Difference between revisions of "Timeline of biorisk"

Latest revision as of 20:55, 4 October 2024

This is a timeline of biorisk, which refers to the risk associated with biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other microorganisms, that have the potential to cause harm to human health, animal health, or the environment. It encompasses the potential for the accidental or intentional release of these agents, which can lead to infectious disease outbreaks, epidemics, or other adverse consequences.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

What biological agents have been historically associated with intentional acts of biowarfare or bioterrorism?
- Sort the full timeline by "Biological agent/hazard".
- You will see a list of historical events categorized by the types of biological agents or hazards they involve, including details such as type of risk or event, the specific biological agent or hazard involved, additional details about the event, and the country or location where it occurred.
What are some early descriptions of biological agents, including the pathogens or diseases and the circumstances of their first recognition or identification?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Early description".
- You will see a list of early descriptions of various biological agents, including details such as the year of the description, the nature of the biological agent (such as a pathogen or disease), and additional information about its characteristics or significance. The list covers a range of biological agents, including viruses, bacteria, and diseases, along with details about their initial recognition, discovery, or reporting. Additionally, some entries may include information about the subsequent research or implications of the described biological agent.
What are some historical examples of cases of bioterrorism, including the nature of the incidents, the agents involved, and their impacts?"
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Bioterrorism".
What are some historical examples of intentional biological warfare, including the methods and pathogens used?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Biological warfare".
- You will see a list of historical events involving intentional biological warfare. Each entry in the list includes details such as the time period, the method used for biological warfare, the specific pathogens or toxins involved, and the context or location of the event.
What are some historical examples of biological warfare facilities, including their locations and purposes?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Biological warfare facility".
- You will see a list of historical examples of facilities, including details such as the year of establishment, the purpose of the facility, the specific pathogens or agents researched or produced there, and the location of the facility. The list showcases various instances of countries establishing facilities dedicated to biological warfare research and development, spanning different time periods and geographic regions.
What are some historical examples of biological weapons programs, including the countries involved and the pathogens or agents researched or produced?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Biological weapons program".
- You will see a list of historical examples programs, including details such as the year of initiation, the country involved, the specific pathogens or agents researched or produced as part of the program, and any notable developments or events associated with the program. The list highlights various instances of countries actively engaging in the development, testing, and production of biological weapons throughout history.
What are some historical examples of operations conducted by biological weapons programs, including the nature of the operations, the agents involved, and their purposes?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Operation".
- You will mostly see tests conducted by the United States military to assess the potential use of biological agents for warfare purposes and to develop countermeasures against them.
What historical events detail international agreements concerning biological weapons?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "International agreement".
- You will see information about the specific international agreement, including type (e.g., international declaration, protocol), the biological agents or hazards involved, and any relevant details or outcomes of the agreement. The list includes events such as the creation of the Geneva Protocol in 1925, the Biological Weapons Convention in 1972, and other international agreements aimed at prohibiting the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons.
What are some documented cases of assessments on biological risks over the years?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Risk report".
- You will see a list of historical events and reports detailing assessments of biological risks, including various instances where experts and organizations have evaluated the potential dangers associated with biological agents, such as anthrax, ricin, smallpox, and others. Each entry provides information about the year, the nature of the assessment or report, the specific biological agent or risk mentioned, and often additional contextual details about the assessment's significance or implications.
Other events are described under the following types: "Concept development", "Covert investigation", "Early history", "Illegal release by a group", and "International alliance".

Big picture

Time period	Development summary	More details
Up to the 19th century	Early history	During this period, biorisk is primarily associated with infectious diseases. People are aware that diseases can be spread through contact with infected people or animals, but the specific mechanisms of transmission are not well understood. This leads to a number of public health measures being implemented, such as quarantine and isolation of the sick. Additionally, early forms of biological warfare are documented, including the use of contaminated bodies or substances to spread disease among enemies. For example, ancient texts describe the use of tularemia to intentionally cause epidemics in adversaries, and various cultures employed tactics like poisoning wells or using infected bodies to infect enemy populations.
19th and early 20th centuries	Rise of microbiology	During this period, significant advances are made in the understanding of infectious diseases, driven by the rise of microbiology. The work of pioneers like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establishes the germ theory of disease, fundamentally changing public health practices. Vaccines and treatments for various diseases are developed, such as vaccines for rabies and diphtheria, and improvements in sanitation and hygiene are promoted. However, the era also witnesses the emergence and spread of new diseases. For example, the Eastern equine encephalitis is first recognized in Massachusetts in 1831. This period also includes the devastating Great Famine in Ireland caused by Phytophthora infestans, which leads to significant famine and research into biological weapons. In 1862, the Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic demonstrates the intentional use of disease as a weapon by colonial forces against First Nations people. Similarly, during the American Civil War in 1863, Confederate forces reportedly spread yellow fever and smallpox among Union troops. The period also sees the Brussels Declaration (1874) and the Hague Declaration (1874) aiming to limit the use of toxic weapons, marking early efforts in international agreements to control biological warfare. However, these declarations lack effective means of enforcement. The early 20th century also witnesses various acts of bioterrorism, such as the use of diphtheria toxin in Russia in 1910, and attempts by Germany during World War I to use biological agents like Bacillus anthracis and Burkholderia mallei against Allied forces and animals destined for the warfront.
1945-1991	Cold War	During this period, the Cold War intensifies the focus on biological weapons as nations seek to gain an advantage in biological warfare. The era sees significant advancements in biological research for both defensive and offensive purposes. Major incidents highlight the risks of biological agents, such as the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak in 1979, which exposes the dangers of biological weapons research. The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) of 1972 becomes a key international agreement aimed at prohibiting the development, production, and acquisition of biological and toxin weapons. Despite this, concerns about compliance and enforcement would continue. The era also sees increased investment in biodefense measures, including the development of vaccines and antidotes to counter potential biological threats.
1991-present	The post-Cold War era	Following the end of the Cold War, the focus shifts towards improving global health security and preventing the misuse of biological agents. The rise of new and emerging infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and SARS-CoV-2, prompts a global response to enhance surveillance, response mechanisms, and international cooperation. The BWC is reinforced with additional protocols and initiatives to address non-state actors and accidental outbreaks. Significant progress is made in biotechnology and genomics, leading to both advances in medical science and new ethical dilemmas. The era also sees increased attention to bioterrorism, with incidents like the anthrax letters in the U.S. in 2001 highlighting the risks of bioterrorism. Efforts to counter bioterrorism include improved detection systems and emergency response plans.

Summary by decade

Time period	Development summary
Pre-20th Century	Biorisk is shaped by early encounters with infectious diseases and biological warfare. Ancient civilizations use biological tactics, such as poisoning water supplies or using infected bodies to spread disease. In the medieval period, outbreaks like the Black Death highlight the devastating impact of epidemics. The 19th century sees advances in understanding disease transmission with the germ theory of disease^[1], thanks to pioneers like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. Public health measures like quarantine become more common.^[2] However, knowledge is still limited, and biological warfare, while less documented, is a concern in various conflicts, setting the stage for future developments in biorisk management.
1900s	The early decade sees increased awareness of infectious diseases with the development of vaccines and advancements in microbiology. Key events include the establishment of public health institutions and improved sanitation, which help control outbreaks like the plague and cholera. The rise of international health organizations, such as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) established in 1902, played a crucial role in regional disease surveillance and prevention efforts.^[3]
1910s	Biorisk concerns are primarily influenced by World War I and the aftermath of the 1918 influenza pandemic. During the war, there are fears and accusations of biological warfare, though there is little evidence of its widespread use. The 1918 flu pandemic, also known as the Spanish flu, demonstrates the devastating impact of infectious diseases on a global scale, leading to heightened awareness of public health and disease control. The decade marks the beginning of more structured efforts to understand and manage infectious diseases, laying the groundwork for future advancements in epidemiology and global health.
1920s	The aftermath of World War I and the 1918 influenza pandemic heighten global awareness of infectious diseases and the potential for biological threats. The League of Nations take steps toward international cooperation in public health, establishing the Health Organization to monitor and combat epidemics. However, the decade also sees the continuation of secret biological weapons research, particularly in Japan^[4] and the Soviet Union^[5], as nations seek to develop new means of warfare. Advances in microbiology and immunology^[6] during this period contribute to both public health improvements and the potential for misuse in biowarfare, setting the stage for future developments in biorisk.
1930s	The world witnesses the growing militarization of biological research, particularly in the context of rising geopolitical tensions. Japan establishes Unit 731, a secret military unit dedicated to the development and testing of biological weapons, including plague and anthrax, on human subjects.^[7] The Soviet Union and other nations also expand their biological warfare capabilities during this period. Additionally, the decade sees advances in microbiology and the study of infectious diseases, which, while primarily aimed at improving public health, also has dual-use potential for bioweapons development. Public awareness of these risks is limited, but the groundwork for future conflicts involving biological agents is laid.
1940s	The decade is marked by significant developments in biorisk, particularly due to World War II. Both the Allied and Axis powers explore and, in some cases, use biological weapons, with Japan’s Unit 731 conducting notorious experiments on biological warfare. The fear of bioweapons grow as nations recognize their potential for mass destruction. The end of the war leads to the discovery of these programs and increased international awareness of the dangers posed by biological weapons. This decade also sees advancements in antibiotics, such as penicillin, which play a crucial role in treating infections and reducing the impact of disease during the war.
1950s	The biorisk landscape is shaped by the intensifying Cold War, as both the United States and Soviet Union expand their biological weapons programs, leading to increased global tension and fear of biowarfare. The Korean War (1950-1953) further fuels these fears, with allegations that biological weapons are used, though these claims remain controversial.^[8] The decade also sees the early stages of public health initiatives focused on infectious disease control, including mass vaccination campaigns against diseases like polio.^[9] Advances in microbiology and virology continue to improve the understanding of pathogens, influencing both public health and military strategies.
1960s	Biorisk concerns are heavily influenced by the Cold War, with fears of biological warfare between superpowers. The United States and Soviet Union expand their research and development of biological weapons, leading to growing international anxiety. This period also sees advances in virology^[10] and the study of infectious diseases, which contribute to both biodefense strategies and the broader understanding of global health risks. Public awareness of biorisk is relatively low, but government and military interest in biological weapons as a component of national security is on the rise, setting the stage for later international treaties.
1970s	Biorisk concerns are shaped by both natural and man-made factors. The smallpox eradication campaign, which culminates in the last known natural case in 1977, marks a major public health victory and highlights the potential for global disease control efforts. However, the decade also witnesses increased fears about biological warfare, particularly in the context of the Cold War, leading to the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), which seeks to ban the development and use of biological weapons. Despite this, enforcement challenges persist, and concerns about clandestine biological weapons programs remain.
1980s	The global emergence and spread of HIV/AIDS highlight the severe impact of infectious diseases, leading to major public health efforts, research into treatments, and prevention strategies. The epidemic underscores the importance of international cooperation in managing global health crises and addressing the social and economic factors contributing to disease spread. Additionally, the decade sees increased awareness of bioterrorism risks, particularly with concerns about state and non-state actors potentially developing or using biological weapons. These events drive advancements in public health infrastructure and global disease surveillance systems.
1990s	Biorisk awareness grow as the Cold War ends and the focus shifts to global health security. The 1995 Aum Shinrikyo cult’s sarin gas attack in Tokyo raises fears about bioterrorism and the potential use of biological agents by non-state actors. The Gulf War (1990-1991) spurs concerns about biological and chemical warfare, leading to increased biodefense efforts. The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) gain renewed attention, but challenges in enforcement persist. The rise of emerging infectious diseases like Hantavirus and the Ebola virus^[11] in Africa emphasize the ongoing threat of natural outbreaks and the need for international collaboration in disease control.
2000s	Key biorisk events include the 2001 anthrax attacks in the U.S., which heighten concerns about bioterrorism and leads to increased security measures. The 2002–2004 SARS outbreak emphasizes the need for improved global surveillance and response systems. The 2004 Asian tsunami and subsequent spread of diseases highlight vulnerabilities in disaster response. The decade also sees advancements in biodefense research and vaccine development, driven by increased awareness of potential biological threats. The rise of gain-of-function research^[12] and debates around its risks mark a growing focus on the dual-use nature of biological research.
2010s	The decade sees significant biorisk events, including the Western African Ebola epidemic, which highlights the need for rapid global response and vaccine development. The discovery of CRISPR-Cas9 in 2012 revolutionizes gene editing but raises concerns about misuse. The 2015–16 Zika virus epidemic underscores the importance of vector control and disease surveillance.^[13] The decade also sees controversies over gain-of-function research and the ongoing threat of bioterrorism. Initiatives like the Global Health Security Agenda (2014) aim to strengthen global preparedness for emerging infectious threats.
2020s	Ongoing challenges and advancements in biotechnology, synthetic biology, and gene editing pose new risks and opportunities for biorisk management. Global efforts continue in pandemic preparedness, response, and vaccine development amidst evolving biological threats. The COVID-19 pandemic emerges as a global health crisis, underscoring the need for robust biorisk management and enhanced pandemic preparedness.

