Difference between revisions of "Timeline of calorie restriction"

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| 1925 || Background || || || || The {{w|calorie}} starts being defined in terms of the {{w|joule}}.<ref name="Calorie vvv">{{cite web |title=Calorie {{!}} unit of measurement |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/calorie |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=7 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> ||
 
| 1925 || Background || || || || The {{w|calorie}} starts being defined in terms of the {{w|joule}}.<ref name="Calorie vvv">{{cite web |title=Calorie {{!}} unit of measurement |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/calorie |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=7 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1935 || Research || Longevity || Helpful || {{w|Rat}} || American biochemist {{w|Clive McCay}} and his colleagues publish a seminal paper, which shows that slowing the post-weaning growth of rats by markedly restricting their food intake significantly increases their longevity.<ref name="asqw"/> This is the first widely known scientific publication on the impact of dietary restriction on life expectancy.<ref name="Zainabadi">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zainabadi K | title = A brief history of modern aging research | journal = Experimental Gerontology | volume = 104 | pages = 35–42 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29355705 | doi = 10.1016/j.exger.2018.01.018 | s2cid = 3972313 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = McCay CM, Crowell M |date=October 1934 |title=Prolonging the Life Span |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/15813 |journal=[[The Scientific Monthly]] |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=405–414 |doi= |jstor=15813 |pmc= |pmid= |bibcode=1934SciMo..39..405M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = McCay CM, Crowell MF, Maynard LA |date=1 July 1935 |title=The Effect of Retarded Growth Upon the Length of Life Span and Upon the Ultimate Body Size |url=http://www.wealthandhealth.ltd.uk/over100/C.%20M.%20McCAY%201935.pdf |journal=[[The Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1093/jn/10.1.63 |pmc= |pmid=}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}  
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| 1935 || Research || Longevity || Helpful || {{w|Rat}} || American biochemist {{w|Clive McCay}} and his colleagues publish a seminal paper, which shows that slowing the post-weaning growth of rats by markedly restricting their food intake significantly increases their longevity.<ref name="asqw"/> This is the first widely known scientific publication on the impact of dietary restriction on life expectancy.<ref name="Zainabadi">{{cite journal |last1=Zainabadi |first1=Kayvan |title=A brief history of modern aging research |journal=Experimental Gerontology |date=April 2018 |volume=104 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.1016/j.exger.2018.01.018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = McCay CM, Crowell M |date=October 1934 |title=Prolonging the Life Span |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/15813 |journal=[[The Scientific Monthly]] |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=405–414 |doi= |jstor=15813 |pmc= |pmid= |bibcode=1934SciMo..39..405M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = McCay CM, Crowell MF, Maynard LA |date=1 July 1935 |title=The Effect of Retarded Growth Upon the Length of Life Span and Upon the Ultimate Body Size |url=http://www.wealthandhealth.ltd.uk/over100/C.%20M.%20McCAY%201935.pdf |journal=[[The Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1093/jn/10.1.63 |pmc= |pmid=}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}  
 
|-
 
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| 1935 || Research || Organ level effect (bone) || Harmful || || Study by {{w|Clive McCay}} and colleagues reports that calorie restriction results in extremely brittle femurs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCay |first1=C. M. |last2=Crowell |first2=Mary F. |last3=Maynard |first3=L. A. |title=The Effect of Retarded Growth Upon the Length of Life Span and Upon the Ultimate Body Size |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |date=1935-07-01 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1093/jn/10.1.63}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}   
 
| 1935 || Research || Organ level effect (bone) || Harmful || || Study by {{w|Clive McCay}} and colleagues reports that calorie restriction results in extremely brittle femurs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCay |first1=C. M. |last2=Crowell |first2=Mary F. |last3=Maynard |first3=L. A. |title=The Effect of Retarded Growth Upon the Length of Life Span and Upon the Ultimate Body Size |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |date=1935-07-01 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1093/jn/10.1.63}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}   

Revision as of 07:16, 11 July 2021

This is a timeline of calorie restriction, attempting to describe significant events in the history of the topic, especially concerning scientific research. Many of the events described in this timeline are illustrative of a much greater body of research on calorie restriction.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

  • How and when was the concept of calorie established? What are some foundational events describing its discovery?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Background".
    • You will mostly see early events in the field of bioenergetics establishing the existence and concept of calorie.
  • What are some notable research cases involving calorie restriction?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Research".
      • For calorie restriction effect type in the organism, the full timeline by "Calorie restriction effect type (when applicable)".
      • You will see a variety of effects, ranging from behavior to health and longevity.
  • What are some books covering the topic of calorie restriction?
    • Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Literature".

Other events are described under the following types: "Concept development", "Diet introduction", "Notable case", "Organization", "Policy", and "Recommendation".

Big picture

Time period Development summary More details
19th century Basic science The concept of calorie is developed in this time. The concept of calorie restriction is practically non-existent.
20th century (first half) Basic concept and first discoveries In the early century, Carlo Moreschi becomes the first to describe the effects of calorie restriction on cancer prevention. This would be followed by a large body of work demonstrating calorie restriction tumor preventive effects in various animal models.[1] However, the basic concept of calorie restriction is founded in the late 1930s.[2] In that same decade, calorie restriction possible impact on the growth and health of children becomes an important topic, while mechanisms that underlie aging are not on the radar screen yet.[3] Since the late 1930s, the term calorie restriction becomes more widely used. In the 1940s, many researchers report that calorie restriction retards or prevents the onset of age-related diseases such as kidney disease, tumors, and leukemia.[2]
20th century (second half) Increased link to longevity and clinical introduction From the 1950s towards the 1980s, the longevity effect of calorie restriction is reported in multiple species.[2] Beginning in the 1970s, research on calorie restriction and aging markedly intensifies.[4] Around the late 1970s and early 1980s, a resurgence in interest begins in the potential of calorie restriction to extend life. The work of Roy Walford in the United States is notable at this time.[5] In the 1980s, the very-low-calorie diet starts being used for clinical purposes.[6]
1990s onwards Modern approach Molecular biology is increasingly put to use in the effort to understand the basis of the actions of calorie restriction. Prior to it, morphological pathology and physiology were the primary tools used to explore CR.[7]

Numerical and visual data

Mentions on Google Scholar

Year calorie restriction calorie restriction benefits calorie restriction weight loss calorie restriction longevity calorie restriction oxidative stress
1980 444 236 714 67 53
1985 597 327 956 111 81
1990 778 544 1,280 176 164
1995 1,070 857 1,760 281 317
2000 1,880 1,500 2,850 559 1,230
2002 2,560 1,840 3,910 786 1,790
2004 3,380 2,550 4,600 1,120 2,260
2006 4,340 3,350 6,330 1,410 3,110
2008 5,500 4,080 8,020 1,780 4,090
2010 5,870 5,150 8,410 2,350 4,050
2012 7,620 9,170 10,900 2,820 5,240
2014 9,190 7,660 12,800 3,120 6,690
2016 9,110 8,240 13,000 3,140 6,400
2017 9,590 8,870 13,500 3,880 6,910
2018 9,840 9,280 14,200 3,570 7,220
2019 9,930 9,590 14,200 3,520 7,310
2020 12,000 10,100 13,400 3,760 7,420
Calorie restriction.png

Google Trends

The chart below shows Google Trends data for Calorie restriction (search term), from January 2004 to June 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map [8].

