Timeline of psychiatry

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This is a timeline of psychiatry, attempting to describe significant events in the development of the field. Some events related to the development of psychoanalysis are mentioned for historical perspective.

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Time period Development summary
Ancient history Specialty in psychiatry can be traced in Ancient India, with the oldest texts on psychiatry including the ayurvedic text, Charaka Samhita.[1][2] Some of the first hospitals for curing mental illness are established during the 3rd century BCE.[3]
<18 century Until the 18th century, mental illness is most often seen as demonic possession. However, it gradually comes to be considered as a sickness requiring treatment. Many judge that modern psychiatry is born with the efforts of French physician Philippe Pinel in the late century.[4]
19th century Psychiatry gets its name as a medical specialty in the early 1800s. For the first century of its existence, the field concerns itself with severely disordered individuals confined to asylums or hospitals. These patients are generally psychotic, severely depressed or manic, or suffer conditions we would now recognize as medical: dementia, brain tumors, seizures, hypothyroidism, etc.[5] Research and teaching in psychiatry are dominated by the Germans for 100 years, until 1933.[6] Great contributions to the field occur in the late 19th century, when German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin emphasizes a systematic approach to psychiatric diagnosis and classification and Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who is familiar with neuropathology, develops psychoanalysis as a treatment and research approach.[4]
20th century Around the turn of the century, Sigmund Freud publishes theories on the unconscious roots of some of these less severe disorders, which he terms psycho-neuroses. Psychoanalysis is the dominant paradigm in outpatient psychiatry for the first half of the century. By the late 1950s and early 1960s, new medications begin to change the face of psychiatry.[5] The modern era of clinical neuropsychiatry begins likely around the 1980s.[7]
21st century Pharmaceutical innovation dries up in the 2000s, with no new classes of medication or blockbuster psychiatric drugs being discovered.[5]

Full timeline

Year Event type Details Location
1656 Organization (hospital) Louis XIV of France establishes the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris for prostitutes and the mentally defective.[8] France
1672 Literature English physician Thomas Willis publishes the anatomical treatise De Anima Brutorum, describing psychology in terms of brain function. Unied Kingdom
1724 Field development New England Puritan minister Cotton Mather breaks with superstition by advancing physical explanations for mental illnesses over demonic explanations.[9] United States
1758 Literature English physician William Battie publishes Treatise on Madness, likely the first English medical monograph devoted to madness.[10] United Kingdom
1793 Field development French physician Philippe Pinel in Paris begins what is then called “moral treatment and occupation”, as an approach to treating people with mental illness. Pinel believes that moral treatment means treating one’s emotions. Treatment for the mentally ill thus becomes based on purposeful daily activities. Pinel begins advocating for, and using, literature, music, physical exercise, and work as a way to “heal” emotional stress, thereby improving one’s ability to perform activities of daily living.[11] France
1808 – 1816 Field development German physician Johann Christian Reil coins the term psychiatry.[12][13][14][6] Germany
1809 Field development Philippe Pinel publishes the first description of dementia praecox (schizophrenia).[15][16][17] France
1812 Literature American physician Benjamin Rush publishes Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon Diseases of the Mind, which would become very influencial in the field of psychiatry for the next 70 years.[18][19] United States
1841 Organization (hospital) The Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane is founded in England.[20][21] United Kingdom
1844 Organization The Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (AMSAII) is founded in Philadelphia.[22] United States
1845 "The Lunacy Act 1845 and the County Asylums Act 1845 were passed in England and Wales, leading to the setting up of the Lunacy Commission." United Kingdom
1852 Literature French physician Bénédict Augustin Morel publishes Traite des Maladies Mentales, which introduces the term "dementia praecox".[23][24] France
1852 Field development French physician Charles Lasègue first describes paranoid dementia as "delusion of persecution".[23] France
1857 Literature Bénédict Augustin Morel publishes Traité des Dégénérescences, which is considered a foundational text of the degeneration theory.[25][26][27] France
1859 Literature French physician Paul Briquet publishes Traite Clinique et Therapeutique de L'Hysterie, which presents 430 cases of hysterical patients at the Hôpital de la Charité in Paris.[28][29][30] France
1893 Field development German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin introduces the concept of "dementia praecox", later reformulated as schizophrenia.[31][32] Germany
1895 Literature Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer publish Studies on Hysteria, based on the case of Bertha Pappenheim.[33][34][35] Austria
1900 Field development Russian neurologist Vladimir Bekhterev discovers the involvement of the hippocampus in memory.[36][37][38] Russia
1901 Field development German psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer identifies the first case of what would later become known as Alzheimer's disease.[39][40][41] Germany
1901 Literature Sigmund Freud publishes The Psychopathology of Everyday Life.[42]
1905 Field development French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon develop the Binet-Simon Scale as a means to determine the children in need of alternative education.[43][44][45]
1906 Field development Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov publishes the first studies in classical conditioning.[46][47] Russia
1908 Field development Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler introduces the term Schizophrenia.[23]
1910 Organization Sigmund Freud founds the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), with Carl Jung as the first president, and Otto Rank as the first secretary.
