Timeline of chemical risk

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This is a timeline of chemical risk.


Big picture

Time period Development summary More details
Pre-18th century Early exploration and unawareness During this era, there is a limited understanding of chemical risks as ancient civilizations encounter hazards without systematic awareness. The use of chemicals in traditional practices and alchemical experiments characterize this period.
18th – 19th century Industrial Revolution and uncontrolled expansion The Industrial Revolution brings rapid industrialization and the introduction of numerous new chemicals. However, the lack of safety measures leads to accidents and health issues. Industrial processes expand without comprehensive safety regulations during this time. Instances like the Hoechst aniline cancer cases (1895) mark early recognition of industrial chemicals' health impacts.
Early 20th century - Mid-20th century Rise of industrial toxicology and pollution concerns Advances in toxicology emerge, driven by industrial growth. The mid-20th century witnesses increased awareness of air and water pollution, leading to regulatory efforts. Silent Spring (1962) highlights pesticide risks, emphasizing ecological concerns.
Mid-20th century - Late 20th century Environmental Movement and Regulatory Responses The 1960s environmental movement prompts regulatory actions worldwide. Major incidents, like the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984), underscores industrial accidents' catastrophic potential. Global cooperation, exemplified by the 1985 Vienna Convention, addressed ozone layer threats.
Late 20th century - Present Terrorism's intersection with chemical Risk The late 20th century sees a shift with terrorism incorporating chemical threats. Instances like the Tokyo subway sarin attack (1995) introduce deliberate chemical risks. The 21st century witnesses a convergence of accidental, environmental, and terrorist-related chemical concerns.

Summary by decade

Time period Development summary More details
1950s Experts at both national and international levels extensively deliberate on the escalating issues of air pollution, the existence of pesticide residues and toxic dyes in food, and general concerns regarding pesticides.[1]:12-13
1960s There is a notable increase in environmental awareness, marked by the rise of a growing environmental movement worldwide and heightened governmental efforts to monitor and regulate pollution.[1]:12

Full timeline

Year Risk type Event type Agent Details Country/location
1675 (August 27) Intentional (prevention) International treaty Poison bullets The Strasbourg Agreement is established between France and Germany. It is the first international agreement restricting the use of chemical weapons. Signed in Strasbourg, it prohibits the use of poison bullets.[2] France, Holy Roman Empire
1771 Non-intentional Scientific development Hydrofluoric acid Swedish pharmaceutical chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele first synthesizes hydrofluoric acid. He discovers it while investigating fluorite (calcium fluoride).[3][4] A very poisonous, highly irritating and corrosive substance[5], hydrofluoric acid would be researched as a chemical agent.[6]
1855 Non-intentional Literature Hazardous vapors Belgian pharmacist Léon Peeters publishes a brochure titled Salubrité publique: Guérison radicale de la maladie des pommes de terre et d’autres végétaux, attributing the devastating potato plant epidemic of the late 1840s to hazardous vapors from the chemical industry. Peeters suggests that these vapors caused widespread famine in Europe and posed risks to small children through airborne poisons. The ensuing protests and expert testimonies reveal a blend of chemical and toxicological perspectives regarding gases like hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, alongside traditional beliefs in the roles of miasmas and contagions in public hygiene.[1]:9 Belgium, Europe