Calorie restriction gt.png

Google Ngram Viewer

The comparative chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for calorie restriction and caloric restriction, from 1900 to 2019.[9]

Calorie restriction ngram.png

Wikipedia Views

The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article Calorie restriction, from July 2015 to May 2021.[10]

Calorie restriction wv.png

Full timeline

Year Event type Calorie restriction effect type (when applicable) Effect direction (when applicable) Research subject species (when applicable) Details Location/researcher affiliation
1819–1824 Background The calorie is first introduced by French chemist Nicolas Clément, as a unit of heat energy, in lectures during these years.[11][12] France
1879 Background French chemist Marcellin Berthelot distinguishes between gram-calorie (modern calorie) and kilogram-calorie (modern kilocalorie).[11] France
1887 Background The use of the kilogram-calorie (kcal) for nutrition is introduced in the United States by American chemist Wilbur Olin Atwater, a professor at Wesleyan University.[12] United States (Wesleyan University, Connecticut)
1896 Background The modern calorie (cal) is first recognized as a unit of the centimetre–gram–second system of units (cgs).[11]
1909 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rat Italian immunologist in Germany Carlo Moreschi finds that tumors transplanted into rats that were underfed did not grow as well as those transplanted into Ad libitum fed rats. This is the first hint that calorie restriction may have an effect on tumor progression.[5] Germany
1914 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent American virologist Francis Peyton Rous reports that reducing food intake inhibits the occurrence of spontaneous cancers in rodents.[13][14] United States
1917 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful American biochemists Thomas Osborne and Lafayette Mendel publish the first scientific study showing that restricting food extends life.[15] United States (Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut)
1918 Literature Weight loss Helpful Human American doctor Lulu Hunt Peters publishes Diet & Health: With Key to the Calories, which is aimed at women and presents the concept of calorie reduction as the best form of weight loss and watching weight.[16]
1920 Research Longevity Harmful In opposition to 1917 report by Osborne and Mendel, T. Robertson and L.A. Ray publish scientific study concluding that restricting food shortens life.[17][15] Australia (University of Adelaide), Canada (University of Toronto)
1925 Background The calorie starts being defined in terms of the joule.[18]
1935 Research Longevity Helpful Rat American biochemist Clive McCay and his colleagues publish a seminal paper, which shows that slowing the post-weaning growth of rats by markedly restricting their food intake significantly increases their longevity.[7] This is the first widely known scientific publication on the impact of dietary restriction on life expectancy.[19][20][21] United States
1935 Research Organ level effect (bone) Harmful Study by Clive McCay and colleagues reports that calorie restriction results in extremely brittle femurs.[22] United States
1935 Research Longevity Helpful Clive McCay and colleagues publish a landmark paper in the Journal of Nutrition entitled The effect of retarded growth upon the length of life span and upon the ultimate body size which provides the first systematic research evidence that calorie restriction prolongs life.[23][3]
1939 Research Longevity Neutral C.M. McCay and colleagues publish a paper that defines for the first time the aging research value of the calorie restriction model, suggesting that calorie restriction may be a model for studying aging: “Retardation of growth by diets, complete except for calories, affords a means of producing very old animals for studying aging”.[24] United States (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York)
1942 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Albert Tannenbaum writes: “It follows that the avoidance of overweight through restriction of food intake may aid in the prevention of human cancer or at least delay its onset”.[3]
1947 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Mouse Research by Ball and colleagues reports that lifelong dietary restriction dramatically extends the life span of mice (a maximum life span of 850 days vs. 550 days), whereas dietary restriction for the first 240 days has little effect.[15]
1948 Background The current definition of the calorie is formally adopted as equivalent to approximately 4.2 joules.[18]
1951 Research Organ level effect (heart) Helpful Human Study by Strom and Jensen recognizes beneficial effects of calorie restriction on heart function as a result of shortage of food during World War II.[25] Norway
1951 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Tokophrya infusionum Study by Maria A. Rudzinska reports that calorie restriction decreases the mortality rate in Tokophrya infusionum (protozoan).[26] United States (New York University)
1960 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Study by Benjamin N. Berg and Henry S. Simms published in the Journal of Nutrition proposes link between life extension and reduction in body fat content.[27][7] United States
1961 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Brown rat Study by M.H. Ross reports on calorie restriction decreasing the mortality rate in Rattus norvegicus (rat).[28] United States (Biochemical Research Foundation, Newark, Delaware)
1963 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Fish Study by Alex Comfort reports that retarding the growth of fish by restricting food increases their longevity.[29] United Kingdom (University College London)
1965 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Philodina acuticornis (rotifera) Study by D.D. Fanestil and C.H. Barrows Jr reports on calorie restriction decreasing the mortality rate in Philodina acuticornis, a species of freshwater bdelloid rotifers.[30]
1973 Research Health (immune system) Helpful Rodent Study by American pathologist Roy Walford et al. in rodents using intermitent fasting protocol to explore the humoral responses of subjects reports that after 1 year of restriction, Immunoglobulin M and Immunoglobulin G antibodies activity was augmented.[31] Being among the first to study the effects of calorie restriction on immune function in rodents, Walford would become a strong advocate for the use of calorie restriction in humans.[5] United States (UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles)
1977 Research Metabolic effect Helpful American biologist George A. Sacher proposes that calorie restriction retards aging by decreasing the intensity of energy metabolism.[4] United States (Argonne National Laboratory)
1977 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode) Study by M.R. Klass reports on calorie restriction decreasing the mortality rate in C. elegans.[32] United States (University of Colorado Boulder)
1978 Notable case Mortality Harmful Human In this year, 58 people die in the United States after following very-low-calorie liquid protein diets.[33] United States
1980 Research Organ level effect (white adipose tissue) Helpful Rat Study by Helen A. Bertrand et al. in rats reports that, under calorie restriction, the loss of white adipose tissue is disproportionately large.[34] United States
1980 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Mus musculus (rodent) Study by K.E. Cheney and colleagues reports on calorie restriction decreasing the mortality rate in house mice.[35] United States (University of California, Los Angeles)
1982 Research Lifespan and mortality Helpful Mouse Study by Richard Weindruch and Roy Walford in 12- to 13-month-old mice on food restriction by using nutrient-enriched diets in accordance with the concept of "undernutrition without malnutrition" results in the mice on the restricted diet averaging 10 to 20 percent increases in mean and maximum survival times compared to the control mice.[5][36] United States
1984 Policy Illness Harmful Human The United States FDA starts requiring that very-low-calorie diets providing fewer than 400 calories a day to carry a warning that they can cause serious illness and need to be followed under medical supervision.[33] United States
1984 Literature Lifespan and mortality Helpful Human Roy Walford publishes Maximum Life Span a book on lifespan determination advocating calorie restriction.[5]
1984 Research Organ level effect (bone) Helpful Rat Research by Kalu et al. in rats concludes that calorie restriction completely prevents the senile bone loss recorded in ad libitum rats with femur strength to body weight ratios greater than in ad libitum.[37] United States (University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio)