1911 Organization The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) is founded.[48] United States
1913 Organization The British Psychoanalytical Society is founded by Ernest Jones.[49] United Kingdom
1913 Field development "Jacob L. Moreno pioneered Group Psychotherapy methods in Vienna, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction; they later became known as Psychodrama and Sociometry." Austria
1920 Field development Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach develops the Rorschach Inkblot Test.[50]
1923 Field development English neuroscientist Sir Henry Dale finds that acetylcholine can mimic the effect of the parasympathetic system.[51][52][53]
1924 Field development German neuropsychiatrist Hans Berger first describes Electroencephalography (EEG).[54][55][56] Germany
1924 Literature Austrian psychoanalyst Otto Rank publishes The Trauma of Birth, coining the term "pre-Oedipal".[57]
1926 "The Société Psychanalytique de Paris was founded with the endorsement of Sigmund Freud; the Nazis closed it in 1940."
1927 Austrian psychiatrist Manfred Sakel develops Insulin Shock Therapy as a treatment for psychosis.
1928 Organization The Indian Association for Mental Hygiene is established.[58][59] India
1938 Field development Italian neurologist Ugo Cerletti and Italian psychiatrist Dr. Lucio Bini discover Electroconvulsive Therapy.[60][61][62] Italy
1939 Literature Russian-born researcher Nathaniel Kleitman publishes Sleep and Wakefulness.[63]
1942 Swiss psychiatrist Ludwig Binswanger founds Existential Therapy.
1944 Drug Ritalin (Methylphenidate) is first synthesized.[64][65][66]
1947 Organization The Indian Psychiatric Society is established.[67][68][69] India
1948 Field development Australian psychiatrist John Cade discovers that lithium is dramatically effective in the treatment of mania.[70][71][72] Australia
1949 Field development Portuguese neurologist Antonio Moniz is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on Lobotomy.[73]
1949 Literature The World Health Organization publishes ICD-6, the sixth revision of the International statistical classification of diseases, which includes a section on mental disorders for the first time.[74]
1950s American psychologist Albert Ellis develops Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT).[75] United States
1950 Organization The World Psychiatric Association is founded.[76][77][78]
1952 Field development The American Psychiatric Association publishes the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.[79][80][81] United States
1952 Drug The first monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) antidepressant iproniazid is discovered.[82][83][84]
1953 Field development Nathaniel Kleitman, at the University of Chicago, discoveres Rapid eye movement sleep (REM), founding modern sleep research.[63][85][86] United States
1954 Field development James Olds and Peter Milner of McGill University discover the brain reward system.[87][88][89][90] Canada
1954 Field development American neurobiologist Roger Sperry begins split-brain research at the Californian Institute of Technology.[91][92][93] United States
1954 Organization All India Institute of Mental Health is founded.[94][95] India
1956 Field development Gregory Bateson, John Weakland, Donald deAvila Jackson, and Jay Haley propose the double bind theory of schizophrenia's thought disorder.[96][97][98]
1957 Field development Swedish neuropharmacologist Arvid Carlsson, at the University of Lund, discovers that dopamine is one of the brain chemicals used to send signals between neurons.[99][100][101] Sweden
1957 Drug Imipramine hydrochloride (tofranil) becomes available as the first of a series of new anti-depressive drugs.[102][103][104]
1958 Field development American physician Aaron B. Lerner at Yale University first isolates the hormone melatonin, which is found to regulate the circadian rhythm.[105][106][107][108] United States
1959 Journal The Archives of General Psychiatry is established by the American Medical Association.[109] United States
1972 Field development American psychologist David Rosenhan publishes the Rosenhan experiment, a comparative study of validity of psychiatric diagnosis.[110][111][112] United States
1973 Field development The American Psychiatric Association declassifies homosexuality as a mental disorder.[113][114][115] United States
1960s Aaron T. Beck develops cognitive therapy.[116][75]
1960 Drug The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide, under the trade name Librium is introduced.[117][118][119]