1865 Non-intentional (research) Scientific development Hazardous vapors Hermann Eulenberg, a German state physician responsible for the Rhineland, synthesizes the impacts of hazardous vapors on human health and vegetation in a comprehensive textbook on noxious and poisonous gases. This publication follows protests and expert testimony triggered by Belgian pharmacist Léon Peeters' 1855 brochure linking a potato plant epidemic to dangerous vapors from the chemical industry. Eulenberg's textbook, spanning five hundred pages, adopts a primarily chemical perspective, distinguishing suffocating gases and three types of toxic gases (narcotic, irritating, biolytic) with distinct formulae. While emphasizing a chemical approach, the text also discusses gaseous miasmas and their epidemic consequences, reflecting the complex views on (gaseous) poisons prevalent in the mid-nineteenth century. This work serves as a milestone at the intersection of public health and toxicology, providing insights into "external" industrial hygiene that later evolves into environmental toxicology.[1]:10 Germany
1880 Both Concept development Multiple The "minimal lethal dose" emerges as a crucial concept in toxicology during a period when industry begins playing a prominent role in the field. As the number of industry-produced chemicals surges, their often-unknown toxicological properties pose health risks to workers. Industrial toxicology gains prominence, and a paradigm shift occurrs, shaping the overall understanding of poisons. The concept of the "minimal lethal dose" becomes integral, serving as a quantitative measure to compare the toxicity of distinct acute poisons. This notion marks a significant step in quantifying the harmful effects of chemicals and establishing threshold values to assess their impact.[1]:11
1890 International regulation Multiple The Berne Convention marks the first international regulation of the transportation of hazardous goods by rail.[1]:30
1895 Non-intentional Notable case Aniline Dr. Ludwig Rehn reports cases of bladder tumors among workers in the magenta department of a German aniline dyeworks. This discovery, presented at the Congress of the German Society of Surgery, marks one of the earliest instances of industrial carcinoma diagnosis. The affected workers were exposed to magenta, a chemical produced from aniline, for almost four decades. Subsequently, similar cases emerge in other aniline dyeworks, leading to the term "aniline cancer." This event highlights the link between industrial chemicals and cancer, foreshadowing future findings of carcinogenic properties in various industrial substances.[1]:1 Germany
1912 Non-intentional Notable case Multiple Swiss urologist S. G. Leuenberger documents instances of bladder cancer in eighteen dye factory employees in Basel, home to CIBA and Geigy. Analyzing death records from 1901 to 1910, Leuenberger determines that mortality rates from urinary passage tumors are thirty-three times higher among dye factory workers compared to those in different occupations.[1]:142 Switzerland
1916 (March) Intentional Biological warfare facility Multiple Porton Down is established to provide a proper scientific basis for the British use of chemical warfare, in response to the German use of such methods in 1915.[7] United Kingdom
1917-1918 Intentional Facility Multiple The Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) constructs large-scale production plants primarily at Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland, which later would become part of the Aberdeen Proving Ground. At Edgewood Arsenal, three main plants become operational, producing chlorine, chloropicrin, mustard gas, and phosgene. Additionally, three shell-filling plants are set up to fill various types of projectiles with chemical agents.[8] Renamed several times, the facility is now known as Edgewood Chemical Biological Center. United States
1918 (May) Intentional Facility Multiple The United States Army Gas School is established at Camp A.A. Humphreys in Virginia, and begins instructing commissioned and noncommissioned officers in chemical warfare. The camp would transition to Fort Belvoir in 1935. Fort Belvoir, now a significant U.S. Army installation and census-designated place in Fairfax County, Virginia, encompasses the main base, Davison Army Airfield, and Fort Belvoir North. The shift from Camp A.A. Humphreys to Fort Belvoir marks a historical and operational evolution in military training and infrastructure.[9][10] United States
1918 (June 28) Intentional Organization Multiple The Chemical Warfare Service is established by General Order as a division of the U.S. Army. It would focus on defense against and utilization of nuclear, radiological, biological, and chemical weapons. It is formed to centralize efforts related to gas offenses. The Chemical Corps would oversee the development of offensive munitions.[11][12] United States
1919 (June 28) Intentional International treaty Multiple The Treaty of Versailles bans Germany from manufacturing or stockpiling chemical weapons (among many things).