1986 Literature Lifespan and mortality Helpful Richard Weindruch and Roy Walford publish The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction, an influential and comprehensive encyclopedia of calorie restriction studies that would encourage many scientists to become interested in, and to investigate, calorie restriction and its impact on aging.[23] United States
1986 Literature Lifespan and mortality Helpful Human Roy Walford publishes The 120-Year Diet: How to Double Your Vital Years, advocating the use of calorie restriction to increase human longevity.[5][38] United States
1987 Research Behavior (physical activity) Helpful Rodent Study by D E Harrison and J R Archer reports that the response shown by many rodents to calorie restriction is actually to increase levels of activity.[39][5]
1988 Literature Lifespan and mortality Helpful Roy Walford and Richard Weindruch publish The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction.[5] United States
1991–1993 Diet introduction Helpful Human Roy Walford's compiled data during his participation in Biosphere 2 is used to develop the CRON-diet, jointly with Lisa Walford, and Brian M. Delaney. IT consists in eating a diet low in fat and in calories but "nutrient-dense".[40][41] United States
1993 Research Organ level effect (liver) Rodent (rat) Research by Alterman et al. in rats shows that calorie restriction has profound effects on the hepatic microsomal levels and activities of cytochrome P-450s, a superfamily of enzymes containing heme as a cofactor that functions as monooxygenases.[42] United States (Texas A&M University)
1994 Organization Lifespan and mortality Helpful Human The Calorie Restriction Society is founded. This organization sponsors conferences, funds anti-aging research, and offers practical guidance to its members.[43] United States
1994 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Study by Peter P. Fu and colleagues shows that caloric restriction profoundly inhibits liver-tumor formation after initiation by 6-nitrochrysene in male-mice.[44][5] United States (National Center for Toxicological Research, Arkansas)
1994 Research Metabolic effect (oxidative stress) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Study by R.S. Sohal and colleagues in mice reports that isolated mitochondria from subjects under calorie restriction show reductions in superoxide radical production.[45] Unted States (Southern Methodist University, Dallas)
1995 Research Behavior (cognitive effect) Neutral Study by M.W. Green et al. concludes that short-term food deprivation has little or no detrimental effect on cognitive function, also indicating that "deficits in cognitive function found to be associated with spontaneous dieting are unlikely to be due primarily to any direct physiological or nutritional effects of food deprivation".[46] United Kingdom (Institute of Food Research, Reading, Berkshire)
1995 Literature Longevity Helpful Human Roy Walford publishes The Anti-Aging Plan, which promotes calorie restriction in humans.[5]
1995 Research Endocrine effect (leptin and other adipokines) Harmful Rodent (mouse) Study by Robert C. Frederich and colleagues in mice shows that the loss of body fat during calorie restriction results in profound reductions in circulating levels of several adipokines, including leptin.[47] United States (Beth Israel Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts)
1996 Research Metabolic effect (oxidative stress) Helpful Rodent Study by B.P. Yu in mice concludes that calorie restriction in subjects reduces oxidative stress.[48] United States (University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio)
1997 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent Study by Hart and Turturro in rodents reports that calorie restriction in subjects reduces the susceptibility to cancer.[49] United States (National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, Arkansas)
1997 Research Organ level effect (alimentary tract) Rodent (mouse) Study by Casirola et al. in mice reports tha intestinal nutrient uptake in calorie restriction animals is significantly higher for D-sugars, L amino acids and L-glucose than in same-age ad libitum animals.[50] United States (University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey)
1997 Research Organ level effect (muscle) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Study by Aspnes et al. in mice reports that calorie restriction has a protective effect against sarcopenic muscle loss in subjects.[51] United States (University of Wisconsin–Madison)
1998 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent (rat) Study by T.J. Spady et al. shows that dietary energy restriction abolishes development of prolactin-producing pituitary tumors in rats treated with 17 beta-estradiol.[52] United States (University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha)
1998 Concept development The term caloric restriction mimetic is coined by Lane, Ingram, and Roth, of the National Institute on Aging in a seminal paper in the Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine, the forerunner of Rejuvenation Research.[53] United States (National Institute on Aging, Maryland)
1998 Research Health Neutral Human Verdery and Walford show that calorie restriction in humans produces physiological effects that are similar to those found in rodents and monkeys.[54]
1998 Research Metabolic effect (oxidative stress) Helpful Rodent (rat) Study by M.V. Aksenova and colleagues in rats concludes that calorie restriction relieves age-associated levels of oxidative stress and lessen protein damage in the brain.[55] United States (University of Kentucky)
1998 Research Health (insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome) Helpful Rodent (rat) Research by Barzilai et al. in rats shows that calorie restriction for 18 months restores hepatic insulin sensitivity to the same levels observed in young rats (4 months). Aging is accompanied by a marked increase in hepatic resistance to the action of insulin.[56] United States (Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York)
1999 Research Health (cancer) Neutral Rodent (mouse) Study by Pugh et al. in mice shows that calorie restriction performed from the age of 12 months onwards resunts in the incidence of the most prevalent cancer (plasma cell neoplasm) being higher in calorie restricted mice (66%) than in controls (41%). However calorie restriction is found to increase the age at which tumor-bearing mice died, also reducing the percentage of mice dying with cancers, suggesting that CR retards the promotion and/or progression of existing lymphoid cancers.[57] United States (Institute on Aging, University of Wisconsin–Madison)
1999 Research Mortality Helpful Monkey Study by Roth et al. in monkeys suggests that mortality is reduced in subjects on calorie restriction.[58][59] United States (National Institute of Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland)
2000 Literature Longevity Helpful Human R.L. Walford publishes Beyond the 120-Year Diet: How to Double Your Vital Years, which argues that longevity can be significantly increased by a diet that contains all the required nutrients but about a third fewer calories.[5]
2000 Research Metabolic effect (autophagy) Helpful Rodent (rat) Study by G.Cavallini and colleagues in rats reports that calorie restriction prevents the age-dependent decline of autophagic proteolysis and improves the sensitivity of liver cells to stimulation of lysosomal degradation.[60] Italy (Dipartimento di Patologia sperimentale, Biotecnologie mediche, Infettivologia e Epidemiologia, Pisa)
2000 Research Health (disease) Helpful Monkey Study by Black et al. in monkeys suggests that morbidity, in particular neoplastic disease, is reduced in subjects on calorie restriction.[59]
2001 Research Organ level effect (bone) Harmful Monkey Study by Black et al. reports that short term (1 year) calorie restriction in young, 4 years old, male monkeys delayed skeletal maturation and reduced bone mass whereas adult-onset calorie restriction, 19 years old, had no significant effect on bone mass compared with control male monkeys.[61] United States (Gerontology Research Center, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore)
2001 Research Organ level effect (skin) Helpful Rodent (rat) Research by N.M. Elsayed in rodents reports that oxidative protection of the lung tissue is enhanced by calorie restriction and rats under CR exposed to ozone show lowered oxidative damage and elevated survivability.[62] United States (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C.)