1982 "The National Mental Health Programme (NMHP) was launched in India." India
1983 Organization The European Psychiatric Association is founded.
1987 Prozac is released.[5]
1987 Organization The British Neuropsychiatry Association is established. It is the oldest in the world.[120] United Kingdom
1988 Organization The American Neuropsychiatric Association is founded.[7][120] United States
1990s The United States National Institute of Mental Health declares the 1990s the Decade of the Brain "to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be derived from brain research."[5] United States
1990 Field development Japanese researcher Seiji Ogawa first discovers blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) in MRI. [121]
1991 Field development Hong Kong-born American scientist Kenneth Kwong successfully applies blood-oxygen-level dependent imaging (BOLD) to image human brain activities with MRI.[122] United States
1994 Field development American molecular geneticist Jeffrey M. Friedman and team report the long-sought identity and function of leptin, a key fat-derived hormone that regulates feeding behaviour and body weight.[123][124] United States
1996 Organization The Japanese Neuropsychiatric Association is founded.[7] Japan
1998 Organization The International Neuropsychiatric Association (INA) is formed.[7]
2002 Organization The European Brain Council is founded in Brussels.[125][126] Belgium
2002 Organization The Argentina Neuropsychiatric Organization is established.[120] Argentina

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References

  1. ↑ Andrew Scull. Cultural Sociology of Mental Illness: An A-to-Z Guide, Volume 1. Sage Publications. p. 386. 
  2. ↑ David Levinson; Laura Gaccione (1997). Health and Illness: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 42. 
  3. ↑ Koenig, Harold G. (2009). Faith and Mental Health: Religious Resources for Healing. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-59947-078-8. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Psychiatry". britannica.com. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 "A brief history of psychiatry". stevenreidbordmd.com. Retrieved 4 September 2018. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac". ps.psychiatryonline.org. Retrieved 4 September 2018. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Mula, Marco. Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Epilepsy. 
  8. ↑ Caravantes, Peggy. The Many Faces of Josephine Baker: Dancer, Singer, Activist, Spy. 
  9. ↑ Thompson, Marie L. Mental Illness. 
  10. ↑ "William Battie's Treatise on Madness (1758)" (PDF). cambridge.org. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  11. ↑ "History of Occupational Therapy". otnz.co.nz. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  12. ↑ "A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac". gun-violence.psychiatryonline.org. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  13. ↑ "From Madness to Mental Illness: History of Psychiatry 101". hystera.com. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  14. ↑ "Psychoanalysis". creativechess.wordpress.com. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  15. ↑ Turner, Francis J. Adult Psychopathology, Second Edition: A Social Work Perspective. 
  16. ↑ Shults, Sylvia. Tales from the Asylum. 
  17. ↑ Shults, Sylvia. 44 Years in Darkness: A True Story of Madness, Tragedy, and Shattered Love. 
  18. ↑ Neukrug, Edward S. The World of the Counselor: An Introduction to the Counseling Profession. 
  19. ↑ Encyclopedia of Special Education, Volume 4: A Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults Disabilities and Other Exceptional Individuals (Cecil R. Reynolds, Kimberly J. Vannest, Elaine Fletcher-Janzen ed.). 