1925 (June 17) Intentional International legislation and agreements Multiple The Geneva Protocol is created, with the purpose to prohibit the use of chemical and bacteriological methods of warfare. This protocol marks the first international endeavor to restrict the utilization of biological agents in warfare.[13]:p14[14]
1925 Non-intentional Literature Fertilizers and pesticides John Hepburn publishes Crop Production, Poisoned Food, and Public Health, in which he contends that the utilization of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture constitute a significant factor contributing to cancer. He perceives cancer as a contagious ailment. This argument is associated with concerns about chemical risk, highlighting the potential dangers posed by the use of specific chemicals in agriculture and their potential impact on public health, particularly in terms of cancer development.[1]:10
Early 1930s Intentional Mustard gas The Rawalpindi experiments begin as a series of experiments conducted on hundreds of Indian soldiers using Mustard gas by scientists from Porton Down, a British military research facility. These experiments would occur before and during World War II at a military installation in Rawalpindi, which is now located in Pakistan.[15][16] Pakistan
1930s Non-intentional Scientific development Tabun A German scientist creates Tabun, the first nerve agent, while attempting to develop a more potent pesticide. The German army would weaponize Tabun as a chemical weapon, and it would be followed by the development of Sarin and Soman in the late 1930s to early 1940s. American scientists would designate these agents as "G" agents, leading to Tabun being labeled GA, Sarin as GB, and Soman as GD. In the 1950s, more stable variants known as the V agents, including VX (Venom X) would be developed by the British in 1952, emerged. VX, characterized by increased stability, can persist in the environment for several weeks after release.[17]:120-121
1936 (December23) Non-intentional Scientific development G-series nerve agents The first class of nerve agents, the G-series, is accidentally discovered in Germany by a research team headed by Gerhard Schrader working for IG Farben. Germany
1943 Intentional (Prevention) Organization Multiple The United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense is established. United States
1948–1975 Intentional Operation Multiple The Edgewood Arsenal human experiments are conducted by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps as a secretive human subject research at Maryland's Edgewood Arsenal facility. The research aims to assess the effects of low-dose chemical warfare agents on military personnel and to test protective gear, drugs, and vaccines. A subset of these studies, known as the "Medical Research Volunteer Program" (1956-1975), focused on psychochemical warfare, including the development of more effective interrogation methods, in response to intelligence needs.[18] United States
1950 Both Organization The International Air Transport Association (IATA) initiates the issuance of the first list of recommendations for the air transport of dangerous goods. A revised edition would be released in 1956.[1]:31
1952 Non-intentional Multiple The ILO Chemical Industries Committee proposes five basic symbols for hazardous materials: liquids spilling (corrosion), bomb (explosion), flame (fire), skull and crossbones (poison), and trefoil (radioactivity). The UN Economic and Social Council would adopt this ILO system in 1958.[1]:32-33
1957 Both Material regulation Multiple The European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road is adopted, representing the initial international agreement to regulate the road transport of hazardous materials. It would undergo regular updates and revisions over the following decades to accommodate evolving standards and ensure the safe international transportation of dangerous goods by road.[1]:31
1957 Intentional Operation Zinc cadmium sulfide Operation LAC is launched to assess the release of aerosols from airplanes. The first experiment involves a region spanning from South Dakota to Minnesota, and subsequent tests extend to areas between Ohio and Texas and from Michigan to Kansas. The results of these experiments demonstrate the feasibility of large-scale deployment of a bioweapon from the air, as some test particles are found to travel distances of up to 1200 miles. This raises serious concerns about the potential implications of aerial bioweapon deployment and underscored the significance of biorisk management and international security measures.[13]:p15 United States
1961 Multiple The Berne Convention is revised.[1]:31
1962 (May) Intentional Multiple The Joint Chiefs of Staff creates the Deseret Test Center at Fort Douglas, Utah, a decommissioned army base.[19] DTC is tasked with overseeing chemical and biological weapons testing. This initiative, known as Project 112, would conduct various tests in land-based, Arctic, and tropical environments, ending in 1972. The testing locations include diverse settings such as land areas and barges in the Pacific Ocean.[20][21] United States
1962 Non-intentional Literature Multiple Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring, which focuses on the harmful impacts of pesticides, specifically DDT, on birds. The publication played a key role in the 1972 ban of DDT in the United States. Widely recognized for its influence, the book is credited with catalyzing the environmental movement and fostering a heightened concern for the enhanced regulation and management of pesticides and other chemicals.[22] United States