2001 Research Health (obesity) Helpful Human A review by P. Mustajoki and T. Pekkarinen finds that the very-low-calorie diet in the treatment of obesity has no serious harmful effect when done under medical supervision, for periods of 8–16 weeks with an average weight loss of 1.5-2.5 kg/week.[6] Finland (Peijas Hospital, Department of Medicine, Vantaa)
2001 Research Behavior (reproduction) Harmful Rodent Research by Caprio et al. in rodents reports that when female animals are under calorie restriction their fertility is reduced, presumably as a mechanism to prevent them becoming pregnant at a time when insufficient resources are available to support a reproductive event.[63] Italy (Universita’ di Tor Vergata, Università La Sapienza)
2002 Research Behavior (hunger) Neutral Human Study by Hansen et al. reports that circulating levels of ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone secreted by the stomach, is increased in the plasma during diet induced weight loss in obese humans, suggesting that ghrelin may contribute to the sustained appetite associated with calorie restriction.[64][5] Denmark (Aarhus University Hospital), Japan (National Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, Osaka)
2002 Research Longevity Helpful According to paper by Lane et al., there are more than 2,000 animal studies on calorie restriction showing dramatic results across many different species, which provide good evidence that restricting calories slows down aging and can extend youthfulness.[54]
2003 Research Lifespan and mortality Harmful Rodent Research in rodents by Forster et al. shows that the effect of calorie restriction may be negative if the restriction is started very late in life.[65] United States (Institute for Aging and Alzheimer's Disease Research, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth)
2003 Research Endocrine effect (ghrelin) Neutral Rodent (rat) Research by Barazzoni et al. in rats concludes that during calorie restriction, levels of ghrelin are increased.[66] Italy (Dipartmento di Scienze Cliniche, Morfologiche e Technologiche-DSCMT, Clinica Medica, Trieste)
2003 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent (mouse) A systematic metaanalysis by Dirx et al. of 14 studies in mice suggests that subjects on calorie restriction develop between 41% and 69% less mammary tumors than the control groups.[67] Netherlands (Maastricht University)
2003 Research Organ level effect (bone) Harmful Rodent (rat) Research by LaMothe et al. in rats concludes that axial and appendicular bones are adversely influenced by calorie restriction in late-middle-aged subjects in different manners.[68]
2003 Research Longevity Helpful Rodent (mouse) Research by Matthias Blüher et al. in mice suggests that reduced fat mass without calorie restriction can be associated with increased longevity.[69] United States (Harvard Medical School, Boston)
2003 Research Organ level effect (liver) Harmful Rodent (rat) Study by U.M. Apte reports rats under calorie restriction showing increased susceptibility to liver damage induced by the hepatotoxicant thioacetamide.[70] United States
2003 Research Endocrine effect (adiponectin Harmful Rodent (mouse) Study by Combs et al. in mice reports increased levels of adiponectin by calorie restriction.[71] United States (Albert Einstein College of Medicine)
2004 Research Health (immune system) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Research by Christopher A Jolly shows that calorie restriction delays thymic involution in mice.[72] United States (The University of Texas at Austin)
2004 Research Organ level effect (lungs) Harmful Rodent (rat) Study by Massaro et al. in rats suggests that calorie restriction increases the risk of development of emphysema, a lung condition that causes shortness of breath.[73] United States (University of Texas Health Science Center)
2005 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Study by Stewart and colleagues in mice shows that skin cancer promotion is inhibited by calorie restriction.[74] United States (Iowa State University)
2005 Research Organ level effect (skin) Helpful Rodent (rat) Research by Bhattacharyya et al. in rats concludes that calorie restriction retards age related changes on the skin along with increased collagen and elastic fibers, fibroblasts, and capillaries in skin samples from the subjects.[75] United States (University of Illinois at Chicago)
2005 Research Endocrine effect (insulin) Neutral Rodent (mouse) Research by Argentino et al. in mice reports that calorie restriction reduces circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 and insulin (and glucose).[76][77] Argentina (Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas (UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires)
2005 Research Metabolic effect (mitochondrial biogenesis) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Study by Enzo Nisoli and colleagues reports that calorie restriction at 30% for 3 months results in mitochondrial biogenesis in the brain, heart, liver and particularly the adipose tissue of mice.[78] Italy, United Kingdom
2006 Research Behavior (cognitive effects) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Research by Martin et al. reports evidence suggesting that calorie restriction and intermittent fasting may benefit neurons by impinging upon fundamental metabolic and cellular signaling pathways that regulate life-span.[79]
2006 Research Behavior (reproduction) Harmful Rabbit Study by Brecchia et al. reports that, in female rabbits, food deprived completely for 24 and 48 hours results in decline in fertility by 23.9 and 21.4% respectively, matched by major disturbances in the endocrine axis linked to reproduction.[80] Italy
2007 Research Metabolic effect (oxidative stress) Helpful Rodent (rat) Study by Cenk Aydin et al. in rats concludes that subjects on calorie restriction are protected against oxidative stress induced by swimming exercise in the liver, heart and kidney.[81] Two years later, the researchers discover the same effects in the brain and lungs.[82] Turkey (Uludag University, Bursa)
2007 Research Behavior (cognitive effects) Neutral Rodent (rat) Research by Martin et al. in rats reports no consistent pattern of verbal memory, visual retention/memory, or attention/concentration deficits being found over 6 months, and the energy deficit by calorie restriction or exercise was not significantly associated cognitive test performance.[83]
2007 Research Organ level effect (alimentary tract) Neutral Rodent (mouse) Study by Yang et al. in mice reports what is perhaps the most conspicuous change in the morphology of the alimentary tract under calorie restriction, which is the hypertrophy of the stomach observed in subjects.[84] United States (Louisiana State University System)
2007 Research Longevity Helpful Human Stydy by Speakman and Hambly calculates that if the lifespan effects observed in rodents translate faithfully to an effect in humans, then if a 48 year old engaged in 30% calorie restriction for 30 years, until the current mean life-expectancy of 78, they might expect to live only an extra 2.8 years because of the CR effect.[85]
2007 Research Organ level effect (kidney) Helpful Rodent Research by Chen et al. in rodents concludes that calorie restriction attenuates increased susceptibility to kidney injury in old subjects.[86] United States (Texas A&M Health Science Center)
2008 Research Health (cancer) Helpful Rodent (mouse) Study by Wheatley et al. in mice suggests that although a low calorie diet does not induce weight loss, it may reduce colon cancer risk by lowering serum IGF-I levels.[87] United States (University of Texas at Austin)
2008 Research Organ level effect (bone) Harmful Rodent (rat) Research by Baek et al. in rats concludes that moderate caloric restriction may cause bone loss at susceptible bone sites to a similar degree as does the unloading effect of microgravity in astronauts.[88]
2008 Research Organ level effect (muscle) Helpful Non-human primate Study by Colman et al. reports that calorie restriction has a protective effect against sarcopenic muscle loss in non-human primates.[89] United States (Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison)
2014 Recommendation According to the NICE 2014 guidelines, the routine use of very-low-calorie diets is not recommended due to safety concerns, but this approach can be used under medical supervision if there is a clinical rationale for rapid weight loss in obese individuals, as part of a "multi-component weight management strategy" with continuous support and for a maximum of 12 weeks.[90]
2018 Research Health (brain) Helpful/harmful Grey mouse lemur Researchers find that caloric restriction increases lifespan but affects brain integrity in grey mouse lemur primates.[91] France

