agents, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, and effects like mutagenicity and carcinogenicity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chemical Research in Toxicology {{!}} EVISA's Journals Database |url=https://speciation.net/Database/Journals/Chemical-Research-in-Toxicology-;i2148 |website=speciation.net |access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 |-
-| 1990 || Intentional || || Chlorine gas || During the {{w|Sri Lankan Civil War}}, the {{w|Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam}} (LTTE) separatists are credited with the first non-state use of chemical weapons during their assault on the East Kiran base of the {{w|Sri Lanka Army}} using commercial chlorine gas. || {{w|Sri Lanka}}
+| 1990 || Intentional || || Chlorine gas || During the {{w|Sri Lankan Civil War}}, the {{w|Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam}} (LTTE) separatists are credited with the first non-state use of chemical weapons during their assault on the East Kiran base of the {{w|Sri Lanka Army}} using commercial chlorine gas.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The First Non-State Use of a Chemical Weapon in Warfare: The Tamil Tigers' Assault on East Kiran |author= |journal=Small Wars and Insurgencies |volume=20 |number=3-4 |pages=463-477 |year=2009 |doi=10.1080/09592310903026969 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233083927_The_first_non-state_use_of_a_chemical_weapon_in_warfare_the_Tamil_Tigers'_assault_on_East_Kiran |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> || {{w|Sri Lanka}}
 |-
 | 1993 (January 13) || Intentional (prevention) || International treaty || Multiple || The {{w|Chemical Weapons Convention}} (CWC) is introduced. It's a global treaty aimed at banning the development, production, possession, and use of chemical weapons during warfare. The Convention is formulated by the United Nations Conference on Disarmament and approved by the UN General Assembly in 1992. It would be subsequently signed by 130 countries during a three-day conference in Paris. CWC would take effect on April 29, 1997.<ref>{{cite web |title=1993 Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/document/1993-chemical-weapons-convention#:~:text=The%20Convention%2C%20which%20was%20negotiated,ICRC%20study%20on%20customary%20IHL). |website=International Committee of the Red Cross |access-date=14 April 2024 |language=en |date=8 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.opcw.org/about-us/history#:~:text=One%20by%20one%2C%20obstacles%20were,130%20nations%20signed%20the%20Convention. |website=OPCW |access-date=14 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref> ||
@@ Line 127: / Line 127: @@
 | 1994 || || || Multiple || The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) initiates a harmonization effort, collaborating with both OECD member nations and several non-member economies. The objective is to standardize the criteria for classifying human health and environmental hazards. Concurrently, a {{w|United Nations}} expert group and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) addresses physical hazards and hazard communication. The outcomes of the OECD's endeavors, presented in 2001, serves as the foundation for the establishment of the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) in 2002.<ref name="oecd.org"/> ||
 |-
-| 1997 || Intentional || || {{w|Phosgene}}, {{w|chlorine}},{{w|hydrogen cyanide}} || {{w|Al Qaeda}} first starts researching and experimenting with chemical weapons in {{w|Afghanistan}}, testing {{w|phosgene}}, {{w|chlorine}} and {{w|hydrogen cyanide}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34262447|title=IS, al-Qaeda, and how jihad uses chemical weapons|publisher=BBC News|date=16 September 2015}}</ref> ||
+| 1997 || Intentional || || {{w|Phosgene}}, {{w|chlorine}},{{w|hydrogen cyanide}} || {{w|Al Qaeda}} first starts researching and experimenting with chemical weapons in {{w|Afghanistan}}, testing {{w|phosgene}}, {{w|chlorine}} and {{w|hydrogen cyanide}}. This initiative marks a significant shift in the group's focus on developing capabilities for unconventional warfare. The experimentation highlights the potential threat posed by terrorist organizations seeking to utilize chemical agents, raising alarms about the risks of chemical terrorism and the necessity for enhanced security measures and counter-terrorism efforts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34262447|title=IS, al-Qaeda, and how jihad uses chemical weapons|publisher=BBC News|date=16 September 2015}}</ref> ||
 |-
 | 1999 || Non-intentional || Health disaster || {{w|Dioxin}} || The Belgian [[w:Dioxin affair|PCB/dioxin incident]] occurs when accidental dioxin-contaminated {{w|polychlorinated biphenyl}}s are added to recycled fat in animal feeds, affecting over 2500 farms. A monitoring program finds a single PCB oil source (50 kg) with 1g TEQ dioxins. Chickens and reproduction animals show higher concentrations, indicating chick edema disease. Despite some food products exceeding recommended values by over 100 times, adverse effects on the general population are unlikely. The incident exposes metabolic differences in farm animals' PCBs and {{w|dioxin}}s elimination. The crisis leads to a major food crisis, political resignations, and international actions, impacting global trade and causing economic losses. The incident highlights the potential dangers of chemical contamination in the food chain, demonstrating the risks associated with the mishandling and introduction of hazardous chemicals into agricultural processes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium |url=https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/1999/06/belg-j08.html |website=World Socialist Web Site |access-date=30 January 2024 |language=en |date=8 June 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Belgian Dioxin Crisis and Its Effects on Agricultural Production and Exports |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/41603/15642_aer828j_1_.pdf?v=0 |website=ers.usda.gov |access-date=30 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bernard |first1=Alfred |last2=Broeckaert |first2=Fabrice |last3=De Poorter |first3=Geert |last4=De Cock |first4=Ann |last5=Hermans |first5=Cédric |last6=Saegerman |first6=Claude |last7=Houins |first7=Gilbert |title=The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation |journal=Environmental Research |date=January 2002 |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1006/enrs.2001.4274 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11896663/ |issn=0013-9351}}</ref> || {{w|Belgium}}
@@ Line 137: / Line 137: @@
 | 2020 (May 7) || Non-intentional || Accident || {{w|Styrene}} || The {{w|Visakhapatnam gas leak}} occurs at an LG Polymers Private Limited plant in {{w|Andhra Pradesh}}, leading to eight fatalities and over a thousand hospitalizations. Styrene is confirmed to be the leaked gas due to insufficient maintenance. LG Chem cites inadequate maintenance, stagnation, and temperature changes within storage tanks as causes. Styrene, widely used in resin and plastic production, poses health risks to the central nervous system. Despite dissipating from air within days, it persists in soil and water. The incident highlights the dangers of industrial negligence and underscores the need for stringent safety measures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vizag Gas Leak - Styrene Gas |url=https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/disaster-management/vizag-gas-leak-styrene-gas/ |website=Unacademy |access-date=14 April 2024}}</ref> || {{w|India}}
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-| 2015 || || || || Adoption of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes a goal related to chemical safety. ||
+| 2015 || || || || The {{w|United Nations}} adopts the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes a specific goal related to chemical safety. This agenda emphasizes the importance of ensuring the sound management of chemicals and waste to protect human health and the environment. By integrating chemical safety into broader sustainable development efforts, the agenda highlights the need for global cooperation in minimizing the risks associated with hazardous substances, promoting safe practices, and fostering a healthier, more sustainable future.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beyond 2020: Chemical Safety and Agenda 2030 |url=https://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/Beyond%202020%20Chemical%20safety%20and%20Agenda%202030%2024%20Jan%202017.pdf |website=ipen.org |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chemistry and the Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.acs.org/sustainability/chemistry-sustainable-development-goals.html |website=acs.org |accessdate=23 September 2024}}</ref> ||
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Difference between revisions of "Timeline of chemical risk"

Latest revision as of 12:17, 23 September 2024

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