Timeline of medical ethics
This is a timeline of medical ethics. This timeline is closely related to Timeline of bioethics.
Contents
Sample questions
The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:
- What are some of the multiple topics and sub–fields related to the field of medical ethics covered in this timeline?
- Sort the full timeline by "Main topic".
- You will see a variety of topics within or highly related to the field of medical ethics.
- What are some notable or illustrative codes of ethics having been adopted by governments and institutions?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Adoption".
- You will see a number of codes of ethics and guidelines being adopted. You will also see some notable amendments.
- What are some notable cases related to various subfields of medical ethics?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Notable case".
- You will see some notable infamous cases, such as the Tuskegee syphilis experiment and the Milgram Experiment.
- What are some notable and illustrative publications related to the field of medical ethics?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Literature".
- You will see a variety of books and journals specialized or highly related to the field.
- What are some organizations focused or highly related to medical ethics?
- Sort the full timeline by "Event type" and look for the group of rows with value "Organization".
- You will mostly see a number of organizations established by governments with aims to address the topic, as concern increases along with the progress in medicine.
- Other events are described under the following types: "Field development", "Legal", "Notable statement", "Program launch", "Research", "Statistics", "Service launch", and "Social movement".
Big picture
Time period | Development summary | More details |
---|---|---|
Before 1970s | Prelude | The term medical ethics first dates back to the early 19th century, when English author and physician Thomas Percival publishes a document describing the requirements and expectations of medical professionals within medical facilities. The Code of Ethics is adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival's words.[1] In the 1960s, the Hippocratic Oath is changed to require "utmost respect for human life from its beginning", making it a more secular obligation, not to be taken in the presence of God or any gods, but before only other people. By this time, however, a wide range of new ethical problems emerge, all of them driven by spectacular advances in medicine and biology.[2] |
1970s | Field emergence | The field of applied ethics emerges from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early decade.[3][4][5] A notable aspect of the emergence of more systematic and theoretically sophisticated medical ethics and bioethics in the 1970s was the ground-breaking application óf broad-based ethical theories like utilitarianism and Kantian ethics directly to issues in medical practice, such as paternalism and end-of-life decision-making.[6] |
1980s | Increased awareness | More attention is payed ethical issues, revealing some excesses of medical research and medical paternalism conflicting with ethical principles.[7] The United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics is adopted. |
1990s | Continued changes | The field of medical ethics undergoes changes. Individual clinical issues, especially those related to death and dying, continue to create conflict and preoccupy hospital staffs. But professional ethicists focus on social concerns more frequently than they have in the past. Clinical practice and the law move toward less demanding standards of proof regarding the withdrawal of treatment from patients who are no longer competent.[8] |
2000s | Particular focus | In this decade, euthanasia becomes the most active area of research in bioethics.[9] |
Numerical and visual data
Google Scholar
The following table summarizes per-year mentions on Google Scholar as of August 10, 2021.
Year | "medical ethics" | "bioethics" |
---|---|---|
1900 | 50 | 12 |
1910 | 57 | 11 |
1920 | 29 | 21 |
1930 | 43 | 33 |
1940 | 38 | 25 |
1950 | 126 | 30 |
1960 | 163 | 74 |
1970 | 300 | 218 |
1980 | 945 | 1,460 |
1990 | 2,420 | 3,740 |
2000 | 5,910 | 8,780 |
2010 | 13,400 | 16,300 |
2020 | 28,000 | 28,200 |
Google Trends
The image below shows Google Trends data for Medical ethics (Topic), from January 2004 to March 2021, when the screenshot was taken. Interest is also ranked by country and displayed on world map.[10]
Google Ngram Viewer
The chart below shows Google Ngram Viewer data for Medical ethics, from 1700 to 2019.[11]
Wikipedia Views
The chart below shows pageviews of the English Wikipedia article Medical ethics, on desktop, mobile-web, desktop-spider, mobile-web-spider and mobile app, from July 2015 to February 2021.[12]
Full timeline
Year | Main topic | Event type | Details | Location |
---|---|---|---|---|
275 AD | Ethical code | Adoption | The oldest partial fragments of the Hippocratic Oath date to around this time.[13] | Greece (ancient) |
1588 | Contraception, abortion | Adoption | Pope Sixtus V adopts a papal bull adopting the position of Thomas Aquinas that contraception and abortion are crimes against nature and sins against marriage.[14] | Italy (Papal States) |
1775 – 1780 | Organ trade | Field development | German philosopher Immanuel Kant in his lectures on ethics argues against the sale of human body parts.[15] | Germany (Kingdom of Prussia) |
1779 | Ethical code | Literature | German physician Johann Peter Frank writes strict ethical guidelines for public health and sanitation to improve the quality of life.[16] | Germany |
1794 | Ethical code | Literature | English physician Thomas Percival writes the first modern code of medical ethics.[17][18] | United Kingdom |