1965 The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization and the International Maritime Organization play a key role in developing the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code.[1]:31
1969 Intentional (prevention) Multiple U.S. President Richard Nixon gives his speech Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs, declaring an end to the U.S. offensive biological weapons program, upholding a no-first-use policy for chemical weapons, and excluding toxins, herbicides, and riot-control agents from the definition of chemical and biological weapons. Nixon expresses support for a minimal defense-focused research program, vows continued vigilance over other nations' biological programs, and articulates a desire to foster peace and understanding globally.[23] United States
1971 Organization Multiple OECD member countries, recognizing the need for international cooperation on chemicals, establish a Chemicals Group within the OECD. This decision is motivated by several factors, including the presence of major chemical-producing nations among OECD members, a shared "like-mindedness" facilitating agreements, the flexibility to make agreements legally or politically binding through OECD Council Acts, the ability to convene national experts, and the organization's multidisciplinary nature enabling beneficial interactions with various policy areas. The OECD provides a platform to address specialized scientific issues, serving as an interface between government regulators and scientists.[22]
1971 Intentional Facility Multiple Chemical weapons start being stockpiled on Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System facility.[24] United States
1972 Both International treaty Multiple The Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals (BCH Code) is established. It precedes the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code), which applies to chemical tankers built after July 1, 1986. The BCH Code regulates chemical tankers built before that date. It sets standards for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous chemicals, aiming to mitigate risks to the ship, crew, and environment. The BCH Code categorizes chemicals based on their hazards and prescribes safety measures accordingly, ensuring compliance with the safety and environmental standards under the SOLAS Convention. BCH Code would undergo amendments between 1972 and 1983.[25][26][27][1]:31
1974 Non-intentional Research Chlorofluorocarbons American chemist F. Sherwood Rowland and Mexican chemist Mario Molina publish a groundbreaking article in the scientific journal Nature, providing compelling evidence of the threats posed by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to the stratospheric ozone layer. Their research demonstrates the harmful impact of these chemicals on the Earth's protective ozone layer. This work would become pivotal in raising awareness about the environmental risks associated with CFCs, as it would contribute significantly to the understanding of their role in ozone depletion. The recognition of their pioneering contributions would come in 1995 when Rowland, Molina, and Paul Crutzen are jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. The acknowledgment highlights the critical importance of their research in the field of atmospheric chemistry and its implications for global chemical risk, particularly in the context of ozone layer protection.[22] United States
1975 (April 8) Intentional National policy Chemical herbicides Executive Order 11850 is issued by United States President Gerald Ford, establishing the renunciation of certain uses of chemical herbicides and riot control agents in war as a national policy of the United States. It permits the use of herbicides for vegetation control within U.S. bases and installations and allows the use of riot control agents in specific defensive military situations to save lives. The order mandates that the Secretary of Defense ensures compliance with these policies and prohibits the use of such agents in war without prior presidential approval. This executive action aims to regulate the use of chemical agents in military operations and safeguard against their indiscriminate use.[28] United States
1975 Intentional Terrorism (state-sponsored) Parathion, thallium, multiple During the Rhodesian conflict, the minority white community in Rhodesia face challenges from native African nationalists. Stretched thin, Rhodesian forces adopt unconventional methods, employing commercially available poisons like parathion and thallium. They contaminate clothing, water sources, and food, resulting in an estimated 1,500–2,500 guerilla deaths, with numerous civilians affected. Facing native African nationalist insurgents, the Rhodesian forces struggled due to limited resources. Rhodesia's chemical warfare, marked by low-tech methods, demonstrate a brutal, yet unconventional approach to counter the growing power of the insurgent forces.[29] Zimbabwe (Rhodesia)
1975 Non-intentional Multiple The World Health Organization implements a categorization system for pesticides, considering factors such as their physical forms (solid, liquid, aerosol) and their potential harm in terms of acute and dermal toxicity to rats. This classification aims to systematically organize pesticides, facilitating the assessment of their risks.[1]:26