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[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]) [15] Category:Diets

Timeline update strategy

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ Brandhorst, Sebastian; Longo, Valter D. (2016). "Fasting and Caloric Restriction in Cancer Prevention and Treatment". Metabolism in Cancer. 207: 241–266. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42118-6_12. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Hwangbo, Dae-Sung; Lee, Hye-Yeon; Abozaid, Leen Suleiman; Min, Kyung-Jin (24 April 2020). "Mechanisms of Lifespan Regulation by Calorie Restriction and Intermittent Fasting in Model Organisms". Nutrients. 12 (4): 1194. doi:10.3390/nu12041194. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 McDonald, Roger B.; Ramsey, Jon J. (2010). "Honoring Clive McCay and 75 Years of Calorie Restriction Research". The Journal of Nutrition. 140 (7): 1205–1210. ISSN 0022-3166. doi:10.3945/jn.110.122804. Retrieved 26 February 2021. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Masoro, E. J. (26 February 2003). "Subfield History: Caloric Restriction, Slowing Aging, and Extending Life". Science of Aging Knowledge Environment. 2003 (8): 2re–2. doi:10.1126/sageke.2003.8.re2. 
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 Speakman, John R.; Mitchell, Sharon E. (June 2011). "Caloric restriction". Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 32 (3): 159–221. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2011.07.001. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Mustajoki, P.; Pekkarinen, T. (February 2001). "Very low energy diets in the treatment of obesity". Obesity Reviews. 2 (1): 61–72. doi:10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00026.x. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Masoro, Edward J. (2010). "History of Caloric Restriction, Aging and Longevity". Calorie Restriction, Aging and Longevity. Springer Netherlands: 3–14. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8556-6_1#:~:text=1.1+introduction,retarded+growth+on+life+span. Retrieved 26 February 2021. 
  8. ↑ "Calorie restriction". Google Trends. Retrieved 28 June 2021. 
  9. ↑ "calorie restriction and caloric restriction". books.google.com. Retrieved 28 June 2021. 
  10. ↑ "Calorie restriction". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 28 June 2021. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Hargrove, James L (December 2007). "Does the history of food energy units suggest a solution to "Calorie confusion"?". Nutrition Journal. 6 (1): 44. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-6-44. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Hargrove, James L (2007). "Does the history of food energy units suggest a solution to "Calorie confusion"?". Nutrition Journal. 6 (44): 44. PMC 2238749Freely accessible. PMID 18086303. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-6-44. 
  13. ↑ Everitt, Arthur V.; Rattan, Suresh I. S.; Couteur, David G.; Cabo, Rafael de. Calorie Restriction, Aging and Longevity. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-481-8556-6. 
  14. ↑ Rous, Peyton (1 November 1914). "THE INFLUENCE OF DIET ON TRANSPLANTED AND SPONTANEOUS MOUSE TUMORS". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 20 (5): 433–451. doi:10.1084/jem.20.5.433. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Handbook of the biology of aging (6th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. 2006. ISBN 9780120883875. 
  16. ↑ Temple, Emily (January 15, 2019). "Some Hilarious Illustrations from America's First Bestselling Diet Book". LitHub. 
  17. ↑ Robertson, T.Brailsford; Ray, L.A. (November 1920). "EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON GROWTH". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 44 (2): 439–453. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)86250-0. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Calorie | unit of measurement". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 July 2021. 
  19. ↑ Zainabadi, Kayvan (April 2018). "A brief history of modern aging research". Experimental Gerontology. 104: 35–42. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2018.01.018. 
  20. ↑ McCay CM, Crowell M (October 1934). "Prolonging the Life Span". The Scientific Monthly. 39 (5): 405–414. Bibcode:1934SciMo..39..405M. JSTOR 15813. 
  21. ↑ McCay CM, Crowell MF, Maynard LA (1 July 1935). "The Effect of Retarded Growth Upon the Length of Life Span and Upon the Ultimate Body Size" (PDF). The Journal of Nutrition. 10 (1): 63–79. doi:10.1093/jn/10.1.63. 
  22. ↑ McCay, C. M.; Crowell, Mary F.; Maynard, L. A. (1935-07-01). "The Effect of Retarded Growth Upon the Length of Life Span and Upon the Ultimate Body Size". The Journal of Nutrition. 10 (1): 63–79. doi:10.1093/jn/10.1.63. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Le Couteur, David G; Simpson, Stephen J (1 October 2018). "90th Anniversary Commentary: Caloric Restriction Effects on Aging". The Journal of Nutrition. 148 (10): 1656–1659. ISSN 0022-3166. doi:10.1093/jn/nxy146. 
  24. ↑ McCay, C. M.; Maynard, L. A.; Sperling, G.; Barnes, LeRoy L. (27 April 2009). "THE JOURNAL OF NUTRITION: RETARDED GROWTH, LIFE SPAN, ULTIMATE BODY SIZE AND AGE CHANGES IN THE ALBINO RAT AFTER FEEDING DIETS RESTRICTED IN CALORIES". Nutrition Reviews. 33 (8): 241–243. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1975.tb05227.x. 
  25. ↑ Strøm, Axel; Jensen, R.Adelsten; Oslo, M.D.; Oslo, M.D. (January 1951). "MORTALITY FROM CIRCULATORY DISEASES IN NORWAY 1940-1945". The Lancet. 257 (6647): 126–129. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(51)91210-x. 
  26. ↑ Rudzinska, M. A. (5 January 1951). "The Influence of Amount of Food on the Reproduction Rate and Longevity of a Suctorian (Tokophrya infusionum)". Science. 113 (2923): 10–11. doi:10.1126/science.113.2923.10. 
  27. ↑ Berg, Benjamin N.; Simms, Henry S. (1 July 1960). "Nutrition and Longevity in the Rat". The Journal of Nutrition. 71 (3): 255–263. doi:10.1093/jn/71.3.255. 