1796 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | English physician Edward Jenner inoculates eight-year-old James Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to immunize him against smallpox.[19][20] | United Kingdom |
1847 | Ethical code | Policy | The American Medical Association adopts its first code of ethics, with this being based in large part upon the work of Thomas Percival.[21] | United States |
1874 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Robert Bartholomew inserts electrodes into a hole in the skull of Mary Rafferty caused by a tumor. He notes that small amounts electric current caused bodily movements and that larger amounts caused pain. Rafferty, who was mentally ill, falls into a coma and dies a few days after the experiment.[22] | |
1885 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | French biologist Louis Pasteur administers an experimental rabies vaccine to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without testing it on animals first.[23][24][25] | France |
1897 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Italian bacteriologist Giuseppe Sanarelli injects the yellow fever bacteria into five patients without their consent. All the patients develop the disease and three die.[26][27][28] | Italy |
1900 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | United States Army scientist Walter Reed gathers volunteers in Cuba willing to be bitten by mosquitoes to see whether the insects carried yellow fever.[29] Thirty-three participants, including eighteen Americans and six Cubans, are exposed to mosquitoes infected with yellow fever or injected with blood from yellow fever patients. Six participants die.[30][31][32] | Cuba |
1907 | Blacklisting | Notable case | The Transvaal Medical Union in South Africa blacklists patients if they can not pay cash in advance.[33] | South Africa |
1918 – 1922 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Inmates at San Quentin State Prison in California are subjected to numerous medical procedures, including receiving transplanted testicles from recently executed prisoners. During the research, headed by Dr. Leo L. Stanley, many men receive transplanted sex organs from rams, goats, and boars.[34] | United states |
1920 | Abortion | Policy (reproductive rights) | Vladimir Lenin legalizes all abortions in the Soviet Union[35][36] | Soviet Union |
1932 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | The Tuskegee syphilis experiment begins. Carried out by the Public Health Service at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, the experiment would last 40 years. Nearly 400 hundred of the 600 poor, rural sharecroppers taking part would never be told they had syphilis, nor be treated for it. Instead, they would be given “free healthcare,” meals, and burial money as researchers study how untreated syphilis progress.[34][37][38][39] | United States |
1932 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal The Linacre Quarterly is established. It primarily focuses on the relationship between medicine and spirituality, and in particular on medical ethics.[40] | United States | |
1932–1945 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Japanese scientists working at Unit 731 conduct abominable experiments on thousands of Chinese war prisoner. Experiments include biological and chemical weapons experiments, vaccination experiments, and wound-healing and surgical studies, including vivisections.[41] | China |
1937 | Literature | Scottish novelist A. J. Cronin publishes The Citadel, which becomes notable for its treatment of the contentious theme of medical ethics.[42] It is credited with laying the foundation in Great Britain for the introduction of the NHS a decade later.[43] | United Kingdom | |
1938 | Ethical code | Adoption | The Osteopathic Oath is first used in the United States.[44] | United States |
1939 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | The Monster Study, as it is known, is conducted as a stuttering experiment performed on 22 orphan children in Davenport, Iowa, and led by Wendell Johnson at the University of Iowa. In the experiment, half of the children receive positive speech therapy, praising the fluency of their speech, and the other half, negative speech therapy, belittling the children for speech imperfections. Many of the normal speaking orphan children who received negative therapy in the experiment would suffer negative psychological effects, with some retaining speech problems for the rest of their lives.[45] | United States |
1940s | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Scientists test mustard gas by compelling U.S. Navy men to enter gas chambers. One goes temporarily blind. When nitrogen mustard is discovered, doctors inject it into a patient dying of lymphosarcoma and notice that his tumors recede, sparking the beginning of chemotherapy. | United States |
1943–1944 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Nazi human experimentation, with Josef Mengele as central leader, is conducted in this period, consisting in morally abominable research on concentration camp prisoners, including experiments exposing subjects to freezing temperatures, low air pressures, ionizing radiation and electricity, and infectious diseases; as well as wound-healing and surgical studies.[46] | German-occupied Europe |
1945 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | In an experiment, 829 pregnant women at a health clinic run by Vanderbilt University are administered drugs that they were told were good for them and their babies. The drugs actually contain radioactive iron. A follow-up study during the 1960s would conclude that three children born to women who took the pills likely died because of the tests.[47][48] | United States |