  20. ↑ Bewley, Thomas. Madness to Mental Illness: A History of the Royal College of Psychiatrists. 
  21. ↑ Shepherd, Anna. Institutionalizing the Insane in Nineteenth-Century England. 
  22. ↑ Goodheart, Lawrence. ""The Glamour of Arabic Numbers": Pliny Earle's Challenge to Nineteenth-Century Psychiatry". PMC 4887602Freely accessible. PMID 26232441. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Literary Medicine: Brain Disease and Doctors in Novels, Theater, and Film (J. Bogousslavsky, S. Dieguez ed.). 
  24. ↑ Noll, Richard. The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders. 
  25. ↑ Foerster, Maxime. The Politics of Love: Queer Heterosexuality in Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 
  26. ↑ Heredity and Infection: The History of Disease Transmission (Jean-Paul Gaudilliére, Ilana Löwy ed.). 
  27. ↑ Schuster, Jean‐Pierre; Le Strat, Yann; Krichevski, Violetta; Bardikoff, Nicole; Limosin, Frédéric. "Benedict Augustin Morel (1809–1873)". 
  28. ↑ Massicotte, Claudie. Trance Speakers: Femininity and Authorship in Spiritual Séances, 1850-1930. 
  29. ↑ Hysteria: The Rise of an Enigma (J. Bogousslavsky ed.). 
  30. ↑ "Psychosomatic Medicine: 'The Puzzling Leap'". nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 6 September 2018. 
  31. ↑ Shorter, Edward; Fink, Max. The Madness of Fear: A History of Catatonia. 
  32. ↑ Shorter, Edward. A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry. 
  33. ↑ Hergenhahn, B. R. An Introduction to the History of Psychology. 
  34. ↑ Froula, Christine. Virginia Woolf and the Bloomsbury Avant-garde: War, Civilization, Modernity. 
  35. ↑ Bogousslavsky, J. Hysteria: The Rise of an Enigma. 
  36. ↑ Packer, Sharon. Neuroscience in Science Fiction Films. 
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  38. ↑ "Vladimir Bekhterev, Soviet physiologist". sciencephoto.com. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  39. ↑ Pharmacological Mechanisms in Alzheimer's Therapeutics (A. Claudio Cuello ed.). 
  40. ↑ Akbar, Celestina. Alzheimer's Disease: a Growing Health Care Issue Among the Elderly. 
  41. ↑ "Alois Alzheimer Biography". biography.com. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  42. ↑ "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, 1901 by Freud". sigmundfreud.net. Retrieved 3 October 2018. 
  43. ↑ Pfeiffer, Steven I. Handbook of Giftedness in Children: Psychoeducational Theory, Research, and Best Practices. 
  44. ↑ Plotnik, Rod; Kouyoumdjian, Haig. Introduction to Psychology. 
  45. ↑ Roeckelein, Jon E. Dictionary of Theories, Laws, and Concepts in Psychology. 
  46. ↑ Coon, Dennis; Mitterer, John. Psychology: A Journey. 
  47. ↑ "Psychology - 1". quizlet.com. Retrieved 6 September 2018. 
  48. ↑ "American Psychoanalytic Association". apsa.org. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  49. ↑ Biographical Dictionary of Psychology (Noel Sheehy, Antony J. Chapman, Wenday A. Conroy ed.). 
  50. ↑ Fernandez-Ballesteros, Rocio. Encyclopedia of Psychological Assessment. 
  51. ↑ Erling, Norrby. Nobel Prizes And Notable Discoveries. 
  52. ↑ Kudo, Takashi; Davis, Kenneth L.; Blesa Gonzalez, Rafael; Wilkinson, David George. Practical Pharmacology for Alzheimer’s Disease. 
  53. ↑ Velpandian, Thirumurthy. Pharmacology of Ocular Therapeutics. 
  54. ↑ Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience. 
  55. ↑ Libenson, Mark H. Practical Approach to Electroencephalography E-Book. 
  56. ↑ Luders, Hans O. Textbook of Epilepsy Surgery. 
  57. ↑ Rank, Otto. The Trauma of Birth. 
  58. ↑ Hartnack, Christiane. Psychoanalysis in Colonial India. 