1976 (July 10) Non-intentional Industrial accident 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin The Seveso disaster occurs at a chemical plant in Meda, Italy. A reactor explosion at the Icmesa Chemical Company releases a toxic cloud of dioxin and other pollutants, causing severe damage to crops, soil, and the environment within an 18 km radius. It results in numerous injuries, including 417 cases of chloracne, liver diseases, and abortions for high-risk pregnancies. The disaster prompted significant environmental legislation, leading to the adoption of the "Seveso Directive" by the European Union in 1982 to prevent similar catastrophes.[30][31][32] Italy
1977 Intentional Bioterrorism (individual criminal) Suxamethonium chloride Arnfinn Nesset, the proprietor of a nursing home for the elderly in Norway, faces a notorious criminal case involving the conviction of murdering 22 of his patients. Nesset employed a sinister method, injecting them with curacit, a substance derived from curare. This toxic compound is known for its paralyzing effects on the nervous system and was used by Nesset to carry out his heinous acts of intentional harm. The trial and conviction of Nesset draws considerable attention, raising serious concerns about the safety and vulnerability of elderly residents in care facilities.[33]:22 Norway
Early 1980s Intentional Biological warfare program Multiple Project Coast starts operating as South Africa's covert Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW) program. Operational until early 1990s, the program would be found to have developed lethal chemical and biological weapons, including sterilization toxins and concealed poisons, targeting African National Congress political leaders and black township populations. Project Coast would be accused of contaminating water supplies with cholera, aiding Rhodesian troops with anthrax and cholera, and employing toxic agents for political assassinations. Investigations would lead to dismissals and document destruction, with South Africa officially maintaining the program's defensive nature, despite international concerns.[34] South Africa
1984 (December 2–3) Non-intentional Chemical accident Methyl isocyanate The Bhopal Disaster occurs at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, India. It is one of worst industrial disasters in history. Over 35 tons of toxic gases, including at least 24 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC), leak from the plant, resulting in immediate deaths of at least 3,800 people and causing significant morbidity and premature death for many thousands more. The aftermath of the disaster would lead to chronic health issues among survivors, with ongoing environmental contamination at the site. Towards the 21st century, the site remains uncleared, and contamination persists, with groundwater and well-water testing in 1999 revealing mercury levels far exceeding safe limits.[35][36] India
1985 Non-intentional International treaty Multiple The 1985 United Nations Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is held as an international treaty aimed at addressing the environmental and health risks associated with the release of certain chemicals known to deplete the ozone layer. It is a landmark agreement that addresses chemical risks associated with ozone depletion. Austria
1987 Non-intentional Notable case Mycotoxins Around 100 individuals in India fall ill due to the consumption of wheat products contaminated with mycotoxins, a result of heavy rains.[17]:155 India
1988 Both Literature (journal) Multiple Chemical Research in Toxicology is first issued by the American Chemical Society. It is a peer-reviewed journal. It would be indexed in databases like CAS, SCOPUS, and PubMed. Edited by Lawrence J. Marnett, it covers toxicology, medicinal chemistry, and multidisciplinary chemistry. It releases articles, communications, reviews, chemical profiles, and perspectives on advances in toxicology. The journal aims to present research on the chemical basis of toxicological responses, emphasizing rigorous chemical standards and modern analytical techniques. It covers various aspects including identification of toxic agents, molecular mechanisms of toxicity, and effects like mutagenicity and carcinogenicity.[37] United States
1990 Intentional Chlorine gas During the Sri Lankan Civil War, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) separatists are credited with the first non-state use of chemical weapons during their assault on the East Kiran base of the Sri Lanka Army using commercial chlorine gas. Sri Lanka
1993 (January 13) Intentional (prevention) International treaty Multiple The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is introduced. It's a global treaty aimed at banning the development, production, possession, and use of chemical weapons during warfare. The Convention is formulated by the United Nations Conference on Disarmament and approved by the UN General Assembly in 1992. It would be subsequently signed by 130 countries during a three-day conference in Paris. CWC would take effect on April 29, 1997.[38][39]
1994 Multiple The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) initiates a harmonization effort, collaborating with both OECD member nations and several non-member economies. The objective is to standardize the criteria for classifying human health and environmental hazards. Concurrently, a United Nations expert group and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) addresses physical hazards and hazard communication. The outcomes of the OECD's endeavors, presented in 2001, serves as the foundation for the establishment of the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) in 2002.[22]
1997 Intentional Phosgene, chlorine,hydrogen cyanide Al Qaeda first starts researching and experimenting with chemical weapons in Afghanistan, testing phosgene, chlorine and hydrogen cyanide.[40]