1946 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology conduct experiment consisting in feeding oatmeal that includes radioactive iron and calcium to 74 mentally deficient and disabled boys at the Walter E. Fernald State School in Massachusetts.[49] | United States |
1946 – 1948 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Guatemala syphilis experiment is conducted by the United States, during the administration of U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Guatemalan President Juan José Arévalo with the cooperation of some Guatemalan health ministries and officials. A team of U.S. doctors infect 700 Guatemalans with syphilis to test penicillin.[29] | Guatemala |
1947 | Ethical code | Adoption | The Nuremberg Code is adopted as a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation. It is set as a result of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War.[50] | Germany |
1948 | Ethical code | Adoption | The Declaration of Geneva is adopted by the World Medical Association.[51][52] | Switzerland |
1949 | Literature (publication) | The Seven Sins of Medicine are published by British endocrinologist Richard Asher in The Lancet as a perspective on medical ethics.[53] | United Kingdom | |
1949 | Organization | The Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences is established.[54][55] | ||
1949 | Ethical code | Adoption | The International Code of Medical Ethics is adopted by the third General Assembly of the World Medical Association (WMA) at London.[56] | United Kingdom |
1951 | Medical privacy | Notable case | Doctors at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore take samples of patient Henrietta Lacks' cancerous cells while diagnosing and treating the disease. They give some of that tissue to a researcher without Lacks’s knowledge or consent. The product derived, called HeLa would become the cornerstone of an industry. In the laboratory, her cells would prove to have an extraordinary capacity to survive and reproduce; they were, in essence, immortal.[57] | United States |
1953 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | The Project MKUltra is officially sanctioned as a program of experiments on human subjects designed and undertaken by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, some of which would be illegal. Experiments on humans would be intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogations in order to weaken the individual and force confessions through mind control.[58] | United States |
1954 | Ethical code | Adoption | A new version of the Osteopathic Oath is adopted in the United States.[44][59] | United States |
1954 | Literature (book) | Joseph F. Fletcher publishes Morals and Medicine: The Moral Problems of the Patient’s Right to Know the Truth, Contraception, Artificial Insemination, Sterilization, and Euthanasia.[60][50] | ||
1956–1980 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Research team led by Saul Krugman and Joan Giles conducts hepatitis experiments on mentally disabled children at The Willowbrook State School. The subjects are intentionally infected with the disease and researchers ovserve its natural progression. The experiments are approved by the New York Department of Health.[61][62] | United States |
1956 – 1970 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Mentally retarded children held at the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York are infected with hepatitis so that doctors there could track the spread of the viral infection and how it responds to gamma globulin injections. More than 700 children are infected. The school closes later in 1987 after public outcry about overcrowding and the filthy conditions.[34] | United States |
1959 | Jewish medical ethics | Literature (book) | Immanuel Jakobovits publishes Jewish Medical Ethics: A Comparative and Historical Study of the Jewish Religious Attitude to Medicine and Its Practice.[63] | |
1960s | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Experimentation in prisons become widespread in the United States, which becomes the only Western country that runs tests on inmates after World War II.[29] | United States |
1961 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | The Milgram Experiment is conducted to test how far a subject would go to earn approval of an authority figure. The experiment is thought to violate many ethical standards due to extenuating emotional conflict and stress.[64][65] | United States |
1964 | Ethical code | Adoption | The Declaration of Helsinki is created in order to provide researchers and physicians with ethical guidelines. It is developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association.[50][66] The document comprises a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation.[67] It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics.[67][68][69] | Finland |
1964 | Ethical code | Adoption | American physician Louis Lasagna writes a modernized version of the Hippocratic Oath, which emphasizes a holistic and compassionate approach to medicine. The "Lasagna Oath" would be adopted by many medical colleges, and is still in use today in the United States.[70] | United States |
1966 | Jewish medical ethics | Organization | The Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research is founded.[71][72] | Israel |
1966 | Organization | The first medical ethics committees in Europe emerge in the United Kingdom and Sweden.[73] | United Kingdom, Sweden | |
1966 | Literature | American anesthesiologist Henry K. Beecher publishes an article in The New England Journal of Medicine exposing 22 unethical studies in biomedicine, including the Tuskegee syphilis experiment and the Willowbrook hepatitis study.[74][75][76] | United States | |
1968 | Ethical code | Adoption | The International Code of Medical Ethics (adopted in 1949) is amended by the twenty-second World Medical Assembly at Sydney.[56] | Australia |