Full timeline

Inclusion criteria

We include:

Some described diseases which are naturally occurring and not necessarily associated with malicious intent. However they can still be considered biological agents in a broader sense.
Bio-agents of military importance.
Brief descriptions of diseases caused by biological agents.
Biological material other than biological agents, such as dead corpses, which have been used in warfare for centuries.
Major organizations and treaties.

We do not include:

Date details on state participation in the Biological Weapons Convention (see List of parties to the Biological Weapons Convention).
Unethical human experimentation
Chemical agents (see Timeline of chemical risk)

Timeline

Year	Risk type	Event type	Biological agent/hazard	Details	Country/location
Pre-10,000 years ago	Non-intentional	Early history	Parasitic diseases	In the Hunter-Gatherer Era, human societies are primarily small, mobile groups that survive by hunting animals and gathering wild plants. During this period, human encounters with biological perils are largely limited to parasitic diseases, which affect individuals rather than causing widespread outbreaks. These diseases are transmitted through direct contact with the environment, such as consuming contaminated food or water, or through bites from insects and other vectors. The nomadic lifestyle of hunter-gatherers, coupled with the relatively small population sizes, help to limit the spread of these diseases, making large-scale epidemics rare.^[14]
10,000 years ago	Non-intentional	Early history	Zoonotic diseases	During the Agricultural Revolution, the development of agriculture leads to significant changes in human societies. The shift from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled farming communities facilitate population growth and the formation of larger, more concentrated villages. This increased density of human populations creates conditions conducive to the spread of zoonotic diseases—diseases transmitted from animals to humans. As people domesticate animals and live in closer proximity to them, pathogens from livestock can more easily cross species barriers and infect humans. This period marks the beginning of a new era in which agriculture and urbanization significantly influences the patterns and spread of infectious diseases.^[14]
1500BC–1200BC	Intentional	Early description	Tularemia	The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts from arund this time, in which victims of tularemia are driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic.^[15] Caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, tularemia is a febrile illness often likened to typhoid fever. Symptoms include a primary ulcer at the infection site, swollen lymph nodes, systemic symptoms, and sometimes atypical pneumonia.^[16] In modern times, tularemia would be researched as a biological agent.^[17]
6th century BC	Intentional	Biological warfare	Claviceps purpurea	The Assyrians employ a strategy of poisoning enemy wells using a substance called rye ergot, marking the first known use of a biological toxin.^[18]^:p14^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] Ergot, a fungal disease caused by Claviceps species, affects host plant ovaries exclusively, with Claviceps purpurea being of utmost concern. It primarily targets rye, leading to yield losses, but the main issue lies in the toxic alkaloids within the ergots (sclerotia), posing health risks to humans and animals. Outbreaks of severe poisoning, known as ergotism, can occur.^[23]	West Asia
425 BC	Non-intentional	Early description	Glanders	Greek physician Hippocrates describes glanders,^[24] an infectious disease that is caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei. While people can get the disease, glanders is primarily a disease affecting horses. It also affects donkeys and mules and can be naturally contracted by other mammals such as goats, dogs, and cats.^[25] In modern times, the U.S. would study this agent as a possible biological weapon in 1943–44, but would not weaponize it.^[26]	Greece (ancient)
4th century BC	Intentional	Biological warfare	Harmful microorganisms, bacteria, pathogens	Scythian archers tip their arrows with a mixture of blood, manure, and tissues extracted from decomposing bodies. This unconventional practice likely aims to cause infections or illnesses upon contact with the arrow wounds.^[21]	Central Asia, West Asia
1155	Intentional	Biological warfare	Harmful microorganisms, bacteria, pathogens	During his First Italian Campaign in Tortona, Italy, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa employs a gruesome tactic by throwing decomposing bodies into the wells of his enemies. The contamination of the water with harmful bacteria and germs results in severe illness and death for those who drink from the poisoned wells. This strategic move aims to weaken and incapacitate his adversaries during the conflict.^[27]^[28]	Italy
1340 AD	Intentional	Biological warfare	Harmful microorganisms, bacteria, pathogens	Attackers hurl dead horses and other animals by catapult at the castle of Thun-l'Évêque in Hainault (northern France). The castle defenders are forced to negotiate a truce because the stench from the rotting carcasses was so unbearable. The defenders report that "the stink and the air were so abominable ... they could not long endure."^[14]^:7	France
1346 AD	Intentional	Biological warfare	Yersinia pestis	Siege of Caffa on the Crimean Peninsula, the Mongol forces catapult the bodies of plague victims over the city walls to infect the inhabitants with Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for the Black Death. This act of biological warfare is one of the earliest recorded instances of using disease as a weapon. The plague, which spreas rapidly through Caffa and other regions, contributes to the devastating pandemic that would become known as the Black Death. The incident exemplifies the use of biological agents to create fear, weaken enemy defenses, and impact the course of warfare.^[28]^[29]^[30]	Ukraine (Republic of Genoa)
15th century	Intentional	Biological warfare	Smallpox	Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro is reported to have given smallpox-contaminated clothing to South American natives. Although the exact details and intentions are debated, it is documented that European explorers and colonizers, including Pizarro, unintentionally introduce smallpox to indigenous populations in the Americas. The disease has devastating effects, as the native populations have no immunity to it. This introduction of smallpox, combined with other factors, significantly contributes to the decline of indigenous societies in South America following European contact. The use of contaminated items, whether intentional or not, exemplifies how disease was used as a tool in the conquest and colonization process.^[21]^[30]^[31]	South America
1422	Intentional	Biological warfare	Yersinia pestis	Attacking forces besiege Karlstein Castle in Bohemia. They launch decaying cadavers of men killed in battle over the castle walls, and stockpile animal manure in the hope of spreading illness. However, the defenders hold fast, and the siege is abandoned after five months. There is some evidence that Russian troops would employ the same tactic using the corpses of plague victims against the Swedes in 1710. However, this is disputed, and there is no clear consensus on whether or not this actually happened.^[14]^:8	Czechia
1495	Intentional	Biological warfare	Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium lepromatosis	During the Italian Wars, the Spanish army attempts to use biological warfare against the French army by contaminating French wine with the blood of lepers. The strategy is intended to spread leprosy among the enemy forces, exploiting the disease's infectious nature to weaken and incapacitate them. The use of such tactics highlights the historical roots of bioweaponry and the impact of disease on warfare throughout history.^[14]^:8^[28]	Spain, France
1528	Non-intentional	Early description	Typhus	Typhus is first described.^[32] It is a bacterial illness transmitted through lice or fleas, manifests as an itchy skin rash and is typically characterized by excoriated skin lesions.^[33] Typhus would be researched as a biological agent.^[34]
c.1650	Intentional	Biological warfare	Rabies virus	A Polish military leader is reported to have filled hollow artillery spheres with saliva from rabid dogs, intending to use them as biological weapons against his adversaries. The goal is to spread rabies, a deadly viral disease, among enemy forces. The use of rabies, with its high mortality rate and severe impact, underscores the historical experimentation with biological agents in attempts to gain a military advantage.^[21]^[28]	Poland
1675	Intentional	Biological warfare	Poison	Representatives of France and the Holy Roman Empire sign the Strasbourg Agreement. The treaty, which concludes hostilities, also prohibits the use of poisoned bullets in future conflicts. The treaty highlights two enduring principles: accountability for violators and the foundation of trust as a crucial element in the agreement.^[35]^[28]	France, Germany
1763	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Smallpox	British general Jeffrey Amherst approves a plan to deliberately spread smallpox among Delaware Indians hostile to the British. An outbreak at Fort Pitt (modern day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) provides an opportunity, and on June 24, a subordinate distributes smallpox-contaminated blankets and a handkerchief to the Native Americans during what would be known as the siege of Fort Pitt. This event, considered an early form of biological warfare, involves British soldiers using the smallpox virus as a weapon against American Indian combatants.^[14]^:p14^[36]^[28]	United States (Thirteen Colonies)
1797	Intentional	Biological warfare	Plasmodium	Napoleon Bonaparte orders the flooding plains around Mantua, Italy, with the strategic aim of enhancing the spread of malaria. This maneuver is intended to weaken the Austrian forces besieging the French garrison in Mantua by exacerbating the malaria epidemic in the region. By increasing the number of mosquito breeding sites, Napoleon seeks to create a health crisis that would impair the enemy’s ability to continue the siege. This use of environmental manipulation to influence military outcomes demonstrates an early example of leveraging disease as a component of warfare strategy.^[28]	Italy, France
1831	Non-intentional	Early description	Eastern equine encephalitis	Eastern equine encephalitis is first recognized in Massachusetts. It is one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending the biological-weapons program in 1969, a few years before signing (1972) and then ratifying (1975) the Biological Weapons Convention.^[34]	United States
1845–1852	Non-intentional	Crisis	Phytophthora infestans	Phytophthora infestans causes the devastating potato blight during the mid-19th century, leading to the Great Famine in Ireland. In the 1940s and 1950s, France, Canada, the United States, and the Soviet Union would research P. infestans as a biological weapon.^[37] Potato blight is also one of more than 17 agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending the its biological weapons program.^[34]
1862	Intentional	Biological warfare	Smallpox	1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic occurs. British colonizers opt against implementing a rigorous quarantine or robust vaccination program. Consequently, the epidemic spreas to the nearby First Nations people. Despite some efforts to aid them, the colonizers primarily focus on self-protection. When the disease escalates among the First Nations population, they are expelled from the town, and their homes are intentionally set ablaze. A journalist of the time notes a deliberate effort to contain the disease among the natives. Subsequently, thirty thousand First Nations people perish, facilitating further colonization of their lands. The colonizers' inaction and forced removal exacerbate the outbreak's impact, benefiting the colonizers at the cost of the indigenous population.^[38]	Canada
1863	Intentional	Bioterrorism (State-sponsored)	Yellow fever virus, smallpox	During the American Civil War, Confederate forces reportedly sell clothing from yellow fever and smallpox patients to Union troops. This act is intended to spread disease among Union soldiers, representing an early example of using biological methods to undermine an enemy. The Confederate strategy aims to weaken Union forces by exposing them to infectious diseases, including yellow fever and smallpox, which can significantly impact troop health and operational effectiveness. This approach highlights the historical practice of using biological threats in warfare, even prior to the official development of biological weapons.^[28]	United States
1874	Intentional	International agreement	Multiple	The Brussels Declaration, formally known as the Declaration of Brussels, is established as an international agreement to prohibit the use of poisoned weapons. This declaration marks a significant step in the development of international humanitarian law by seeking to limit the methods of warfare and mitigate the suffering caused by armed conflicts. The Brussels Declaration aims to restrict the use of toxic substances in warfare, reflecting growing concerns about the ethical implications and humanitarian impacts of such weapons. Although the declaration is not widely adopted or enforced at the time, it lays the groundwork for future treaties and conventions focused on the prohibition of chemical and biological weapons.^[28]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]	Belgium
1874	Intentional	International agreement	Multiple	An international declaration in The Hague prohibits the use of poisoned weapons. However, both this and the 1874 agreement in Brussels lack effective means of control.^[28]	Netherlands
1879	Non-intentional	Early description	Psittacosis	Psittacosis is first reported in Europe.^[43] It is a systemic illness capable of inducing atypical pneumonia upon lung infection. It stems from the zoonotic bacterium Chlamydia psittaci, primarily transmitted to humans from birds.^[44] It is one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending its biological weapons program.^[34]	Europe
1910	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Diphtheria toxin	Patrick O'Brien de Lacy and Vladimir Pantchenko, a physician, are found guilty of murdering Captain Vassilli Buturlin, who is de Lacy's brother-in-law, in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The murder is carried out by injecting diphtheria toxin into Captain Buturlin.^[45]^:21	Russia
1912	Non-intentional	Early description	Melioidosis	English pathologist Alfred Whitmore and his assistant Krishnaswami first report melioidosis among beggars and morphine addicts at autopsy in Rangoon, present-day Myanmar.^[46] From the Middle Ages to the 1900s, glanders would be a significant threat to armies.^[47]^[48]	United Kingdom
1912	Non-intentional	Early description	Rift Valley fever	Kenya first reports Rift Valley fever (RVF)-like disease in livestock.^[49] It is a viral illness primarily affecting domesticated animals in sub-Saharan Africa, including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels. Human transmission occurs through contact with infected animal tissues, blood, or bodily fluids, as well as through bites from infected mosquitoes. (RVF) in humans can manifest in both mild and severe forms. The mild form typically presents with flu-like symptoms, including fever, muscle and joint pain, headache, and sometimes neck stiffness and sensitivity to light, resembling meningitis. Symptoms last for about 4 to 7 days, followed by an immune response. The severe form is less common but can lead to ocular disease with retinal lesions, meningoencephalitis causing neurological symptoms like confusion and coma, or hemorrhagic fever characterized by liver impairment and bleeding. Fatality rates are highest in the hemorrhagic form, reaching approximately 50%.^[50]^[51] RVFV would be successfully developed as a biological weapon by the US offensive biological weapons program prior to the program's elimination in 1969.^[52]	Kenya
1913	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Vibrio cholerae	Karl Hopf, with his knowledge of handling drugs, deliberately infects his third wife with Vibrio cholerae and typhus bacteria. Additionally, he uses arsenic to murder his father, two children, and first wife. He is also accused of attempting to poison his second and third wives, as well as his mother. Hopf would face conviction in a German court for these crimes.^[45]^:21
1915	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis, Burkholderia mallei	German-American medical doctor Anton Dilger produces the anthrax and glanders bacterium with the intention of infecting horses that were meant for the warfront. This incident is a notable and documented example of using bacteria as a biological weapon against animals.^[14]^:p14	United States
1915	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Germany starts its biological weapons program. The German army would weaponize glanders and anthrax^[53] in World War I. The program would also research on foot and mouth disease, plague, rinderpest, typhus, yellow fever, potato beetle, and potato blight. It would end in 1945.^[54]	Germany
1915–1918	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Burkholderia mallei, Bacillus anthracis, Vibrio cholerae	During the early stages of World War I, while the United States is still neutral, the German Secret Service undertakes a covert biological warfare campaign in the United States. They deliberately infect horses and mules, which the Allies previously purchased in the United States for use in Europe, with B. mallei (glanders) and B. anthracis (anthrax). Similarly, in Romania, they infect sheep destined for Russia with glanders and anthrax. In Argentina, they infect sheep, cattle, and horses bound for Britain and the Indian army with glanders and anthrax. Allegedly, they also use B. mallei and V. cholerae against allied forces during the German retreat.^[45]^:21	Germany
1916	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Pathogenic microorganisms	Murder of Hannah and John E. Peck. Arthur Warren Waite, a dentist, makes determined efforts to obtain harmful pathogens. He causes the death of his mother-in-law by adding pathogenic microorganisms to her food. His attempt to use pathogens to kill his father-in-law fails, so he resorts to poisoning him with arsenic instead.^[45]^:21	United States
1917	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	President Woodrow Wilson establishes the site that would later become the United States Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center (DEVCOM CBC). Originally designated for the first chemical shell filling plant in the United States, it now serves as the Department of Defense's primary research and development resource for non-medical chemical and biological defense. DEVCOM CBC supports all stages of the acquisition life-cycle, addressing unique requirements from basic research to demilitarization.^[55]^[56]	United States