1999 Non-intentional Health disaster Dioxin The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident occurs when accidental dioxin-contaminated polychlorinated biphenyls are added to recycled fat in animal feeds, affecting over 2500 farms. A monitoring program finds a single PCB oil source (50 kg) with 1g TEQ dioxins. Chickens and reproduction animals show higher concentrations, indicating chick edema disease. Despite some food products exceeding recommended values by over 100 times, adverse effects on the general population are unlikely. The incident exposes metabolic differences in farm animals' PCBs and dioxins elimination. The crisis leads to a major food crisis, political resignations, and international actions, impacting global trade and causing economic losses. The incident highlights the potential dangers of chemical contamination in the food chain, demonstrating the risks associated with the mishandling and introduction of hazardous chemicals into agricultural processes.[41][42][43] Belgium
2000 Intentional Literature Multiple United States chemical and biological weapons expert Jonathan B. Tucker publishes Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, which delves into the alarming potential for chemical and biological weapons (CBW) terrorism. The book addresses the concerns of policymakers, scholars, and the media regarding the global spread of knowledge and technology relevant to CBW terrorism. It assesses terrorist groups and individuals capable of acquiring and using CBW agents, their motivations, and the likely types of toxic agents and delivery methods. Through in-depth case studies of twelve such entities from 1946 to 1998, researched from primary sources, the book identifies patterns of behavior associated with CBW terrorism. These insights aim to inform prudent and cost-effective strategies for prevention and response.[44] United States
2002 Non-intentional Multiple The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) is developed under UN auspices after the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit. The GHS, codified in the "Purple Book" at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, becomes a component of the Strategic Approach on International Chemicals Management. The GHS adoption would be gradual, with Japan and New Zealand adopting it in 2008, and the EU ratifying a new legislation based on GHS in 2009. The GHS would be practically introduced by the end of 2010 for substances and before June 2015 for mixtures.[1]:34-35 By harmonizing the classification criteria and labeling requirements for chemicals, the GHS aims to improve communication of chemical hazards and risks to workers, consumers, and the environment.
2020 (May 7) Non-intentional Accident Styrene The Visakhapatnam gas leak occurs at an LG Polymers Private Limited plant in Andhra Pradesh, leading to eight fatalities and over a thousand hospitalizations. Styrene is confirmed to be the leaked gas due to insufficient maintenance. LG Chem cites inadequate maintenance, stagnation, and temperature changes within storage tanks as causes. Styrene, widely used in resin and plastic production, poses health risks to the central nervous system. Despite dissipating from air within days, it persists in soil and water. The incident highlights the dangers of industrial negligence and underscores the need for stringent safety measures.[45] India
2015 Adoption of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes a goal related to chemical safety.

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References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 Homburg, Ernst; Vaupel, Elisabeth (1 August 2019). Hazardous Chemicals: Agents of Risk and Change, 1800-2000. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78920-320-2. 
  2. ↑ "History". OPCW. Retrieved 12 April 2024. 
  3. ↑ Schwerin, Daniel L.; Hatcher, Jason D. (2024). "Hydrofluoric Acid Burns". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. 
  4. ↑ Ayotte, Patrick; Hébert, Martin; Marchand, Patrick (8 November 2005). "Why is hydrofluoric acid a weak acid?". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 123 (18). doi:10.1063/1.2090259. 
  5. ↑ "Hydrofluoric Acid and Hydrogen Fluoride". purdue.edu. Retrieved 10 April 2024. 
  6. ↑ "CDC Caustics | Emergency Preparedness & Response". emergency.cdc.gov. 15 May 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2024. 
  7. ↑ "Porton_Down". www.bionity.com. Retrieved 13 February 2024. 
  8. ↑ "History of United States' Involvement in Chemical Warfare – DoD Recovered Chemical Warfare Material (RCWM) Program". www.denix.osd.mil. Retrieved 12 April 2024. 
  9. ↑ "The U.S. 5th. Division and Gas Warfare, 1918.". apps.dtic.mil. Retrieved 17 April 2024. 
  10. ↑ "Camp A.A. Humphreys ⋆ Veteran Voices Military Research ⋆ World War I". Veteran Voices Military Research. Retrieved 20 April 2024. 
  11. ↑ "Records of the Chemical Warfare Service". www.archives.gov. Retrieved 11 April 2024. 
  12. ↑ "The U.S. Army Chemical Corps: Past, Present, and Future". The Army Historical Foundation. 28 January 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2024. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Ryan, Jeffrey R. (2016). "Seeds of Destruction". Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: 3–29. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-802029-6.00001-3. 
  14. ↑ Frischknecht, Friedrich (June 2003). "The history of biological warfare". EMBO Reports. 4 (Suppl 1): S47–S52. ISSN 1469-221X. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor849. 
  15. ↑ "UK tested poison gas on Indian soldiers - USATODAY.com". usatoday30.usatoday.com. Retrieved 28 February 2019. 