  28. ↑ Ross, Morris H. (1 October 1961). "Length of Life and Nutrition in the Rat". The Journal of Nutrition. 75 (2): 197–210. doi:10.1093/jn/75.2.197. 
  29. ↑ Comfort, A. (1963). "Effect of Delayed and Resumed Growth on the Longevity of a Fish (Lebistes reticulatus, Peters) in Captivity". Gerontology. 8 (2-3): 150–155. doi:10.1159/000211216. 
  30. ↑ Template:C ite journal
  31. ↑ Walford, R.L.; Liu, R.K.; Gerbase-Delima, M.; Mathies, M.; Smith, G.S. (January 1973). "Longterm dietary restriction and immune function in mice: Response to sheep red blood cells and to mitogenic agents". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 2: 447–454. doi:10.1016/0047-6374(73)90035-3. 
  32. ↑ Klass, Michael R. (January 1977). "Aging in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans: Major biological and environmental factors influencing life span". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 6: 413–429. doi:10.1016/0047-6374(77)90043-4. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Zoumbaris, Sharon K.; Bijlefeld, Marjolijn (25 November 2014). Encyclopedia of diet fads : understanding science and society (Encyclopaedia) (2nd ed.). Greenwood. ISBN 9781610697606. 
  34. ↑ Bertrand, H. A.; Lynd, F. T.; Masoro, E. J.; Yu, B. P. (1980-11-01). "Changes in Adipose Mass and Cellularity Through the Adult Life of Rats Fed Ad Libitum or a Life-Prolonging Restricted Diet". Journal of Gerontology. 35 (6): 827–835. doi:10.1093/geronj/35.6.827. 
  35. ↑ Cheney, K.E.; Liu, R.K.; Smith, G.S.; Leung, R.E.; Mickey, M.R.; Walford, R.L. (January 1980). "Survival and disease patterns in C57BL/6J mice subjected to undernutrition". Experimental Gerontology. 15 (4): 237–258. doi:10.1016/0531-5565(80)90029-7. 
  36. ↑ Weindruch, R; Walford, R. (1982-03-12). "Dietary restriction in mice beginning at 1 year of age: effect on life-span and spontaneous cancer incidence". Science. 215 (4538): 1415–1418. doi:10.1126/science.7063854. 
  37. ↑ Kalu, Dike N.; Hardin, Robert R.; Cockerham, Richard; Yu, Byung P.; Norling, Barry K.; Egan, John W. (July 1984). "Lifelong food restriction prevents senile osteopenia and hyperparathyroidism in F344 rats". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 26 (1): 103–112. doi:10.1016/0047-6374(84)90169-6. 
  38. ↑ Leary, Timothy (1 April 2009). Alternatives to Involuntary Death. Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-1-57951-096-1. 
  39. ↑ Harrison, D. E.; Archer, J. R. (1987-02-01). "Genetic Differences in Effects of Food Restriction on Aging in Mice". The Journal of Nutrition. 117 (2): 376–382. doi:10.1093/jn/117.2.376. 
  40. ↑ Walford, R. L.; Harris, S. B.; Gunion, M. W. (1992). "The calorically restricted low-fat nutrient-dense diet in Biosphere 2 significantly lowers blood glucose, total leukocyte count, cholesterol, and blood pressure in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 89 (23): 11533–11537. PMC 50586Freely accessible. PMID 1454844. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.23.11533. 
  41. ↑ Nagourney, Eric (26 September 2000). "Ups and Downs for Diet Guinea Pigs". The New York Times. 
  42. ↑ Alterman, Michail; Carvan, Michael; Srivastava, Vinod; Leakey, Julian; Hart, Ron; Busbee, David (January 1993). "Effects of aging and long-term caloric restriction on hepatic microsomal monooxygenases in female fischer 344 rats: Alterations in basal cytochrome P-450 catalytic activities". AGE. 16 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1007/BF02436124. 
  43. ↑ "Embryonic CR Society". crsociety.org. Retrieved 5 May 2021. 
  44. ↑ Fu, Peter P.; Dooley, Kenneth L.; Von Tungeln, Linda S.; Bucci, Thomas; Hart, Ronald W.; Kadlubar, Fred F. (1994). "Caloric restriction profoundly inhibits liver tumor formation after initiation by 6-nitrochrysene in male mice". Carcinogenesis. 15 (2): 159–161. doi:10.1093/carcin/15.2.159. 
  45. ↑ Sohal, Rajindar S.; Ku, Hung-Hai; Agarwal, Sanjiv; Forster, Michael J.; Lal, Harbans (May 1994). "Oxidative damage, mitochondrial oxidant generation and antioxidant defenses during aging and in response to food restriction in the mouse". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 74 (1-2): 121–133. doi:10.1016/0047-6374(94)90104-x. 
  46. ↑ Green, Michael W.; Elliman, Nicola A.; Rogers, Peter J. (May 1995). "Lack of effect of short-term fasting on cognitive function". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 29 (3): 245–253. doi:10.1016/0022-3956(95)00009-t. 
  47. ↑ Frederich, Robert C.; Hamann, Andreas; Anderson, Stephen; Löllmann, Bettina; Lowell, Bradford B.; Flier, Jeffrey S. (December 1995). "Leptin levels reflect body lipid content in mice: Evidence for diet-induced resistance to leptin action". Nature Medicine. 1 (12): 1311–1314. doi:10.1038/nm1295-1311. 
  48. ↑ Yu, Byung Pal (January 1996). "Aging and oxidative stress: Modulation by dietary restriction". Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 21 (5): 651–668. doi:10.1016/0891-5849(96)00162-1. 
  49. ↑ Hart, R W; Turturro, A (June 1997). "Dietary restrictions and cancer.". Environmental Health Perspectives. 105 (suppl 4): 989–992. doi:10.1289/ehp.97105s4989. 
  50. ↑ Casirola, D. M.; Lan, Y.; Ferraris, R. P. (1997-11-01). "Effects of Changes in Calorie Intake on Intestinal Nutrient Uptake and Transporter mRNA Levels in Aged Mice". The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 52A (6): B300–B310. doi:10.1093/gerona/52a.6.b300. 
  51. ↑ Aspnes, Lauren E.; Lee, Connie M.; Weindruch, Richard; Chung, Susan S.; Roecker, Ellen B.; Aiken, Judd M. (June 1997). "Caloric restriction reduces fiber loss and mitochondrial abnormalities in aged rat muscle". The FASEB Journal. 11 (7): 573–581. doi:10.1096/fasebj.11.7.9212081. 