1918	Non-intentional	Crisis	Influenza A virus subtype H1N1	The Spanish flu pandemic, caused by the Influenza A virus subtype H1N1, emerges as one of the most devastating public health crises of the 20th century. The pandemic spreads rapidly, infecting approximately one-third of the global population. It results in an estimated 50 million deaths worldwide, equating to roughly one in fifty people. The Spanish flu is notable for its high mortality rate among young, healthy adults, a demographic typically less vulnerable to influenza. This pandemic has significant social and economic impacts, shaping public health responses and influencing future pandemic preparedness strategies.^[57]	Worldwide
1921	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services, also known as Laboratory 1, Laboratory 12, and "The Chamber," is established as a covert research and development facility. Known as the "Special Office," it would evolve under various leaders, including Grigory Mairanovsky and Pavel Sudoplatov. The laboratory would conduct human experiments, testing poisons on Gulag prisoners to find tasteless, odorless substances. Notable victims would include General Alexander Kutepov, General Evgenii Miller, Archbishop Theodore Romzha, Bulgarian writer Georgi Markov, and others. The laboratory's alleged involvement in political assassinations, like the planned poisoning of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, would illustrate its sinister history.^[58]	Soviet Union
Early 1921	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	France initiates its biological weapons program under Auguste Trillat, a chemist educated in Germany. Trillat conducts experiments to assess the lasting potency of airborne pathogens, marking the beginning of France's involvement in biological warfare research.^[59] The program would end in 1940.^[34]^[60]	France
1925 (June 17)	Intentional	International agreement	Multiple	The Geneva Protocol is created, with the purpose to prohibit the use of chemical and bacteriological methods of warfare. This protocol marks the first international endeavor to restrict the utilization of biological agents in warfare.^[14]^:p14^[28]^[22]
1926	Non-intentional	Early description	Newcastle disease	Newcastle disease is first identified in Java, Indonesia.^[61] It is a viral illness that is both highly contagious and deadly, impacting the respiratory, nervous, and digestive systems of birds. The causative agent of ND is an avian paramyxovirus Type 1 (APVM-1) virus.^[62] It would be researched as a biological agent.^[63]	Indonesia
1930	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Kantubek City is established on Uygonish Island, one of the islands in the Aral Sea. This secluded city is developed as a biochemical testing ground during the 1930s. The site is used for conducting experiments related to biological and chemical warfare agents, reflecting the Soviet Union's early interest in advancing its capabilities in this field. Kantubek's isolation allows for the secure and controlled testing of various agents, contributing to the development of Soviet biochemical weapons programs.^[64]	Uzbekistan
1930	Non-intentional	Early description	Western equine encephalitis virus	The western equine encephalitis virus is discovered in California. It belongs to the alphavirus family and is similar to Eastern Equine Encephalitis and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis viruses. While outbreaks are infrequent, a significant regional outbreak would occur in 1941, primarily affecting Minnesota with nearly 800 cases and 90 deaths. Symptoms typically resemble a mild flu but can progress to severe neurological complications. Severe cases may lead to encephalitis, with a fatality rate of 5-15% and significant risk of permanent brain damage in surviving infants.^[65] WEE would be researched as a biological agent.^[66]^[67]	United States
1932	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Japanese army hands over control of three biological research centers, including one located in Manchuria, to General Shirō Ishii. This event marks the beginning of General Ishii's involvement and leadership in the development of bioweapons. General Ishii would be widely regarded as one of the most infamous figures in the history of bioweapons due to his involvement in human experimentation and war crimes during World War II.^[14]^:p14 In the same year, dutring a visit, the Lytton Commission, which was set by the General Assembly of the League of Nations set up to examine Japan's occupation of Manchuria, is provided by the Japanese with fruit that contains V. cholerae. However, no one falls ill from consuming it.^[45]^:21^[22]	Japan (Empire of Japan)
1934	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Great Britain initiates efforts to establish its own biological weapons research project. This marks the beginning of the country's involvement in developing biological weapons. Alongside its allies, Great Britain embarks on the development of a program focused on biological warfare research.^[14]^:p14	United Kingdom
1934	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	General Shirō Ishii establishes Japan's covert biological warfare program, active until 1945. Operating from the occupied Manchuria, near Harbin, Ishii recruites numerous researchers from medical schools. These scientists are enticed by the chance to conduct experiments involving infectious diseases on live human subjects, primarily Han Chinese, setting a dark precedent for wartime biological research.^[59]	Japan (Empire of Japan)
1936	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Unit 731 is established in Japanese-occupied Manchuria under Emperor Hirohito's authorization, aimed to develop biological weapons. Supported by Japanese universities and operating covertly as The Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army, Unit 731, led by General Shiro Ishii, commits horrendous crimes during World War II. Partnered with Unit 100, it would conduct experiments leading to the murder of over 3,000 prisoners, primarily Chinese, for bacteriological weapon development. Soviet investigations would reveal the units' true nature, their association with top bacteriologic experts, and their role in Japan's Kantokuen plan against the USSR. The units, with numerous branches, are strategically located near the Soviet-Manchurian border for potential warfare.^[68]^[69]	China (Empire of Japan)
1936	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal state sponsored)	Salmonella Typhi	Dr. Tei-Sabro Takahashi, a notable Japanese physician, gains infamy for deliberately infecting 17 individuals, three of whom tragically lost their lives, by employing food contaminated with S. typhi. These incidents revolve around conflicts among rival physicians, their families, and his own wife. Dr. Takahashi's actions would raise serious ethical and legal concerns, and the case remains a significant chapter in the history of medical malpractice and criminal intent.^[45]^:21	Japan
1938	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Unit 8604 is formed in Guangzhou. Also known as Detachment Nami, it opens as a clandestine military medical unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. It operates under the Japanese Southern China Area Army's Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department. Conducting secretive research, including human experimentation, the unit focuses on biological warfare during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Headquartered at Sun Yat-sen University of Medical Sciences, it would be active until Japan's surrender in 1945.^[70]^[71]^[72]	China (Empire of Japan)
1939	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal state sponsored)	Salmonella Typhi	Dr. Kikuko Hirose, a prominent Japanese physician, gains notoriety for distributing pastries contaminated with S. typhi and S. paratyphi to her former husband, who subsequently share them with several individuals. Twelve people fall ill, and one of them succumb to the infection. This incident would raise significant concerns regarding medical ethics and professional conduct, leaving a lasting impact on the medical community and serving as a cautionary tale in the realm of public health and safety.^[45]^:21	Japan
1939	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Unit Ei 1644, also known as Detachment Ei 1644 or Unit 1644, is established in Nanjing under the cover name “Anti-epidemic Water Supply Unit” and headed by medical doctor Masuda Tomosada. Like Unit 731, it develops weapons against humans. It would become a notorious biological warfare unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II.^[73]^[74]^:167	China (Empire of Japan)
1939	Intentional	Bioterrorism (state sponsored)	Yellow fever virus	Japan makes attempts to acquire the yellow fever virus from the Rockefeller Institute in New York, initially through legal means and later through illicit efforts. This period marks heightened interest in biological agents as weapons, with Japan actively pursuing various pathogens for potential use in warfare. Yellow fever, caused by the yellow fever virus, is transmitted by mosquitoes and can cause severe fever, liver damage, and bleeding. The attempts to obtain this virus reflect Japan's broader biowarfare research efforts, which are part of its state-sponsored bioterrorism program during World War II, involving the study and development of biological weapons for military use.^[28]	Japan, United States
1939	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Noborito Research Institute starts operations as a covert military development laboratory under the Imperial Japanese Army. Focusing on developing tools for covert warfare, during World War II, Japanese troops, particularly from the Noborito Institute, secretly develop a germ agent to mass-kill US cattle.^[75]^[76]	Japan
1939	Intentional	Biological warfare	Salmonella Typhi	During World War II, the Nazis besiege Warsaw, Poland, damaging the city's sewage system and contaminating the water supply, leading to a small outbreak of typhus. The Nazis use this situation to justify creating the Warsaw ghetto, confining Jews to a small section surrounded by a three-meter wall topped with barbed wire. The overcrowded and unsanitary conditions in the ghetto result in a catastrophic typhus outbreak. Despite causing the epidemics, the Nazis would refuse to acknowledge their role and used them as a pretext for further harm. Throughout the war, they would claim the genocide of 3 million Jews in Poland was necessary for public health reasons. In the Warsaw ghetto, the typhus outbreak, instead of worsening in winter, starts receding because the inhabitants smuggle in food, run community kitchens, and implement healthcare initiatives to combat starvation and disease. As the war continues, countries like Japan, the United States, and Britain explore using pathogens as weapons, leading to the development of bioweapons shortly after the war ends.^[38]	Poland
1940	Non-intentional	Crisis	Tularemia	A significant outbreak of tularemia, caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, affects more than 100,000 people in the Soviet Union. Tularemia is a highly infectious disease that can be transmitted through contact with infected animals, bites from insects, or inhalation of contaminated aerosols. The outbreak is notable for its scale and impact, highlighting the challenges of controlling infectious diseases in large populations.^[77]	Soviet Union
1940	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Canadian medical scientist Frederick Banting, renowned for his discovery of insulin, establishes what is considered the first private biological weapons research center in North America. This facility marks a significant development in the field of biological warfare research in the region. Banting's involvement in this endeavor reflects the broader interest in and growing capabilities for studying and developing biological weapons during World War II.^[28]	United States
1940 (October)	Intentional	Biological warfare	Cholera, bubonic plague	The Kaimingjie germ weapon attack occurrs during the Second Sino-Japanese War when Japan launches a biological warfare strike against Kaimingjie in Ningbo, Zhejiang province, China. Infected fleas, carrying cholera and bubonic plague, are dispersed using corn and cloth. Approximately 250,000 civilians perish, prompting quarantines, disinfection measures, and evacuations in response. The United States would be speculated to have assisted in the cover-up. Many leaders from Japan's secret biological warfare program would later find success in the USA. The incident would be often omitted from historical textbooks and Western culture, highlighting the sensitive nature of Japan's wartime activities.^[78]	China, Japan
1941	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The US biological warfare program starts on a small scale^[28] under its Chemical Warfare Service. However, significant efforts wouldn't begin until 1942^[79], leading to the creation of the United States biological weapons program in 1943.	United States
1941	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	A major Canadian military research facility, DRDC Suffield, commences operations as the Experimental Station Suffield, a joint British/Canadian biological and chemical defense facility under the administration of the Canadian Army. Located 5 km north of Suffield, Alberta, DRDC Suffield is one of eight centers constituting Defence Research and Development Canada (DRDC).	Canada
1942	Intentional	Biological warfare test	Bacillus anthracis	During World War II, the Allies conduct their first field test of a biological weapon on Gruinard Island, located off the coast of Scotland. Scientists from the Biology Department of Porton Down, including British scientist Paul Fildes, drop anthrax-filled bombs near sheep to assess the effectiveness of anthrax as a bioweapon. The experiment demonstrates the potential impact of anthrax spores and marks a pivotal moment in the collaboration between the United Kingdom and the United States on biological warfare research. Gruinard Island would remain contaminated with anthrax for decades before being decontaminated in the 1980s.^[80]^[81]^[14]^:p14^[82]	United Kingdom
1942	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	Dugway Proving Ground (DPG) is established approximately 85 miles southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah. Positioned adjacent to the Utah Test and Training Range, the combined area represents the largest overland special use airspace in the U.S. Dugway's primary mission is to test biological and chemical weapons, including their antidotes, toxic agents, and systems for dispersal, as well as protective gear. Additionally, the facility evaluates flamethrowers and fire-bombing techniques. This extensive testing program aims to develop and refine military capabilities while addressing the associated risks of handling and deploying such hazardous materials.^[83]	United States
1942 (November)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The British government, concerned about the possibility that Germany is developing biological weapons, approaches the United States about leading a joint program to develop biological weapons. The US government is initially reluctant, but they eventually agree to the British request. President Franklin D. Roosevelt approves the program in November 1942. The program is initially called the War Research Service, but it is later renamed the Chemical and Biological Warfare Service. Responsible for developing and testing biological weapons, the US bioweapons program would be terminated in 1969.^[84]^[14]^:p14	United States, United Kingdom
1942 (late year)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The United States Government dedicates significant resources, including scientific expertise, labs, military personnel, and production facilities, to launch the largest biological warfare project in history. Columbia University scientists, Theodor Rosebury and Elvin Kabat, outline potential pathogens, organizational structures, and civil defense strategies in a forward-thinking report. This initiative marks a substantial step in the development of biological warfare capabilities.^[59]	United States
1943 (Spring)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The United States biological weapons program begins its activities at Camp Detrick, Maryland. This marks the implementation of plans to begin the US bioweapons program. Camp Detrick is a military base that has been used for biological research since the early 1900s. In the 1940s, the base would be expanded and converted into a major center for the development and testing of biological weapons.^[14]^:p14^[14]^:10	United States
1943	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Horn Island Chemical Warfare Service Quarantine Station, also referred to as the Horn Island Testing Station, is established as a U.S. biological weapons testing site during World War II. Positioned on Mississippi's Horn Island, the facility would cease operations at the end of the war and would be subsequently closed.^[85]^[86]	United States
1943	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Granite Peak Installation is established at Granite Peak, an isolated 250-square mile area in Tooele, Utah. This facility becomes the primary large-scale test field for living biological agents, offering a relatively safe environment for experiments. Administered as a subinstallation of Dugway, Granite Peak maintains autonomy in technical operations while collaborating closely. By July 1945, it reaches peak test operations, involving Army and Navy personnel in various capacities.^[87]^[88]	United States
1945	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The U.S. biological warfare program significantly expands, encompassing more than 5,000 personnel. This expansion is part of the broader effort during World War II to develop and refine biological weapons and defensive measures. The increase in staff reflects the growing focus on biological warfare research, including the study of pathogens, toxins, and methods for their effective deployment. The expanded workforce is involved in various aspects of the program, including laboratory research, field testing, and development of countermeasures, contributing to the U.S. military's biological warfare capabilities during the war.^[28]	United States
1947	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	Two years after Japan's surrender in World War II, the effects of the Japanese biological warfare program continue to be felt, with some epidemics still persisting and causing significant loss of life. These outbreaks, resulting from biological agents deliberately spread by Japanese forces during the war, reportedly continue to kill more than 30,000 people. Japan's biological warfare efforts, particularly under the notorious Unit 731, involve the intentional release of pathogens such as plague, cholera, and anthrax. The enduring impact of these biological attacks highlights the devastating and long-lasting consequences of using disease as a weapon of war, affecting civilian populations even after the conflict has ended.^[28]	East Asia