  16. ↑ Surhone, Lambert M.; Tennoe, Mariam T.; Henssonow, Susan F. (9 March 2011). Rawalpindi Experiments (in português). Betascript Publishing. ISBN 978-613-5-14708-7. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Melnick, Alan (3 December 2007). Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism: Emergency Preparedness and Response for the Primary Care Physician. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-47232-4. 
  18. ↑ "The Edgewood Experiments". archive.org. 21 February 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024. 
  19. ↑ Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up, (Google Books), Routledge, 1994, p. 232-33
  20. ↑ "Biological warfare programs" (PDF). nsarchive2.gwu.edu. Retrieved 23 February 2024. 
  21. ↑ "Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs)". health.mil. Retrieved 23 February 2024. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 "40 Years of Chemical Safety at the OECD: Quality and Efficiency" (PDF). oecd.org. Retrieved 27 January 2024. 
  23. ↑ "Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs. | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 18 April 2024. 
  24. ↑ "JACADS | Region 9: Waste | US EPA". archive.epa.gov. Retrieved 8 February 2024. 
  25. ↑ "International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)". imo.org. Retrieved 20 April 2024. 
  26. ↑ "Carriage of chemicals by ship". imo.org. Retrieved 20 April 2024. 
  27. ↑ "SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTS LISTED IN CHAPTER 18 OF THE INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (IBC CODE)." (PDF). classnk.or.jp. Retrieved 20 April 2024. 
  28. ↑ "Executive Orders | National Archives". www.archives.gov. Retrieved 17 April 2024. 
  29. ↑ "Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare 1975-1980 (Book Review)". PRISM | National Defense University. Retrieved 6 October 2023. 
  30. ↑ Eskenazi, Brenda; Warner, Marcella; Brambilla, Paolo; Signorini, Stefano; Ames, Jennifer; Mocarelli, Paolo (December 2018). "The Seveso accident: A look at 40 years of health research and beyond". Environment International. 121: 71–84. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.051. 
  31. ↑ "Seveso chemical disaster". Environment & Society Portal. Retrieved 15 April 2024. 
  32. ↑ Centemeri, Laura (1 December 2010). "Seveso : el desastre y la Directiva". Laboreal (in español). doi:10.4000/laboreal.8950. Retrieved 15 April 2024. 
  33. ↑ Anderson, Burt; Friedman, Herman; Bendinelli, Mauro (26 May 2007). Microorganisms and Bioterrorism. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-28159-9. 
  34. ↑ "What Happened In South Africa? | Plague War | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2023. 
  35. ↑ Broughton, Edward (December 2005). "The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review". Environmental Health. 4 (1). doi:10.1186/1476-069X-4-6. 
  36. ↑ "Summary of "Clouds of Injustice Bhopal Disaster 20 years on"" (PDF). amnesty.org. Retrieved 15 April 2024. 
  37. ↑ "Chemical Research in Toxicology | EVISA's Journals Database". speciation.net. Retrieved 20 April 2024. 
  38. ↑ "1993 Chemical Weapons Convention". International Committee of the Red Cross. 8 September 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2024. 
  39. ↑ "History". OPCW. Retrieved 14 April 2024. 
  40. ↑ "IS, al-Qaeda, and how jihad uses chemical weapons". BBC News. 16 September 2015. 
  41. ↑ "Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium". World Socialist Web Site. 8 June 1999. Retrieved 30 January 2024. 
  42. ↑ "The Belgian Dioxin Crisis and Its Effects on Agricultural Production and Exports" (PDF). ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 30 January 2024. 
  43. ↑ Bernard, Alfred; Broeckaert, Fabrice; De Poorter, Geert; De Cock, Ann; Hermans, Cédric; Saegerman, Claude; Houins, Gilbert (January 2002). "The Belgian PCB/dioxin incident: analysis of the food chain contamination and health risk evaluation". Environmental Research. 88 (1): 1–18. ISSN 0013-9351. doi:10.1006/enrs.2001.4274. 
  44. ↑ Tucker, Jonathan B. (28 February 2000). "Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons". books.google.com.ar. MIT Press. Retrieved 16 April 2024. 
  45. ↑ "Vizag Gas Leak - Styrene Gas". Unacademy. Retrieved 14 April 2024. 
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