  52. ↑ Spady, Thomas J.; Lemus-Wilson, Athena M.; Pennington, Karen L.; Blackwood, Darcy J.; Paschall, Tanya M.; Birt, Diane F.; McComb, Rodney D.; Shull, James D. (1998). "Dietary energy restriction abolishes development of prolactin-producing pituitary tumors in Fischer 344 rats treated with 17-βestradiol". Molecular Carcinogenesis. 23 (2): 86–95. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2744(199810)23:2<86::aid-mc5>3.0.co;2-5. 
  53. ↑ Lane MA; Ingram DK; Roth GS (Winter 1998). "2-Deoxy-D-glucose feeding in rats mimics physiologic effects of calorie restriction". J Anti-Aging Med. 1 (4): 327–37. doi:10.1089/rej.1.1998.1.327. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 "The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension". 2010. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3999-6. 
  55. ↑ Aksenova, Marina V; Aksenov, Michael Y; Carney, John M; Butterfield, D.Allan (January 1998). "Protein oxidation and enzyme activity decline in old brown Norway rats are reduced by dietary restriction". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 100 (2): 157–168. doi:10.1016/s0047-6374(97)00133-4. 
  56. ↑ Barzilai, N; Banerjee, S; Hawkins, M; Chen, W; Rossetti, L (1998-04-01). "Caloric restriction reverses hepatic insulin resistance in aging rats by decreasing visceral fat.". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 101 (7): 1353–1361. doi:10.1172/JCI485. 
  57. ↑ Pugh, TD; Oberley, TD; Weindruch, R (1999-04-01). "Dietary intervention at middle age: caloric restriction but not dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate increases lifespan and lifetime cancer incidence in mice.". Cancer research. 59 (7): 1642–8. PMID 10197641. 
  58. ↑ Roth, George S.; Ingram, Donald K.; Lane, Mark A. (July 1999). "Calorie Restriction in Primates: Will It Work and How Will We Know?". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 47 (7): 896–903. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1999.tb03851.x. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Lane, Mark A.; Mattison, Julie; Ingram, Donald K.; Roth, George S. (15 November 2002). "Caloric restriction and aging in primates: Relevance to humans and possible CR mimetics". Microscopy Research and Technique. 59 (4): 335–338. doi:10.1002/jemt.10214. 
  60. ↑ Cavallini, G.; Donati, A.; Gori, Z.; Pollera, M.; Bergamini, E. (March 2001). "The protection of rat liver autophagic proteolysis from the age-related decline co-varies with the duration of anti-ageing food restriction". Experimental Gerontology. 36 (3): 497–506. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(00)00224-2. 
  61. ↑ Black, A.; Allison, D.B.; Shapses, S.A.; Tilmont, E.M.; Handy, A.M.; Ingram, D.K.; Roth, G.S.; Lane, M.A. (2001-03-01). "Calorie Restriction and Skeletal Mass in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta): Evidence for an Effect Mediated Through Changes in Body Size". The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 56 (3): B98–B107. doi:10.1093/gerona/56.3.B98. 
  62. ↑ Elsayed, Nabil M (February 2001). "Diet restriction modulates lung response and survivability of rats exposed to ozone". Toxicology. 159 (3): 171–182. doi:10.1016/s0300-483x(00)00427-3. 
  63. ↑ Caprio, Massimiliano; Fabbrini, Elisa; Isidori, Andrea M; Aversa, Antonio; Fabbri, Andrea (March 2001). "Leptin in reproduction". Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism. 12 (2): 65–72. doi:10.1016/S1043-2760(00)00352-0. 
  64. ↑ Hansen, Troels Krarup; Dall, Rolf; Hosoda, Hiroshi; Kojima, Masayasu; Kangawa, Kenji; Christiansen, Jens Sandahl; Jørgensen, Jens Otto Lunde (February 2002). "Weight loss increases circulating levels of ghrelin in human obesity: Weight loss and ghrelin". Clinical Endocrinology. 56 (2): 203–206. doi:10.1046/j.0300-0664.2001.01456.x. 
  65. ↑ Forster, Michael J.; Morris, Paul; Sohal, Rajindar S. (April 2003). "Genotype and age influence the effect of caloric intake on mortality in mice". The FASEB Journal. 17 (6): 690–692. doi:10.1096/fj.02-0533fje. 
  66. ↑ Barazzoni, Rocco; Zanetti, Michela; Stebel, Marco; Biolo, Gianni; Cattin, Luigi; Guarnieri, Gianfranco (May 2003). "Hyperleptinemia prevents increased plasma ghrelin concentration during short-term moderate caloric restriction in rats". Gastroenterology. 124 (5): 1188–1192. PMID 12730858. doi:10.1016/s0016-5085(03)00281-6. 
  67. ↑ Dirx, Miranda J.M.; Zeegers, Maurice P.A.; Dagnelie, Pieter C.; van den Bogaard, Ton; van den Brandt, Piet A. (20 September 2003). "Energy restriction and the risk of spontaneous mammary tumors in mice: A meta-analysis". International Journal of Cancer. 106 (5): 766–770. doi:10.1002/ijc.11277. 
  68. ↑ LaMothe, Jeremy M.; Hepple, Russell T.; Zernicke, Ronald F. (October 2003). "Selected Contribution: Bone adaptation with aging and long-term caloric restriction in Fischer 344 × Brown-Norway F1-hybrid rats". Journal of Applied Physiology. 95 (4): 1739–1745. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00079.2003. 
  69. ↑ Bluher, M. (2003-01-24). "Extended Longevity in Mice Lacking the Insulin Receptor in Adipose Tissue". Science. 299 (5606): 572–574. doi:10.1126/science.1078223. 
  70. ↑ Apte, U. M. (2003-04-01). "Mechanisms of Increased Liver Tissue Repair and Survival in Diet-Restricted Rats Treated with Equitoxic Doses of Thioacetamide". Toxicological Sciences. 72 (2): 272–282. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfg021. 
  71. ↑ Combs, T. P.; Berg, A. H.; Rajala, M. W.; Klebanov, S.; Iyengar, P.; Jimenez-Chillaron, J. C.; Patti, M. E.; Klein, S. L.; Weinstein, R. S.; Scherer, P. E. (2003-02-01). "Sexual Differentiation, Pregnancy, Calorie Restriction, and Aging Affect the Adipocyte-Specific Secretory Protein Adiponectin". Diabetes. 52 (2): 268–276. doi:10.2337/diabetes.52.2.268. 
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  73. ↑ Masoro, Edward J. (September 2004). "Role of sirtuin proteins in life extension by caloric restriction". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 125 (9): 591–594. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2004.08.011. 