1949 (May)	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Harmless bacteria	The United States Army Chemical Corps set up a Special Operations Division at Camp Detrick. The goal of this division is to perform field tests with bioweapons formulations. The first test conducted by the division is at the Pentagon in August 1949. Operatives from the division would infiltrate the Pentagon and spray bacteria into the air handling system. The bacteria is supposed to be harmless, but the test shows that it was possible to use biological weapons to spread disease in a large, enclosed space.^[14]^:p14	United States
1949 (December)	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	The Soviet Union conducts the Khabarovsk war crimes trials, involving eight Japanese physicians, researchers, and four military servicemen. Despite the trial's strong ideological tone and certain shortcomings, it convincingly demonstrates that the Japanese army had prepared and deployed bacteriological weapons and that inhumane experiments were conducted on living human beings by Japanese researchers. However, the trial and its findings are dismissed in the West as communist propaganda and would go unnoticed until the 1980s.^[89]	Russia, Japan
1950	Intentional	Operation	Serratia marcescens, Bacillus globigii	Operation Sea-Spray is launched as a secret biological warfare experiment when the United States Navy conducts a series of tests to determine the feasibility of large-scale deployment of a bioweapon from the sea. These tests involve spraying cities in Norfolk, Hampton, Newport News, and San Francisco with harmless bacteria. The tests show that it is possible to spread biological weapons over a wide area from ships at sea.^[14]^:p14	United States
1951	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	One-Million-Liter Test Sphere, also known as the Test Sphere or "Eight Ball," is built on Fort Detrick, Maryland as a biological warfare chamber and testing facility. Constructed from 1951 to 1969, it serves as the largest aerobiology chamber, studying infectious agent aerosols and testing pathogen-filled munitions. The four-story, 131-ton sphere allows controlled exposure of animals and human volunteers to aerosols of various organisms. Utilized during Operation Whitecoat studies (1954–73), it wouldn't be used since the discontinuation of the US offensive biological warfare program in 1969. Despite the destruction of its housing building in 1974, the sphere would be placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.	United States
1951–1952	Intentional	Operation	Multiple	The United States conducts Operation Dew, a series of field trials designed to study the behavior and effects of aerosol-released biological agents. The operation involves two separate trials where non-pathogenic biological agents, such as bacterial spores, are released into the air to simulate how they might disperse and affect populations if used as weapons. The tests aim to understand the environmental dispersion, stability, and potential impact of these agents in a real-world setting. Operation Dew was part of broader research efforts to evaluate and enhance the U.S. military’s capabilities in biological warfare and defense.^[90]^[91]^[92]	United States
1950s	Intentional	Operation	Harmless bacteria	According to American expert on terrorism Robert Kupperman and Smith (1993), around this time the U.S. Army demonstrates vulnerability to biological warfare by releasing harmless bacteria into New York City subways.^[93]	United States
1952	Non-intentional	Early description	Chikungunya	Chikungunya is first identified in Tanzania. It is a viral disease transmitted to humans by mosquitoes carrying the chikungunya virus, primarily Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Its hallmark symptom is a sudden fever onset, often accompanied by severe joint pain.^[94] It is one of more than a dozen agents that would be researched as potential biological weapons.^[34]^[95]	Tanzania
1952	Intentional	Non-state ecoterrorism	Synadenium grantii	The Mau Mau, a militant anti-colonial movement in what is now Kenya, employs the toxic substance derived from the African milk bush (Synadenium grantii) to eliminate livestock. This strategic use of the plant toxin serves as a method of resistance against colonial forces and aims to disrupt agricultural activities and the livelihood of the colonial settlers. The Mau Mau's utilization of the plant's deadly properties would become a significant aspect of their resistance tactics and remains a notable historical episode in the struggle for independence and sovereignty in the region.^[45]^:21	Kenya
1952	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Under Project MKNAOMI, the U.S. Army enters into an agreement with the CIA to collaborate on the development, testing, and maintenance of biological agents and their delivery systems. This secretive project is part of a broader effort during the Cold War to enhance the United States' capabilities in biological warfare. MKNAOMI aims to create and refine biological agents and develop methods for their effective dissemination, with the goal of improving the military's preparedness for biological warfare scenarios. The collaboration between the Army and the CIA highlights the intersection of military and intelligence operations in advancing biological and chemical warfare technologies during this period.^[96]	United States
1953	Intentional	Bioterrorism (State-sponsored)	Bacillus anthracis	The St. Jo Program conducts staged mock anthrax attacks in cities such as St. Louis, Minneapolis, and Winnipeg. This involves the use of aerosol generators positioned on top of cars to simulate the dispersal of anthrax. The results of these tests demonstrate the feasibility of deploying a bioweapon on a large scale from the land, raising concerns about the potential implications of such technology and highlighting the importance of biorisk management and preparedness measures.^[14]^:p14	United States
1953	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Building 470 is built by the United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories. This facility would become an integral to U.S. biological warfare defense during the Cold War, serving as a pilot plant for the production of biological agents, contributing to the United States' offensive Biological Warfare program.^[97]^[98]	United States
1953	Intentional (prevention)	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The United States Army Medical Unit is formed at Fort Detrick, Maryland to develop medical countermeasures, which includes prophylactics, therapeutics and rapid and effective diagnostic and identification procedures. Scientists document the properties of microbial aerosols and devise equipment and protocols to facilitate studies on the airborne spread of respiratory illnesses and methods to prevent such transmission. They also pioneere techniques for sterilizing laboratories and equipment using ethylene oxide.^[99]	United States
1954	Intentional	Operation	Oriental rat flea	Operation Big Itch is conducted at Dugway Proving Ground in Utah, as an entomological warfare field test. The objective is to assess the coverage and survivability of the tropical rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) as a potential disease vector for biological warfare. Uninfected fleas are utilized in the trials, loaded into two types of munitions—E14 and E23 bombs— which could be clustered into E86 and E77 bombs. These bombs are then dropped from the air to study the patterns and resilience of the fleas. The operation aims to gather data on the potential use of fleas in biological warfare scenarios.^[100]	United States
1954–1976	Intentional (prevention)	Operation	Multiple	The Operation Whitecoat is conducted at Fort Detrick as a U.S. Army biodefense medical research program. Enlisted personnel, known as "Whitecoats," all conscientious objectors, volunteer to be infected with potential biological weapons, aiming to defend against such threats. Over 2,300 soldiers participate, and are exposed to bacteria like tularemia and the Black Plague. The program's goal is to determine dose responses, with volunteers treated and given investigational vaccines. Although discontinued in 1973, post-Whitecoat studies would continue, contributing to FDA-approved vaccines and investigational drugs for various diseases. The program would also play a role in developing biological safety equipment.^[101]^[102]^[103]	United States
1954	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Soviet Union establishes a biological weapons test site known as Aralsk-7 on Vozrozhdeniya Island and the neighboring Komsomolskiy Island in the Aral Sea. This facility is part of the Soviet Union's extensive biological warfare program and is used to conduct tests on various biological agents, including pathogens and toxins. The remote location provides a controlled environment for experimentation with the dispersal and impact of biological weapons. The tests at Aralsk-7 involve the release of pathogens into the environment to study their spread and effectiveness. The site would remain operational for several decades before being decommissioned, and concerns about environmental contamination and public health risks would continue to be associated with the former test areas.^[104]	Soviet Union
1954	Intentional	Research	Tularemia	The United States conducts practical research into using rabbit fever, also known as tularemia, as a biological warfare agent at Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas. This research is an extension of the broader biological weapons program centered at Fort Detrick, Maryland. Tularemia, caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, is studied for its potential as a weapon due to its high infectivity and ability to cause severe illness. The work at Pine Bluff Arsenal involves developing methods for producing and deploying tularemia as a bioweapon.^[105]	United States
1955	Intentional	Operation	Aedes aegypti	The U.S. military conducts the "Operation Big Buzz" as part of its entomological warfare program. This operation, involving the release of over one million Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, aims to simulate operational conditions for potential bioterrorism attacks. Approximately one-third of these mosquitoes, which are uninfected, are aerially dropped on rural Georgia. Human volunteers report that the mosquitoes successfully located human hosts about 0.5 miles downwind from the release site. Following this operation, similar experiments with Ae. aegypti would continue for several years, some of which would remain classified.^[106]	United States
1956	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The United States establishes its military biodefense program with the creation of the United States Army Medical Unit (USAMU) at Fort Detrick, Maryland. This initiative marks the formal beginning of the U.S.'s efforts to protect its military and civilian populations against biological threats. The USAMU's mission is to research and develop defensive measures against potential biological weapons, including vaccines, detection systems, and treatments for various pathogens. Fort Detrick becomes a central hub for the U.S. biological weapons program, focusing on understanding and mitigating the risks posed by biological agents in the context of national security.^[107]	United States
1956	Intentional	Operation	Aedes aegypti	The Operation May Day is conducted as part of the U.S. military's entomological warfare (EW) program, involving the dispersal of yellow fever mosquitoes in an urban area of Savannah, Georgia. This operation, similar to others like Operation Big Itch and Operation Big Buzz, aims to gather information on the dispersal patterns of mosquitoes. The mosquitoes are released from ground level and later recovered using traps baited with dry ice. While the operation is conducted in 1956, it would be only partially declassified in 1981, revealing details about the tests conducted.^[108]^[109]	United States
1957		Organization	Multiple	The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) is founded in Pakistan. Based near CMH Rawalpindi in Punjab, it serves as the primary institution for defensive research into countermeasures against biological warfare. AFIP collaborates with civilian and military pathologists to combat virus outbreaks in Pakistan. Located alongside the Armed Forces Institute of Cardiology in Rawalpindi Cantonment, AFIP plays a crucial role in researching and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of biological threats.^[110]^[111]	Pakistan
1958	Non-intentional	Early description	Argentine hemorrhagic fever	Argentine hemorrhagic fever is first reported in Buenos Aires province.^[112] It is one of three hemorrhagic fevers and one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before the nation suspends its biological weapons program.^[34] The Soviet Union would also conduct research and developing programs on the potential of the hemorragic fever as a biological weapon.^[113]
1960	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	A U.S. Army general estimates that two aircraft, each carrying 10,000 pounds of biological agents, can potentially kill or incapacitate approximately 60 million Americans. This assessment underscores the immense destructive potential of biological warfare when deployed on a large scale.^[93]	United States
1962 (May)	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Joint Chiefs of Staff creates the Deseret Test Center at Fort Douglas, Utah, a decommissioned army base.^[114] DTC is tasked with overseeing chemical and biological weapons testing. This initiative, known as Project 112, would conduct various tests in land-based, Arctic, and tropical environments, ending in 1973. The testing locations include diverse settings such as land areas and barges in the Pacific Ocean.^[115]^[116]	United States
1963	Both	Early description	Bolivian hemorrhagic fever	Bolivian hemorrhagic fever is first identified. It is a highly lethal viral hemorrhagic fever of which little is known.^[117] It is one of three hemorrhagic fevers and one of more than a dozen agents that the United States would research as potential biological weapons before suspending its biological weapons program in 1969.^[34] It would be also under research by the Soviet Union, under the Biopreparat bureau.^[118]	Bolivia
1964	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella typhi	Dr. Mitsuru Suzuki, a Japanese physician specialized in bacteriology, faces legal repercussions when he is apprehended for infecting four of his colleagues by using a sponge cake that has been deliberately contaminated with dysentery-causing pathogens. Following further investigation, he is found to be associated with a series of outbreaks involving typhoid fever and dysentery, which affected around 200 individuals and led to four fatalities. The prosecution alleges that Dr. Suzuki carried out these actions as part of his dissertation research, which involves the study of S. typhi obtained from numerous sources. Notably, one culture of S. typhi was illicitly acquired from Japan's NIH (National Institute of Health), while another culture was isolated from an infected patient. The case raises concerns about academic integrity and the potential misuse of dangerous pathogens for research purposes.^[45]^:22	Japan
1965	Intentional	Bioterrorism (State-sponsored)	Non-harmful bacteria	U.S. government agents conducted a discreet test by spraying non-harmful bacteria onto passengers at what is now known as Reagan National Airport in Washington, D.C. This test is part of a broader series of experiments to study the dispersion and behavior of biological agents in public spaces. The bacteria used are not pathogenic and are chosen to simulate how harmful biological agents might spread through an airport environment. The purpose of these tests is to evaluate how biological agents could be dispersed and detected, providing valuable data for developing strategies to counteract biological threats.^[57]	United States
1966	Intentional	Operation	Bacillus globigii	The New York metro system is contaminated with Bacillus globigii as part of a covert test designed to simulate the release of anthrax. This test, conducted by the U.S. Army's Chemical Corps, aims to study the dispersal patterns and potential impact of biological agents in an urban environment. Bacillus globigii, a non-pathogenic bacterium, is used as a surrogate for anthrax due to its similar properties in terms of spore dispersal. The experiment is controversial due to its lack of public disclosure and the potential risks involved, raising ethical and safety concerns about the use of urban populations for biological testing.^[28]^[119]	United States
1969	Intentional (prevention)	Risk report	Multiple	The World Health Organization estimates that a single bioweapon attack in a medium-sized city has the potential to cause the deaths of tens of thousands of people. This estimation is contextualized within the backdrop of increasing tensions during the Cold War and the growing capability to carry out such devastating attacks.^[38]
1969	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) is established. Located at Fort Detrick, Maryland, USAMRIID becomes the premier U.S. military research institution focused on studying infectious diseases, particularly those that could pose significant threats as biological weapons. The institute's mission includes researching high-risk pathogens, developing medical countermeasures such as vaccines and therapeutics, and providing expertise on biodefense. USAMRIID would play a crucial role in advancing the understanding of dangerous infectious diseases and enhancing the nation's preparedness against potential biological threats.^[120]	United States
1969	Non-intentional	Early description	Lassa fever	Lassa fever is first described from a case in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria, after a severe illness is observed in local residents. The disease, caused by the Lassa virus, a member of the Arenavirus family, is primarily transmitted to humans through exposure to the urine or feces of infected rodents, particularly the multimammate rat. Lassa fever can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, hemorrhaging, and organ failure, with a high risk of death in severe cases. Since its discovery, increased awareness and research efforts would be conducted to combat this deadly disease, which today continues to pose a significant public health threat in West Africa.^[121]^[122]	Nigeria
1969 (November 25)	Intentional (prevention)	Bioterrorism (State-sponsored)	Multiple	U.S. President Richard Nixon makes a significant announcement, declaring that the United States would renounce the use of all forms of deadly biological weapons that have the capability to kill or incapacitate. This announcement marks the end of an era in the United States' offensive biological weapons research, production, and storage. The decision reflects a significant shift in national policy towards biorisk management and demonstrated the country's commitment to international efforts to prevent the development and use of bioweapons.^[14]^:p15^[30]	United States