  59. ↑ Cross, Wilbur Lucius. Twenty-five Years After: Sidelights on the Mental Hygiene Movement and Its Founder. 
  60. ↑ Kapur, Narinder. The Paradoxical Brain. 
  61. ↑ Coffey, C. Edward. The Clinical Science of Electroconvulsive Therapy. 
  62. ↑ Weiss, Alan. The Electroconvulsive Therapy Workbook: Clinical Applications. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Kohler, William C.; Kurz, Peter J. Hypnosis in the Management of Sleep Disorders. 
  64. ↑ Bergey, Meredith R.; Filipe, Angela M.; Conrad, Peter; Singh, Ilina. Global Perspectives on ADHD: Social Dimensions of Diagnosis and Treatment in Sixteen Countries. 
  65. ↑ "Dr Matthew Smith on ADHD and Ritalin". ewds.strath.ac.uk. Retrieved 7 September 2018. 
  66. ↑ "Ritalin". cesar.umd.edu. Retrieved 7 September 2018. 
  67. ↑ Ghodse, Hamid. International Perspectives on Mental Health. 
  68. ↑ Basavanthappa, BT. Essentials of Mental Health Nursing. 
  69. ↑ MHD. Mental Health Digest. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, 1969. 
  70. ↑ Johnson, F.N. Handbook of Lithium Therapy. 
  71. ↑ Johnson, Frederick Neil. The History of Lithium Therapy. 
  72. ↑ Bryant, Bronwen Jean; Knights, Kathleen Mary. Pharmacology for Health Professionals. 
  73. ↑ Kaku, Michio. The Future of the Mind: The Scientific Quest to Understand, Enhance, and Empower the Mind. 
  74. ↑ Feinstein, Adam. A History of Autism: Conversations with the Pioneers. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 "Cognitive Behavioral Therapy". simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  76. ↑ Okpaku, Samuel O. Essentials of Global Mental Health. 
  77. ↑ Wengell, Douglas; Gabriel, Nathen. Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine: The A to Z Healing Arts Guide and Professional Resource Directory. 
  78. ↑ Principles of Addiction Medicine (Richard K. Ries, Shannon C. Miller, David A. Fiellin ed.). 
  79. ↑ Fisher, Gary L.; Roget, Nancy A. Encyclopedia of Substance Abuse Prevention, Treatment, and Recovery. 
  80. ↑ Miller, Leslie A.; McIntire, Sandra A.; Lovler, Robert L. Foundations of Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach. 
  81. ↑ Joseph, Stephen. What Doesn't Kill Us: A guide to overcoming adversity and moving forward. 
  82. ↑ Krishnamurthy, Kalayya. Pioneers in scientific discoveries. 
  83. ↑ Advances in Pharmacology and Chemotherapy. 
  84. ↑ Baldessarini, Ross J. Chemotherapy in Psychiatry: Principles and Practice. 
  85. ↑ Doidge, Mark. Atlas of the Electrical Generators of Sleep. 
  86. ↑ Kryger, Meir H.; Roth, Thomas; Dement, William C. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine E-Book. 
  87. ↑ "Olds & Milner, 1954: "reward centers" in the brain and lessons for modern neuroscience". stanford.edu. Retrieved 7 September 2018. 
  88. ↑ "The Neuroscience of Pleasure and Addiction". psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 7 September 2018. 
  89. ↑ Rubens, Jim; Rubens, James M. OverSuccess: Healing the American Obsession with Wealth, Fame, Power, and Perfection. 
  90. ↑ Zaidel, Dahlia W. Neuropsychology of Art: Neurological, Cognitive, and Evolutionary Perspectives. 
  91. ↑ Nursing Mirror, Volume 155, Issues 1-13. 
  92. ↑ Carter, Rita. The Human Brain Book. 
  93. ↑ Sperry, Roger Wolcott; Trevarthern, Colwyn B. Brain Circuits and Functions of the Mind: Essays in Honor of Roger Wolcott Sperry, Author. 
  94. ↑ Goldberg, David; Graham, Thornicroft. Mental Health In Our Future Cities. 