  74. ↑ Stewart, Jeanne W.; Koehler, Ken; Jackson, William; Hawley, Jacqueline; Wang, Weiqun; Au, Angela; Myers, Ron; Birt, Diane F. (2005-06-01). "Prevention of mouse skin tumor promotion by dietary energy restriction requires an intact adrenal gland and glucocorticoid supplementation restores inhibition". Carcinogenesis. 26 (6): 1077–1084. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgi051. 
  75. ↑ Bhattacharyya, Tapan K.; Merz, Meredith; Thomas, J. Regan (2005-01-01). "Modulation of Cutaneous Aging With Calorie Restriction in Fischer 344 Rats: A Histological Study". Archives of Facial Plastic Surgery. 7 (1): 12–16. doi:10.1001/archfaci.7.1.12. 
  76. ↑ Argentino, D. P.; Muñoz, M. C.; Rocha, J. S.; Bartke, A.; Turyn, D.; Dominici, F. P. (November 2005). "Short-term Caloric Restriction Does Not Modify the In Vivo Insulin Signaling Pathway Leading to Akt Activation in Skeletal Muscle of Ames Dwarf (Prop1 df /Prop1 df ) Mice". Hormone and Metabolic Research. 37 (11): 672–679. doi:10.1055/s-2005-870577. 
  77. ↑ Argentino, D. P.; Dominici, F. P.; Al-Regaiey, K.; Bonkowski, M. S.; Bartke, A.; Turyn, D. (2005-01-01). "Effects of Long-Term Caloric Restriction on Early Steps of the Insulin-Signaling System in Mouse Skeletal Muscle". The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 60 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1093/gerona/60.1.28. 
  78. ↑ Nisoli, E. (14 October 2005). "Calorie Restriction Promotes Mitochondrial Biogenesis by Inducing the Expression of eNOS". Science. 310 (5746): 314–317. doi:10.1126/science.1117728. 
  79. ↑ Martin, Bronwen; Mattson, Mark P.; Maudsley, Stuart (August 2006). "Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting: Two potential diets for successful brain aging". Ageing Research Reviews. 5 (3): 332–353. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2006.04.002. 
  80. ↑ Brecchia, Gabriele; Bonanno, Adriana; Galeati, Giovanna; Federici, Claudia; Maranesi, Margherita; Gobbetti, Anna; Zerani, Massimo; Boiti, Cristiano (August 2006). "Hormonal and metabolic adaptation to fasting: Effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis and reproductive performance of rabbit does". Domestic Animal Endocrinology. 31 (2): 105–122. doi:10.1016/j.domaniend.2005.09.006. 
  81. ↑ Aydin, Cenk; Ince, Erdal; Koparan, Senay; Cangul, I. Taci; Naziroglu, Mustafa; Ak, Fusun (March 2007). "Protective effects of long term dietary restriction on swimming exercise-induced oxidative stress in the liver, heart and kidney of rat". Cell Biochemistry and Function. 25 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1002/cbf.1279. 
  82. ↑ Aydin, C; Sonat, F; Sahin, SK; Cangul, IT; Ozkaya, G (January 2009). "Long term dietary restriction ameliorates swimming exercise-induced oxidative stress in brain and lung of middle-aged rat.". Indian journal of experimental biology. 47 (1): 24–31. PMID 19317348. 
  83. ↑ Martin, Bronwen; Pearson, Michele; Kebejian, Lisa; Golden, Erin; Keselman, Alex; Bender, Meredith; Carlson, Olga; Egan, Josephine; Ladenheim, Bruce; Cadet, Jean-Lud; Becker, Kevin G.; Wood, William; Duffy, Kara; Vinayakumar, Prabhu; Maudsley, Stuart; Mattson, Mark P. (September 2007). "Sex-Dependent Metabolic, Neuroendocrine, and Cognitive Responses to Dietary Energy Restriction and Excess". Endocrinology. 148 (9): 4318–4333. doi:10.1210/en.2007-0161. 
  84. ↑ Yang, Hyunwon; Youm, Yun-Hee; Nakata, Chiaki; Dixit, Vishwa Deep (October 2007). "Chronic caloric restriction induces forestomach hypertrophy with enhanced ghrelin levels during aging". Peptides. 28 (10): 1931–1936. doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2007.07.030. 
  85. ↑ Speakman, John R.; Hambly, Catherine (2007-04-01). "Starving for Life: What Animal Studies Can and Cannot Tell Us about the Use of Caloric Restriction to Prolong Human Lifespan". The Journal of Nutrition. 137 (4): 1078–1086. doi:10.1093/jn/137.4.1078. 
  86. ↑ Chen, G.; Bridenbaugh, E. A.; Akintola, A. D.; Catania, J. M.; Vaidya, V. S.; Bonventre, J. V.; Dearman, A. C.; Sampson, H. W.; Zawieja, D. C.; Burghardt, R. C.; Parrish, A. R. (October 2007). "Increased susceptibility of aging kidney to ischemic injury: identification of candidate genes changed during aging, but corrected by caloric restriction". American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 293 (4): F1272–F1281. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00138.2007. 
  87. ↑ Wheatley, Karrie E.; Williams, Elizabeth A.; Smith, Nicole C. P.; Dillard, Alice; Park, Eun Young; Nunez, Nomeli P.; Hursting, Stephen D.; Lane, Michelle A. (2007-12-28). "Low-Carbohydrate Diet Versus Caloric Restriction: Effects on Weight Loss, Hormones, and Colon Tumor Growth in Obese Mice". Nutrition and Cancer. 60 (1): 61–68. doi:10.1080/01635580701510150. 
  88. ↑ Baek, Kyunghwa; Barlow, Alicia A.; Allen, Matt R.; Bloomfield, Susan A. (April 2008). "Food restriction and simulated microgravity: effects on bone and serum leptin". Journal of Applied Physiology. 104 (4): 1086–1093. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01209.2007. 
  89. ↑ Colman, R. J.; Beasley, T. M.; Allison, D. B.; Weindruch, R. (2008-06-01). "Attenuation of Sarcopenia by Dietary Restriction in Rhesus Monkeys". The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 63 (6): 556–559. doi:10.1093/gerona/63.6.556. 
  90. ↑ "Overview | Obesity: identification, assessment and management | Guidance | NICE". www.nice.org.uk. Retrieved 24 June 2021. 
  91. ↑ Pifferi, Fabien; Terrien, Jérémy; Marchal, Julia; Dal-Pan, Alexandre; Djelti, Fathia; Hardy, Isabelle; Chahory, Sabine; Cordonnier, Nathalie; Desquilbet, Loïc; Hurion, Murielle; Zahariev, Alexandre; Chery, Isabelle; Zizzari, Philippe; Perret, Martine; Epelbaum, Jacques; Blanc, Stéphane; Picq, Jean-Luc; Dhenain, Marc; Aujard, Fabienne (December 2018). "Caloric restriction increases lifespan but affects brain integrity in grey mouse lemur primates". Communications Biology. 1 (1): 30. doi:10.1038/s42003-018-0024-8. 
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