1970	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Ascaris suum	Ascariasis poisoning incident occurs when Eric Kranz, a postgraduate student specializing in parasitology at MacDonald College, conducts a concerning act where he deliberately infects four of his roommates using food intentionally contaminated with a substantial number of embryonated ova of Ascaris suum. Ascaris suum is a parasitic roundworm typically found in pigs. Following this exposure, the infects individuals display symptoms and clinical indicators indicative of lower respiratory tract disease. The severity of illness is particularly pronounced in some cases, with affected individuals experiencing acute respiratory failure. This incident raises significant public health and ethical concerns surrounding the deliberate transmission of parasitic infections in a residential setting.^[45]^:22	United States
1971 (July 11)	Both	Crisis	Variola virus	An outbreak of smallpox occurs in Aralsk, Kazakhstan, despite the Soviet Union having eradicated endemic smallpox in 1936. The outbreak, involving ten infections and three deaths, is unusual, as the Soviet authorities had previously eliminated smallpox from their territory. The Soviet Union, however, keeps the incident secret, violating international reporting agreements. The reason for the secrecy suggests a possible connection to a field test of weaponized smallpox at the nearby Soviet biological warfare testing grounds on Vozrozhdeniye Island in the Aral Sea. This information would gain significance amid global concerns about the potential misuse of variola virus, leading to an urgent need to understand the Soviet offensive biological warfare program.^[123]^[124]^[125]^[28]	Kazakhstan
1971	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The Central Committee of the Communist Party and the USSR Council of Ministers issue a decree that marks the beginning of the Soviet Union's second-generation biological weapons program. This program represents a significant escalation in the development of biological warfare capabilities, focusing on more advanced and sophisticated biological agents. The decree formalizes the expansion of research and production efforts, including the development of genetically engineered pathogens and novel delivery systems. This new phase of the Soviet bioweapons program reflects the Cold War-era arms race, where the USSR seeks to maintain and enhance its strategic advantage through the advancement of its biological warfare arsenal.^[126]^[127]^[128]	Soviet Union
1972 (April 10)	Intentional	International agreement	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Convention is finalized and made available for countries to sign. This treaty unequivocally prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons. A total of seventy-nine nations, including the Soviet Union, sign the treaty, symbolizing a significant global commitment to biorisk management and the renunciation of bioweapons as tools of warfare. The Biological Weapons Convention stands as a landmark agreement in the pursuit of international security and the prevention of bioterrorism.^[14]^:p15^[28]	Worldwide (109 signatories)
1972	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Salmonella typhi	Individuals associated with the right-wing organization known as the Order of the Rising Sun are discovered to have acquired 30–40 kg of typhoid bacteria cultures. It would be purported that they intended to utilize these cultures to contaminate the water supplies of various Midwestern cities.^[93]^[22]	United States
1972	Intentional	Biological weapons program shutdown	Multiple	President Richard Nixon signs the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), a landmark international treaty aimed at prohibiting the development, production, and acquisition of biological and toxin weapons. The BTWC marks a significant policy shift by formally abandoning offensive biological weapons research and committing to the destruction of existing stockpiles. The treaty, which would come into force on March 26, 1975, establishes a framework for international cooperation in monitoring and ensuring compliance, and it represented a major step towards strengthening global biosecurity and preventing the use of biological agents in warfare.^[28]	United States
1972	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Berkowitz et al. describe the potency of biological agents, emphasizing their extreme toxicity on a weight basis. They elaborate on the factors affecting the viability of organisms in an aerosol cloud, emphasizing the significance of relative humidity, atmospheric composition, temperature, and radiation.^[93]
1974	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	The Soviet Union establishes Biopreparat, a massive biowarfare project employing more than 50,000 people.^[28] Later known as the Chief Directorate for Biological Preparations, Biopreparat operates as a front for offensive biological weapons research and development, primarily controlled by the Ministry of Defense and other state organs. Operating 52 sites, its main purpose is concealing biological weapons activities. Its facilities would produce agents like plague, anthrax, and smallpox, and explore genetic engineering to enhance the Soviet Union's biological weapons capability, bypassing arms control treaties.^[129]	Soviet Union
1974 (February 8)	Intentional	National law	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Act 1974 in the United Kingdom prohibits the production, development, acquisition, and possession of specific biological agents, toxins, and biological weapons. Enacted during Queen Elizabeth II's reign, the act aims to regulate and restrict activities related to biological weapons within the country.^[130]	United Kingdom
1974	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The State Research Center for Applied Microbiology is established in Russia. This institute, located in Obolensk, is founded to advance research in microbiology, particularly in the fields of applied and industrial microbiology. Its primary focus includes studying and developing methods for combating biological threats, including pathogens that could be used in biological warfare or bioterrorism. The center plays a crucial role in the development of vaccines, diagnostic tools, and treatments for infectious diseases, contributing to both public health and national security. Its establishment marks a significant investment in biological research and biodefense capabilities during the Cold War era.^[131]	Russia (Soviet Union)
1974	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR is established in Koltsovo, Russia. VECTOR would become one of the major research institutions in Russia focuses on virology and biotechnology, conducting extensive research on viral pathogens, including those with potential for biological warfare, and developing vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments. The center is known for its work on a range of infectious diseases, including hemorrhagic fevers and other high-risk viruses. VECTOR's establishment marks a significant step in advancing Soviet capabilities in biodefense and virology research during the Cold War period.^[132]^[133]^[134]	Russia (Soviet Union)
1975 (March 26)	Intentional	International agreement	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Convention officially comes into force, signifying a landmark moment in the global effort to ban biological weapons. Additionally, on the same day, the US Senate finally ratifies the 1925 Geneva Protocol, further bolstering the political will to prohibit the use of biological weapons internationally. These developments demonstrate a strong commitment from the international community to uphold biorisk management.^[14]^:p16	109 signatories
1975	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Griffith suggests that biological warfare within a city would likely involve targeting specific buildings or limited sections of the population rather than widespread areas. He proposes methods such as introducing harmful organisms through water supplies or ventilation systems to achieve this. Griffith's analysis emphasize the potential for precision in biological attacks, where targeted delivery methods could maximize the impact on select populations while minimizing broader exposure. This approach reflects a strategic perspective on bioterrorism, highlighting the need for detailed planning and control in the deployment of biological agents within urban environments.^[93]
1975	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	The Symbionese Liberation Army, a radical left-wing group, is discovered to possess manuals on how to make biological weapons. The SLA, known for its violent activities and revolutionary agenda, has acquired information on the development and use of biological agents. This finding raises concerns about the potential for such groups to use biological weapons to further their political objectives.^[14]^:p15^[93]	United States
1976	Non-intentional	Early description	Orthohantavirus	The first pathogenic hantavirus, the Hantaan orthohantavirus, is isolated from rodents near the Hantan River in South Korea. Belonging to the Hantaviridae family, it poses a significant global public health threat. It's a zoonotic infection transmitted from wild rodents to humans via their urine, saliva, and feces. The virus can become airborne in enclosed spaces when rodents are disturbed or during human activities like vacuuming. Humans can contract the virus by inhaling contaminated dust, direct contact with broken skin or mucous membranes, and consuming food or water tainted by infected rodents.^[135]^[136] Hantavirus would be researched as a biological agent.^[137]
1976	Intentional	Bioterrorism (preventive research)	Multiple	Mengel describes domed sports stadiums as "ideal" targets for a biological attack. He suggests that such venues, due to their enclosed and crowded nature, would be highly vulnerable to the dispersal of biological agents. Mengel specifically mentions anthrax and cryptococcosis as potential agents for use in aerosol form. Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, and cryptococcosis, caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, are considered because they could spread effectively in such environments and cause significant harm to large numbers of people. Mengel's analysis highlights the potential risks of biological attacks on densely populated areas.^[93]
1977	Non-intentional	Crisis	H1N1 influenza	1977 Russian flu. An H1N1 influenza outbreak emerges in the Soviet Union, quickly spreading globally and lasting two years. The virus, affecting mainly individuals under 25, causes an estimated 700,000 deaths worldwide. Subsequently, virologists investigating the 'Russian flu' find its genetic sequence remarkably similar to a 1950s strain, challenging typical patterns of viral evolution. Joel Wertheim, a UC San Diego professor, suggests that the lack of mutation indicates artificial preservation, leading some, including virologist Peter Palese, to speculate about vaccine challenge trials involving military recruits. Despite uncertainties, the World Health Organization rejects the notion of H1N1 being a result of a laboratory accident.^[138]	Russia, worldwide
1977	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax	The US Law Enforcement Assistance Administration reports that introducing a single ounce of anthrax into the air-conditioning system of a domed stadium could potentially infect 70,000 to 80,000 spectators within an hour. This assessment highlights the significant threat posed by biological weapons when deployed in enclosed spaces with centralized air systems. The report emphasizes the potential for rapid and widespread dissemination of a pathogen, underscoring the need for stringent security measures and preparedness to protect large public gatherings from bioterrorism threats.^[93]	United States
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Ricin	An instance of using injection as a method to deliver biological agents is documented. Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian dissident, becomes the victim of this method when he receives a lethal dose of ricin, a potent toxin, administered through the tip of an umbrella. This event serves as a primary example of how a syringe or mechanical device can be utilized to covertly deliver harmful substances to individuals, highlighting the potential dangers of such methods in biothreat scenarios.^[14]^:p15	Bulgaria
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	B.M. Jenkins and A.P. Rubin argue that smaller targets, particularly those in sealed buildings with central air conditioning systems, are more likely to be successfully attacked by terrorists using biological weapons. They suggest that the controlled environment of such buildings—where air circulation can be more easily managed and contained—would enhance the effectiveness of a biological attack. The presence of central air conditioning systems could facilitate the spread of airborne pathogens, making it easier to infect a large number of people within the enclosed space. This assessment highlights the need for targeted security measures and preparedness strategies for protecting sensitive and high-density environments from bioterrorism threats.^[93]^[139]
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis, brucella, coccidioides immitis', coccidioides posadasii, cryptococcus neoformans, cryptococcus gattii, yersinia pestis, chlamydia psittaci, rickettsia rickettsii, francisella tularensis	Berkowitz and colleagues identify eight biological agents as likely candidates for biological warfare (BW): anthrax, brucellosis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, pneumonic plague, psittacosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and tularemia. These agents are considered due to their potential for causing significant harm and their feasibility for use in biological warfare scenarios.^[93]
1978	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Mullin discusses the challenges associated with aerosolizing biological agents and their survival in the environment. He emphasizes the complexities involved in dispersing such agents effectively, noting that various factors—such as particle size, environmental conditions, and the stability of the biological agents—must be carefully considered. Mullin's analysis highlights that successful aerosolization requires precise control over these factors to ensure that the biological agents remain viable and capable of causing harm once released.^[93]
1979	Non-intentional	Crisis	Bacillus anthracis	Approximately 70 fatalities occur due to an unintentional discharge of anthrax spores in the Soviet city of Sverdlovsk. The United States entertains suspicions that the release of anthrax bacterial spores was an accidental event originating from a Soviet military biological facility.^[14]^:p15^[140]	Russia (Soviet Union)
1979	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Reports emerge in West Germany indicating that Palestinians in Lebanon were training members of the leftist Red Army Faction (RAF) in the use of biological weapons. These reports suggest that the RAF, a radical group known for its violent activities, was being instructed in the deployment of biological agents by Palestinian militants. The training is part of a broader concern about the potential spread of biological warfare techniques among terrorist groups.^[93]	West Germany, Lebanon, Palestine
1980	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Clostridium botulinum	A safe house belonging to the Red Army Faction is reportedly found in Paris, and within it, a laboratory is discovered containing significant quantities of botulinum toxin. This discovery raises concerns about the potential use of biological agents as tools of terrorism and underscored the importance of biorisk management and counterterrorism measures to address such threats.^[14]^:p16^[93]	France
1980	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Lowell Ponte publishes a detailed account of cases where U.S. Army Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW) teams conducted open-air tests simulating germ warfare attacks on the population between 1949 and 1969. Ponte's list documents various instances where biological agents were released into the environment to study their dispersal and impact. These tests often involved releasing pathogens or simulants in public areas, including cities and transportation systems, to evaluate the potential effects of a biological attack. Ponte's work highlights the controversial nature of these experiments, which were conducted to assess vulnerabilities and improve defense strategies but raised significant ethical and health concerns due to their potential risks to civilian populations.^[93]	United States
1981	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Anthrax	The organization known as "Dark Harvest" orchestrates an incident involving the delivery of a package of soil to the Chemical Defense Establishment in Porton Down, England. Their intention is to symbolically return what they refer to as "seeds of death" to their place of origin. The group claims that this soil, approximately 300 pounds in total, was taken from Gruinard Island, where anthrax bomb tests had been conducted in 1941. According to their statement, microbiologists from two universities and local individuals are involved in collecting the soil. Subsequent analysis reveal the presence of Bacillus anthracis in the soil at an estimated quantity of 10 organisms per gram. This event brings attention to the historical context and potential biothreats associated with biological agents like anthrax.^[45]^:22^[141]
1981	Non-intentional	Crisis	Ceratitis capitata	California faces a medfly infestation, prompting widespread aerial spraying of malathion, causing public health concerns. Governor Jerry Brown's authorization of malathion use stirs controversy as residents fear its potential toxicity. Despite declarations of victory in 1982, subsequent Medfly outbreaks would challenge eradication efforts. Entomologist James R. Carey would argue that the pests have become permanent residents, a claim supported by a 2021 study finding multiple species across California. Presently, radioactively sterilizing male flies in labs is a preferred control method, reducing Medfly populations. Public anxiety over pesticide use, exemplified by historical incidents like DDT and Alar, continues to shape debates around pest control and organic alternatives.^[142]^[143]	United States
1982	Intentional (prevention)	Risk report	Botulinum toxin	Livingstone notes the extreme lethality of Type-A botulinal toxin, stating that theoretically, a single ounce could be sufficient to kill 60 million people.^[93] The author also suggests an imaginative method of delivering live bacteria through light bulbs left on subway tracks or roadways.^[93]
1982	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Stepnogorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology is established in Stepnogorsk, Kazakhstan. This institute becomes a key facility within the Soviet Union's biological weapons program, focusing on research and development related to microbiology and biotechnology. The institute would be involved in studying and producing biological agents, including potential weapons, and developing defensive measures against them. Its construction marks a significant investment in advancing Soviet capabilities in biological warfare and biodefense.^[144]^[145]^[146]	Soviet Union (Kazakhstan)
1983	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Roodeplaat Research Laboratories is established as a front company by the South African Defence Force to research, test and produce biological weapons within a covert operation known as Project Coast.^[147]^[148]	South Africa