  95. ↑ Blank, Leonard; David, Henry Philip. Sourcebook for Training in Clinical Psychology. 
  96. ↑ Noll, Richard. The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders. 
  97. ↑ Packer, Sharon. Neuroscience in Science Fiction Films. 
  98. ↑ Haley, Jay. Leaving Home: The Therapy Of Disturbed Young People. 
  99. ↑ Yeragani, Vikram K.; Tancer, Manuel; Chokka, Pratap; Baker, Glen B. "Arvid Carlsson, and the story of dopamine". 
  100. ↑ Doidge, Norman. The Brain's Way of Healing: Remarkable Discoveries and Recoveries from the Frontiers of Neuroplasticity. 
  101. ↑ Kennedy, Michael. A Brief History of Disease, Science, and Medicine: From the Ice Age to the Genome Project. 
  102. ↑ Watts, C. A. H. Depressive Disorders in the Community. 
  103. ↑ Schlaepfer, Thomas E; Nemeroff, Charles B. Neurobiology of Psychiatric Disorders. 
  104. ↑ Schulz, Volker; Hänsel, Rudolf; Blumenthal, Mark; Tyler, V. E. Rational Phytotherapy: A Reference Guide for Physicians and Pharmacists. 
  105. ↑ "Aaron Lerner, Skin Expert Who Led Melatonin Discovery, Dies at 86". nytimes.com. Retrieved 7 September 2018. 
  106. ↑ Evered, David; Clark, Sarah. Photoperiodism, Melatonin and the Pineal. 
  107. ↑ Melatonin: Therapeutic Value and Neuroprotection (Venkatramanujan Srinivasan, Gabriella Gobbi, Samuel D. Shillcutt, Sibel Suzen ed.). 
  108. ↑ Communication in Plants: Neuronal Aspects of Plant Life (František Baluška, Stefano Mancuso, Dieter Volkmann ed.). 
  109. ↑ Cole, Jim; Stankus, Tony. Journals of the Century. 
  110. ↑ Wengell, Douglas; Gabriel, Nathen. Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine: The A to Z Healing Arts Guide and Professional Resource Directory. 
  111. ↑ Fadul, Jose A. Encyclopedia of Theory & Practice in Psychotherapy & Counseling. 
  112. ↑ Monchinski, Tony. Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom. 
  113. ↑ Keen, Lisa Melinda; Goldberg, Suzanne Beth. Strangers to the Law: Gay People on Trial. 
  114. ↑ Stern, Phyllis N. Lesbian Health: What Are The Issues?. 
  115. ↑ Díez, Jordi. The Politics of Gay Marriage in Latin America: Argentina, Chile, and Mexico. 
  116. ↑ "HISTORY OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY". beckinstitute.org. Retrieved 5 September 2018. 
  117. ↑ Lajtha, Abel. Alterations of Metabolites in the Nervous System. 
  118. ↑ Merkel, Reinhard; Boer, G.; Fegert, J.; Galert, T.; Hartmann, D.; Nuttin, B.; Rosahl, S. Intervening in the Brain: Changing Psyche and Society. 
  119. ↑ Lane, Dannii. Arachne's Daughter: A Tale of Murder, Mayhem and Madness. 
  120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 120.2 Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Koho Miyoshi, Yasushi Morimura, Kiyoshi Maeda ed.). 
  121. ↑ "Laureates of the Japan Prize". japanprize.jp. Retrieved 30 September 2018. 
  122. ↑ "Ken Kwong recalls the early days of fMRI". martinos.org. Retrieved 3 October 2018. 
  123. ↑ "Leading the charge in leptin research: an interview with Jeffrey Friedman". PMC 3424452Freely accessible. PMID 22915017. doi:10.1242/dmm.010629. 
  124. ↑ "Leptin: a pivotal regulator of human energy homeostasis" (PDF). Retrieved 8 September 2018. 
  125. ↑ "European Brain Council: partnership to promote European and national brain research". cell.com. Retrieved 8 September 2018. 
  126. ↑ "European Brain Council: Partnership to promote European and national brain research.". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 8 September 2018. 
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