1984	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Salmonella	Rajneeshee bioterror attack. In a significant act of bioterrorism, adherents of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh intentionally contaminate salad bars in a town in Oregon with Salmonella bacteria. This event stands as the most extensive case of bioterrorism recorded in the history of the United States. The contamination of the salad bars leads to over 750 cases of salmonellosis among the affected population. Subsequent investigations reveal that the Rajneeshees orchestrated this act in an attempt to influence the local county elections. To carry out their plan, members of the cult procured the Salmonella strain through mail from the American Type Culture Collection and cultivated the liquid cultures within the confines of their compound's medical clinic. This incident raised significant concerns about the potential misuse of biological agents for malicious purposes and highlighted the importance of biosecurity measures to safeguard public health and safety.^[14]^[14]^:p16	United States
1984	Non-intentional (prevention)	Organization	Multiple	ABSA International (ABSA) is established in 1984 with the aim of advancing biosafety as a scientific field and meeting the increasing requirements of biosafety experts globally.^[149] Biosafety is a component of biorisk management, specifically dealing with accidental biological hazards within laboratory and research settings.^[150]^[151]^[152]
1984	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology is founded.^[153] It is a research facility for medical biosecurity focusing on developing procedures to safeguard soldiers from diseases caused by biological warfare agents and dangerous pathogens. Research encompasses highly infectious pathogens and biotoxins with potential for misuse as biological weapons, aiming to detect, diagnose, and understand the origins of diseases.^[154]	Germany
Early 1980s	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Multiple	Project Coast starts operating as South Africa's covert Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW) program. Operational until early 1990s, the program would be found to have developed lethal chemical and biological weapons, including sterilization toxins and concealed poisons, targeting African National Congress political leaders and black township populations. Project Coast would be accused of contaminating water supplies with cholera, aiding Rhodesian troops with anthrax and cholera, and employing toxic agents for political assassinations. Investigations would lead to dismissals and document destruction, with South Africa officially maintaining the program's defensive nature, despite international concerns.^[155]	South Africa
1987	Intentional	Bioterrorism (research)	Bacteriological agents	Douglass and Livingstone state that terrorists would likely choose bacteriological agents over viral or rickettsial agents. They highlight the stability and toxicity of toxins.^[93] They point out the difficulties of selectively using biological agents in an open area, citing an example related to Israeli settlements in occupied Arab territory.^[93]
1987	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Watkins argues that terrorists, rather than foreign national powers, pose the principal biological threat. This perspective highlights the growing concern that non-state actors, including extremist groups and terrorist organizations, could exploit biological agents to cause harm or create panic. Watkins emphasizes the potential for such groups to use biological weapons to achieve political or ideological objectives, pointing to the need for heightened vigilance and preparedness against bioterrorism. This viewpoint marks a shift in focus from traditional state-based threats to the increasing risks posed by individuals and groups outside of government control.^[93]
1988	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Multiple	Experts Robert Kupperman and James Woolsey suggest that terrorists armed with biological weapons could potentially cause casualties on a scale comparable to nuclear weapons. They argue that the deliberate release of biological agents could result in the deaths of tens to hundreds of thousands of people. This assertion highlights the severe threat posed by bioterrorism, emphasizing that biological weapons could be as devastating as nuclear weapons in terms of lethality and disruption.^[93]
1989 (May 16)	Intentional	National law	Multiple	The Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989 is introduced in the United States. This legislation aims to strengthen national security by addressing the threat of biological weapons and bioterrorism. The act seeks to enhance the legal framework for preventing and responding to biological attacks, including establishing penalties for the development, production, or use of biological weapons. It also aims to improve coordination among federal agencies in detecting and countering biological threats. The introduction of the act reflects growing concerns at the time about the potential misuse of biological agents and the need for comprehensive measures to protect public health and safety.^[156]	United States
1989	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	Vladimir Pasechnik, a defector from Biopreparat, exposes the presence of an ongoing offensive biological weapons program within the Soviet Union. His revelations provide evidence suggesting the Soviet Union's non-compliance with the Biological Weapons Convention, a treaty aimed at prohibiting the development and use of biological weapons.^[14]^:p15	Russia (Soviet Union)
1989	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Ricin	Members of the Patriots Council, an antigovernment extremist group in Minnesota, conspire to assassinate a US marshal using ricin. The group intends to enhance the potency of the homemade ricin by combining it with dimethylsulfoxide, a chemical that accelerates absorption, and subsequently applying it to the door handles of the marshal's car. Their plot is uncovered, leading to the apprehension of all four individuals involved. They become the first to face prosecution under the US Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989.^[14]^:p15	United States
1989	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Simon suggests that biological weapons may be considered and used by terrorists in the future. He cites factors like the possibility of terrorists turning to biological weapons due to tightened security against traditional means, an increase in high-casualty events, more spectacular terrorist attacks, increasing blackmail/extortion threats, and the growth of state-sponsored terrorism.^[93]
1989	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Anthrax	The Al Hakum facility in Iraq begins mass production of weapons-grade anthrax. This facility is part of Iraq's broader biological weapons program, which seeks to develop and produce various biological agents for military use. The production of weapons-grade anthrax at Al Hakum represents a significant escalation in Iraq's bioweapons capabilities, highlighting the regime's commitment to advancing its biological warfare arsenal. The development and stockpiling of such dangerous agents raises international concerns about the potential for their use in conflicts or as tools of bioterrorism.^[157]	Iraq
1989–1990	Intentional (speculated)	Crisis	Ceratitis capitata	California experiences a severe Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) infestation, suspected to be an act of agro-terrorism by a group called "The Breeders."^[158] This group claims the attack is retaliation against the state's Malathion spraying program. The infestation causes significant agricultural damage and leads to an estimated $60 million in eradication costs.^[159] In response, California intensifies its eradication efforts and eventually halts the Malathion program in favor of introducing sterilized medflies. Despite investigations, "The Breeders" would never be identified, and the 1989 California medfly attack would remain a notable case of ecoterrorism in U.S. history.^[160]^[161]^[162]	United States (California)
1990	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	HIV	Graham Farlow, an inmate in a correctional facility situated in New South Wales, Australia, holds the status of an asymptomatic carrier of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). In an incident, Farlow intentionally administers HIV-contaminated blood through injection to a prison guard named Geoffrey Pearce, who contracts the HIV virus as a result. Subsequently, Farlow succumbs to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).^[45]^:24	Australia
1990	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	United States Ambassador H. Allen Holmes expresses concern about the potential for terrorists to acquire biological weapons. Holmes highlights the growing risk that extremist groups or rogue actors can obtain and use biological agents for malicious purposes. His comments underscores the need for robust international controls and vigilance to prevent the proliferation of biological weapons and mitigate the threats posed by non-state actors. This concern reflects an increasing awareness of the risks associated with bioterrorism and the importance of global efforts to address and counteract these emerging threats.^[93]	United States
1991	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax	Dr. Graham Pearson, Head of Britain's Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment, is quoted as stating that an anthrax attack on Washington DC can result in more casualties than a hydrogen bomb. This stark comparison emphasizes the immense lethality of anthrax as a biological weapon when dispersed over a densely populated area. Dr. Pearson's statement highlights the catastrophic potential of biological warfare, underlining the importance of robust defense measures, preparedness, and international cooperation to prevent such devastating attacks.^[93]	United States
1991	Intentional	Risk report	Bacillus anthracis	A risk report by Karisch highlights the alarming possibility of dispersing anthrax spores through a city's subway system. The report suggests that just one to two liters of anthrax spores could be sufficient to infect millions of people if released in such an environment. This scenario underscored the extreme vulnerability of urban infrastructure to biological attacks, particularly in confined spaces with high population density.^[93]
1991 (January 25)	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	During the Gulf War, Iraq issues threats to use chemical and bacteriological weapons against European capitals, including plans to contaminate water supplies. These threats are part of Iraq's broader strategy of psychological warfare and intimidation, aimed at deterring intervention and increasing pressure on coalition forces. The threats raise significant concerns about the potential use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and the risks of contamination and mass casualties. The international community closely monitores the situation, and the threats underscore the importance of preparedness and response strategies for chemical and biological warfare.^[93]	Iraq, Europe
1991	Intentional	Inspection	Multiple	Following the Gulf War, the United Nations conduct its first inspection of Iraq's biological warfare capabilities. This inspection is part of broader efforts to assess and dismantle Iraq's weapons of mass destruction programs, as mandated by UN Security Council resolutions. The inspections reveal that Iraq has developed a significant biological weapons program, including the production and weaponization of agents such as anthrax and botulinum toxin.^[30]	Iraq
1992	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	HIV	During a disagreement regarding child support, Brian T. Stewart, a phlebotomist at a hospital in St. Louis, Missouri, administers HIV-contaminated blood to his 11-month-old son. The incident causes harm to the child and results in legal ramifications for Mr. Stewart.^[45]^:24	United States
1992	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	The OTA study states that the future use of biological agents cannot be excluded. Simon and others point to current trends, including the possibility that terrorists might turn to biological weapons due to increased security against traditional means, a recent increase in high-casualty events, more spectacular terrorist attacks, increasing blackmail/extortion threats, the growth of state-sponsored terrorism, and an increase in religiously inspired terrorism.^[93]
1992	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Expert James E. Mullins states that the technical knowledge required to use bacteriological agents is so widely accessible that almost anyone can deploy biological agents. Mullins emphasizes the ease with which individuals or groups can potentially weaponize biological agents, given the relatively simple methods and materials needed for their use. This assertion raises alarms about the growing risk of bioterrorism, as the barriers to acquiring and using such knowledge are minimal.^[93]
1992	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax, tularemia, yersina pestis, shigella flexneri, shigella dysenteriae, salmonella species, botulinum toxin, staphylococcal enterotoxin B	The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), a U.S. Congressional agency that provides analysis on scientific and technological issues, conducts a study identifying eight biological agents as likely threats: anthrax, tularemia, yersina pestis, shigella flexneri, s. dysenteriae, salmonella species, botulinum toxin, and staphylococcus enterotoxin B. The study highlights the potential use of these agents in biological warfare or bioterrorism, underscoring the need for effective biodefense strategies to protect public health and national security.^[93]	United States
1993 (April)	Non-intentional	Crisis	Cryptosporidium	The United States experiences the most significant infectious disease outbreak in its history, which is unintentionally caused by waterborne contamination. This outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred in the greater Milwaukee area and had a severe impact, with over 430,000 individuals suffering from gastroenteritis among a population of 1.6 million. The outbreak leads to approximately 4,400 hospitalizations and claims the lives of around 100 people. The incident highlights the potential consequences of unintentional contamination and its profound effects on public health and wellbeing.^[14]^:p15	United States
1993	Intentional	Risk report	Anthrax, botulinal toxin, ricin	Robert Kupperman et al. propose a shortlist of three biological agents deemed likely for use in warfare or terrorism. The agents identified are anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), known for its potential to be weaponized in spore form and causing severe illness and death when inhaled; botulinum toxin, produced by Clostridium botulinum, which is one of the most potent toxins known and can cause paralysis and respiratory failure even in minute amounts; and ricin, derived from the castor bean plant, a highly toxic protein that can cause severe harm or death if ingested, inhaled, or injected. These agents are selected due to their high lethality, ease of weaponization, and significant potential impact in a bioterrorism context.^[93]
1994	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	HIV	Dr. Richard J. Schmidt, a married gastroenterologist practicing in Louisiana, is implicated in an incident wherein he administers HIV-contaminated blood to a former romantic partner. Subsequent laboratory tests would reveal that the individual contracted the same strain of HIV as detected in one of Dr. Schmidt's patients. This event draws considerable attention and scrutiny, leading to legal and ethical considerations within the medical community.^[45]^:24
1994	Intentional	Bioterrorism (state)	HIV	It is revealed that South African police has plotted to spread the AIDS virus among black communities by using HIV-positive individuals to patronize prostitutes. This disturbing scheme is part of a broader and deeply unethical plan to further marginalize and harm the already vulnerable black population during the apartheid era. The plot highlights the extreme lengths to which certain individuals and institutions would go to perpetuate racial and social injustices. It also brings to light the severe misuse of biological agents and public health issues for malicious purposes, emphasizing the need for stringent ethical standards and oversight in both public health and law enforcement.^[93]	South Africa
1994	Intentional	Risk report	Smallpox	Significant security concerns are raised regarding the storage of the smallpox virus in a facility in Moscow. Observers note potential vulnerabilities in the security measures at the site, which could pose risks of unauthorized access or accidental release of the virus. Given the deadly nature of smallpox and its eradication from the general population, any breach in the containment of the virus can have catastrophic public health consequences. The concerns highlights the importance of stringent security protocols and international oversight in managing and safeguarding such dangerous pathogens to prevent potential misuse or accidents.^[93]	Russia
1995	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Ricin	Dr. Debora Green, an oncologist, makes three unsuccessful attempts to cause harm to her estranged cardiologist husband, Dr. Michael Farrar, using ricin-laced food. Subsequently, she sets fire to her residence, leading to the tragic loss of two out of her three children. Dr. Green's case would garner attention due to her reported heavy drinking habits and apparent manifestations of a severe psychiatric disorder.^[45]^:24
1995 (March 20)	Intentional	Bioterrorism (non-state)	Sarin	The Tokyo subway sarin attack is perpetrated by Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese doomsday cult led by Shoko Asahara, when their members release sarin gas in the Tokyo subway system, causing 13 deaths and over 5,800 injuries. The cult, evolving from a spiritual group in the 1980s, shocks Japan, exposing police oversights. Asahara and 13 members receive death sentences. Despite going underground and renaming as Aleph, the cult would persist. The Tokyo subway sarin attack would raise global concerns about the potential use of chemical agents as tools of terror, and it would lead to heightened awareness of the importance of biorisk management and counterterrorism measures.^[163]^[14]^:p15^[164]	Japan
1996	Intentional	Bioterrorism (individual criminal)	Shigella dysenteriae	Diane Thompson, an employee at St. Paul Medical Center hospital in Dallas, Texas, contaminates pastries with S. dysenteriae type 2 and places them in the laboratory break room. Twelve laboratory workers become sick after eating the contaminated food; another person becomes ill after consuming pastry brought home by one of the laboratory workers. Four of the people become sufficiently sick to require hospitalization. A year earlier, she infects her boyfriend (John P. Richy) with same organism. Thompson falsifies laboratory test results so that physicians would not learn of his infection. She infects him again after his release from the hospital, and a third time by injecting him with microorganisms while purporting to take a blood specime.^[45]^:24	United States
1996	Non-intentional	Organization	Multiple	The European BioSafety Association is established. It is a nonprofit organization offering a platform for its members to address concerns and advocate for professionals involved in biosafety and related endeavors. Its objective is to promote awareness and expertise in biological safety across Europe and globally.^[165]
1997	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	U.S. Secretary of Defense William Cohen addresses the potential risk of ethnic bioweapons in a risk report. Cohen's reference to this concept suggestes that biological weapons can be designed to target specific ethnic or genetic groups, raising profound ethical and security concerns. The idea of ethnic bioweapons involves engineering pathogens to selectively affect particular populations based on genetic characteristics, a notion that amplifies the dangers of biological warfare by introducing targeted and discriminatory elements.^[166]	United States
1997	Non-intentional	Illegal release by a group	Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus	Unidentified farmers deliberately and in violation of regulations, introduce rabbit hemorrhagic disease, a calicivirus, into the South Island of New Zealand with the objective of using it as an animal control method to manage feral rabbit populations. The intentional introduction of this disease raises concerns regarding its potential impact on the local ecosystem and the welfare of wildlife in the region.^[45]^:25	New Zeland
1997	Intentional	Biological weapons program	Anthrax	The United States initiates Project Jefferson as part of its biological weapons program, focusing on the threat posed by anthrax. This program is established in response to concerns over biological warfare and aimed to enhance national defense against potential anthrax attacks, particularly in light of the rising threat of terrorism. Project Jefferson involves researching anthrax's pathogenicity, developing effective vaccines, and improving detection and decontamination methods. Although the U.S. has renounced biological weapons by this time, the project underscores the need for preparedness against biological threats.^[167]	United States
1997	Intentional	Bioterrorism (state)	Multiple	Cuba officially files a complaint under Article 5 of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), accusing the United States of releasing a plant pathogen. Cuba alleges that the U.S. is responsible for an outbreak of a plant disease that affected its crops. However, the claim is unproven, and no concrete evidence would be presented to substantiate the accusation. This incident highlights the potential for international disputes and allegations regarding biological weapons, as well as the challenges in verifying and addressing such claims under the framework of international arms control agreements.^[28]	Cuba, United States
1997	Intentional	Risk report	Yersinia pestis	The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identifies Yersinia pestis as a Category A select biological agent, posing high national security risk, leading to enhanced regulations on its acquisition, use, and transfer. In 2003, the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act would enhance regulations governing the handling of select biological agents, including plague.^[168]	United States
1997–2000	Intentional (prevention)	Operation	Multiple	The Project Clear Vision is conducted by the CIA, which develops and assesses a replica of a Soviet germ bomb amid concerns of its potential sale on the global market. This CIA prototype lacks essential components like a fuse, rendering it non-functional as a bomb. Concurrently, Pentagon specialists construct a germ production facility in Nevada using readily available materials, showcasing the simplicity with which a terrorist or rogue state could establish a plant capable of manufacturing lethal germs. Both the simulated bomb and factory are tested using harmless substances resembling weaponized germs, according to officials.^[169]	Soviet Union
1998	Intentional	Bioterrorism (State-sponsored)	Multiple	Reports emerged that Iraq has sent scientists involved in biological weapons research to Libya. This action raises significant concerns about the proliferation of biological weapons technology and expertise. The transfer of scientists is feared to be part of a broader strategy to spread biological warfare capabilities to other nations, potentially increasing the risk of biological attacks or the development of new weapons. This situation highlights the challenges of controlling the spread of sensitive technologies and expertise, emphasizing the need for robust international monitoring and non-proliferation efforts to prevent the escalation of biological threats.^[30]	Iraq, Libya
1999	Intentional	Covert investigation	Multiple	The United States Department of Defense initiates Project Bacchus, a covert operation aimed at testing bioterrorism capabilities. Scientists successfully build a secret lab in Nevada, producing simulated anthrax using materials available on the market. Operating out of inconspicuous locations, they acquire necessary equipment from hardware and European sources. Although restricted from producing actual anthrax strains, their tests show potential lethality. The project, funded with $1.5 million, highlights the ease with which terrorists could establish anthrax labs undetected. Despite concerns, authorities successfully neutralize the lab, emphasizing the threat of easily dispersible anthrax spores. The project, unknown to most government agencies, aim to assess bioweapon manufacturing and detection capabilities.^[170]	United States
1999	Intentional (prevention)	Literature	Multiple	Former Soviet biological warfare researcher Ken Alibek publishes Biohazard, which delves into the clandestine activities of Russia's extensive bioweapons program during the Cold War. Alibek, a key figure in the program, discloses the program's two-decade history, revealing Moscow's efforts to enhance the virulence of hazardous microbes, develop invisible and untraceable biological agents suitable for political assassinations, and even attempt to weaponize HIV.^[171]
2000 (January 29)	Non-intentional	International agreement	Multiple	The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopts the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety as a supplementary agreement. This international treaty regulates the movement of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology between countries. It aims to safeguard biological diversity from potential risks posed by these organisms. The Protocol establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure, ensuring countries receive necessary information before allowing the import of such organisms. It emphasizes a precautionary approach and sets up a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate information exchange and assist in Protocol implementation. The treaty would enter into force on September 11, 2003.^[172]	170 United Nations member states, the State of Palestine, Niue, and the European Union.^[173]^[174]^[175]
2001 (June)	Intentional	Operation	Smallpox	The Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security conducts the Operation Dark Winter, which simulates a deliberate bioterrorist attack in Oklahoma City, where residents are infected with smallpox. This simulated attack mirrors a real event that would happen shortly after when anthrax-laced envelopes are sent to media outlets and politicians' offices, resulting in the deaths of five individuals.^[57]^[176]	United States
2001	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Bacillus anthracis	In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, a series of letters containing spores of Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) are mailed to media companies and governmental officials. As a consequence, 22 cases of anthrax infection emerge, comprising 11 inhalational and 11 cutaneous infections. Five individuals afflicted with inhalational anthrax succumb to the disease. This bioterrorism incident raises significant concerns over public health and national security, leading to extensive investigations and measures to prevent and respond to such threats in an impartial manner.^[45]^:25	United States
2001	Intentional (prevention)	Operation	Yersinia pestis	TOPOFF I is conducted in Denver, Colorado as a simulated plague attack, revealing U.S. critical deficiencies in emergency response, and leading to efforts to strengthen national and local preparedness. A second simulation, TOPOFF II, would be conducted in Chicago in 2003.^[168]	United States
2001 (October 2)	Intentional	Literature	Multiple	Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg, and William J. Broad publish Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War, which explores the unsettling reality of germ warfare in the aftermath of the anthrax attacks subsequent to the World Trade Center tragedy. The authors elucidate the daunting realization that germ warfare poses a highly elusive yet profoundly threatening danger, with the potential to inflict catastrophic damage on American territory.^[177]	United States
2002 (June 27)	Intentional	Organization	Multiple	The Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction is formed as a G7-led international security initiative established in 2002 after the September 11 attacks. Initially focused on addressing WMD threats in Russia and the Former Soviet Union, it would expand globally in 2008. With 31 active members and the European Union, the initiative would deliver over $25 billion in threat-reduction programming. It focuses on nuclear and radiological security, biological security, chemical security, and implementing UN Security Council Resolution 1540. The Global Partnership collaborates with international organizations and NGOs and conducts regular meetings and projects to prevent the proliferation of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons and related materials.^[178]^[179]^[180]
2002	Intentional	Biological warfare facility	Multiple	The National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center is established. Located in Fort Detrick, Maryland, it is dedicated to defending the United States against biological threats. Established after the Amerithrax attacks in 2001, NBACC supports intelligence assessments, preparedness planning, response, and bioforensic analyses. It houses two centers: the National Bioforensic Analysis Center (NBFAC) and the National Biological Threat Characterization Center. NBACC's 160,000 square-foot facility is equipped with biosafety levels (BSL) 2, 3, and 4 labs, making it one of seven such facilities in the country.^[181]	United States
2002	Intentional (prevention)	Literature	Multiple	Richard Preston publishes The Demon in the Freezer, which explores the bioterror threat following the 2001 anthrax attacks, delving into the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases at Fort Detrick. Peter Jahrling, a virologist, focuses on developing a smallpox drug to counter potential bioweapon threats. The book details the aftermath of the anthrax attacks, the FBI investigation, and Jahrling's controversial experiments with live smallpox virus at the CDC. Preston provides insights into the national biodefense efforts, emphasizing the risk of illegal smallpox stocks in hostile states and the potential dangers of genetic engineering creating a superpox virus.^[182]	United States
2002	Intentional	Risk report	Multiple	Concerns intensify regarding the potential existence of undisclosed stocks of biological weapons. Fears are raised that several countries, including South Africa, Israel, Iraq, and others, might be developing or had already developed biological weapons. These concerns are fueled by suspicions and reports suggesting that some nations are secretly advancing their biological warfare capabilities despite international treaties and regulations prohibiting such activities. The uncertainty surrounding these potential stockpiles highlight the challenges of monitoring and enforcing compliance with arms control agreements and underscore the need for continued vigilance and transparency in global efforts to prevent the proliferation of biological weapons.^[28]	South Africa, Israel, Iraq, etc
2003 (January)	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Ricin	The Wood Green ricin plot unfolds when six suspects are arrested for allegedly planning a bioterrorist attack on the London Underground using ricin poison. However, within days, the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory confirms there is no ricin on the confiscated items, a fact misreported until 2005. Kamel Bourgass is convicted, receiving 17 years for conspiracy and life for murdering a detective. Media sensationalism, including false reports of ricin, fuels public fear. Despite the absence of evidence, the incident is politically exploited, contributing to the justification for anti-terrorism laws and the Iraq invasion. Critics highlight the case's dubious use in political narratives and its basis on faulty intelligence, often obtained under torture.^[183]	United Kingdom
2003 (October)	Intentional	Bioterrorism	Ricin	Ricin-laced letters, signed by "Fallen Angel", are sent to express anger over trucking regulations in the United States, particularly the new "hours of service" rules requiring more rest for truckers. One letter found in South Carolina demands the repeal of these regulations, while another, addressed to the White House, threatens to turn Washington, D.C. into a ghost town. The letters contain deadly ricin poison. The FBI offers a reward, but no arrests would be made so far.^[184]^[185]	United States
2004 (April 28)	Intentional (prevention)	International agreement	Multiple	The United Nations Security Council passes Resolution 1540 unanimously, recognizing the threat posed by the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, along with their delivery systems, to international peace and security. The resolution mandates member states to implement legal and regulatory frameworks aimed at preventing the spread of weapons of mass destruction, establishing obligations to enforce these measures effectively.^[186]^[187]
2004	Intentional	Biological warfare	Multiple	The Guardian reports that the British Medical Association (BMA) considered bioweapons designed to target certain ethnic groups as a possibility, and highlighted problems that advances in science for such things as "treatment to Alzheimer's and other debilitating diseases could also be used for malign purposes".^[188]
2004 (July 21)	Intentional (prevention)	National law	Multiple	Project Bioshield Act is signed into law by President George W. Bush, with aims to enhance America's defense against weapons of mass destruction. Project BioShield focuses on expediting the research, development, procurement, and accessibility of efficient medical countermeasures to address biological, chemical, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) threats. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is responsible for submitting an annual report to Congress, detailing the advancements and achievements in the implementation of Project BioShield.^[189]	United States
2005 (January 14)	Intentional (prevention)	Operation	Multiple	Atlantic Storm is conducted as a table-top exercise, orchestrated by the Center for Biosecurity of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, the Center for Transatlantic Relations of Johns Hopkins University, and the Transatlantic Biosecurity Network. This exercise presents a fictitious scenario mirroring a global bioterrorist attack to simulate how transatlantic leaders would manage a swiftly spreading deadly disease epidemic. The exercise aims to enhance preparedness for large-scale biological attacks or natural pandemics.^[190]	United States
2005	Intentional (prevention)	Organization	Multiple	The Alliance for Biosecurity is established.^[191] Based in Washington, D.C., it aims to enhance the nation's biosecurity by focusing on the development of medical countermeasures (MCMs) to combat both bioterrorism and natural pandemic threats. The organization engages in various activities, such as educating Congress and government stakeholders on biosecurity and drug development issues, supporting the success of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), advancing the science of animal model development, expediting MCM development, and presenting consensus policy proposals.^[192]	United States
2006	Intentional (prevention)	International alliance	Multiple	The term "JACKSNNZ" emerges as the colloquial name for an informal alliance comprising affluent non-EU countries, excluding the United States. The alliance includes Japan, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, and New Zealand. Originating from the Biological and Toxins Weapons Convention Review Conference in Geneva, the JACKSNNZ states, notably distinct from the U.S., advocate for a verification mechanism against biological weapons. The alliance, consisting of non-EU nations, seeks balance within the Western European and Others Group, safeguarding the interests of non-EU states without declaring an exclusive position in other international forums.	Japan, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Switzerland, Norway, New Zealand
2017	Intentional	Concept development	Multiple	The John Hopkins Center for Health Security presents a working definition of global catastrophic biological risk that focuses on events caused by biological agents with the potential to alter humanity's long-term future or threaten human extinction.^[193]	United States
2019	Non-intentional	Crisis	SARS-CoV-2	The COVID-19 pandemic emerges, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. The virus rapidly spreads globally, leading to millions of infections and deaths. The pandemic exposes significant vulnerabilities in global health systems, including challenges in preparedness, response, and healthcare infrastructure. It underscores the critical importance of rapid response measures, such as widespread testing, contact tracing^[194], and vaccination efforts. The crisis highlights the need for international cooperation and robust public health strategies to manage and mitigate the impact of pandemics, reinforcing the importance of investing in global health security and resilience.^[195]	Worldwide
2020	Non-intentional	Literature	Multiple	Abrahm Lustgarten's publication How Climate Change Is Contributing to Skyrocketing Rates of Infectious Disease reports that each year, five new diseases emerge. Lustgarten highlights the impact of climate change on the increasing incidence of infectious diseases by altering ecosystems and expanding the range of pathogens and vectors. Rising temperatures, shifting weather patterns, and other climate-related changes create new conditions for diseases to thrive and spread, contributing to a growing public health challenge. This trend underscores the interconnectedness of climate change and disease dynamics, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to address both environmental and health issues.^[57]^[196]

Numerical and visual data

Google Trends

The image below shows Google Trends data for Biorisk (topic), from January 2004 to July 2024, when the screenshot as taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.^[197]

Google Ngram Viewer

The chart shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Biorisk from 1970 to 2019.^[198]

Wikipedia views

The chart below shows Wikipedia Views data for English article Biorisk, from July 2015 to June 2024, when the screenshot was taken.^[199]

Meta information on the timeline

How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by Sebastian Sanchez.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

Feedback and comments

Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:

FIXME

What the timeline is still missing

Timeline update strategy

External links

References

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@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 | 1990s || Biorisk awareness grow as the {{w|Cold War}} ends and the focus shifts to global health security. The 1995 {{w|Aum Shinrikyo}} cult’s [[w:Tokyo subway sarin attack|sarin gas attack in Tokyo]] raises fears about bioterrorism and the potential use of biological agents by non-state actors. The {{w|Gulf War}} (1990-1991) spurs concerns about biological and chemical warfare, leading to increased biodefense efforts. The {{w|Biological Weapons Convention}} (BWC) gain renewed attention, but challenges in enforcement persist. The rise of emerging infectious diseases like [[w:1993 Four Corners hantavirus outbreak|Hantavirus]] and the {{w|Ebola virus}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Factsheet: Malaria |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214011751/https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/ |website=web.archive.org |publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=3 September 2024}}</ref> in Africa emphasize the ongoing threat of natural outbreaks and the need for international collaboration in disease control.
 |-
-| 2000s || Key biorisk events include the 2001 anthrax attacks in the U.S., which heighten concerns about {{w|bioterrorism}} and leads to increased security measures. The {{w|2002–2004 SARS outbreak}} emphasizes the need for improved global surveillance and response systems. The 2004 Asian tsunami and subsequent spread of diseases highlight vulnerabilities in disaster response. The decade also sees advancements in biodefense research and vaccine development, driven by increased awareness of potential biological threats. The rise of {{w|gain-of-function research}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=COVID‐19 and the gain of function debates |author=Kelsey Lane Warmbrod, Michael G Montague, Gigi Kwik Gronvall |journal=EMBO Reports |date=2021 Oct 5 |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=e53739 |doi=10.15252/embr.202153739 |pmid=34477287 |pmc=PMC8490979 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8490979/}}</ref> and debates around its risks mark a growing focus on the dual-use nature of biological research.
+| 2000s || Key biorisk events include the 2001 anthrax attacks in the U.S., which heighten concerns about {{w|bioterrorism}} and leads to increased security measures. The {{w|2002–2004 SARS outbreak}} emphasizes the need for improved global surveillance and response systems. The 2004 Asian tsunami and subsequent spread of diseases highlight vulnerabilities in disaster response. The decade also sees advancements in biodefense research and vaccine development, driven by increased awareness of potential biological threats. The rise of {{w|gain-of-function research}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=COVID‐19 and the gain of function debates |author=Kelsey Lane Warmbrod, Michael G Montague, Gigi Kwik Gronvall |journal=EMBO Reports |date=2021 Oct 5 |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=e53739 |doi=10.15252/embr.202153739 |pmid=34477287 |pmc=8490979 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8490979/}}</ref> and debates around its risks mark a growing focus on the dual-use nature of biological research.
 |-
 | 2010s || The decade sees significant biorisk events, including the {{w|Western African Ebola epidemic}}, which highlights the need for rapid global response and vaccine development. The discovery of {{w|CRISPR-Cas9}} in 2012 revolutionizes gene editing but raises concerns about misuse. The {{w|2015–16 Zika virus epidemic}} underscores the importance of vector control and disease surveillance.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zika Virus Outbreak |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/situations/zika-virus-outbreak |website=World Health Organization |accessdate=4 September 2024}}</ref> The decade also sees controversies over gain-of-function research and the ongoing threat of bioterrorism. Initiatives like the Global Health Security Agenda (2014) aim to strengthen global preparedness for emerging infectious threats.

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