1970 | Literature (book) | Paul Ramsey publishes The Patient as Person: Explorations in Medical Ethics.[77][50] | ||
1973 | Literature (journal) | The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics is first issued. It is published by the American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics.[78] | United States | |
1974 | Policy | The United States Congress passes the National Research Act, which authorizes federal agencies to develop human research regulations.[79] | United States | |
1975 | Literature (journal) | The American Journal of Law & Medicine is launched.[80] | United States | |
1975 | Literature (journal) | The Journal of Medical Ethics is launched.[81][82] | ||
1975 | Right to die | Social movement | The right to die movement begins in the United States with the case of Karen Quinlan, an American woman who was in persistent vegetative state for ten years.[83] | United States |
1975 | Medical torture | Adoption | The Declaration of Tokyo is adopted by the 29th World Medical Assembly as a set of international guidelines for physicians concerning torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment in relation to detention and imprisonment.[84][85] | Japan |
1978 | In vitro fertilization | Notable case | Louise Brown becomes the world’s first baby conceived by in vitro fertilization.[86][87][74] | United Kingdom |
1978 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | Medical torture is performed on political prisoners held at the infamous prison Tuol Sleng in Phnom Penh under the Khmer Rouge.[88] | Cambodia |
1978 | Organization | The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors is formed.[89] | ||
1979 | Organization | The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.[73] | Switzerland | |
1979 | Literature | The Belmont Report is published by the U.S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. It provides the conceptual foundation for a major revision of the research regulations in 1981 in the United States.[90][91] | United States | |
1979 | Literature | Peer-reviewed academic journal IRB: Ethics & Human Research is launched. It covers bioethical aspects of research using human subjects. It is published by The Hastings Center.[92] | United States | |
1979 | Organization | The Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences officially establishes its own private central ethical committee.[73] | Switzerland | |
1979 | Organization | The Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics is established in Saint Louis, Missouri.[93][94] | United States | |
1979 | Literature | The Belmont Report is released by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Report becomes a key document in human research ethics regulations in the United States.[74][95] | United States | |
1979 | Literature (book) | Tom Beauchamp publishes Principles of biomedical ethics.[96] | ||
1980 | Literature (journal) | Bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics is first issued.[97] | ||
1981 | Organization | Japan establishes its first ethics committee, at the Medical Institute of Tokyo University.[73] | Japan | |
1981 | Clinical Medicine | Organization | The MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics is founded. Founded by Mark Siegler, it is a non-profit clinical medical ethics research institute promoting research in the field.[98][99] | United States |
1982 | Ethical code | Adoption | United Nations Principles of Medical Ethics is adopted by the United Nations as a code of medical ethics relating to the "roles of health personnel in the protection of persons against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment."[100][101] | |
1983 | Ethical code | Adoption | The International Code of Medical Ethics is amended by the thirty-fifth World Medical Assembly at Venice.[56] | Italy |
1985 | Literature (book) | Zhi-zheng Du's Outline of Medical Ethics is published in China as the first systematic textbook of medical ethics after the cultural revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.[102] | China | |
1987 | Organization | The European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Health Care is founded by an international company of philosophers, physicians, ethicists and other interested professionals in the field.[103] | ||
1987 | Ethical code | Concept development | Benjamin Freedman introduces the term clinical equipoise (also known as the principle of equipoise), which provides the ethical basis for medical research that involves assigning patients to different treatment arms of a clinical trial.[104][105] | |
1988 | Literature (book) | Zhao-xiong He's History of Chinese Medical Morality is published, providing material on medical ethics from ancient to current China.[102] | China | |
1989 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Accountability in Research is established.[106] | ||
1990 | Human genome research | Program launch | The Human Genome Project is launched by the United States as a US$20 billion effort to map and sequence the human genome.[107][108] | United States |
1990 | Notable case | American physician William French Anderson begins the first human gene therapy clinical trial on patients with adenosine deaminase deficiency, a genetic disease that affects the immune system.[109][110] | United States | |
1992 | Ethical code | Adoption | The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief is drawn up by the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response (SCHR) to set ethical standards for organizations involved in humanitarian work.[111] | |
1992 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics is established.[112] | United Kingdom | |
1993 | Literature (journal) | The Indian Journal of Medical Ethics is launched.[113] | India | |
1993 | Human cloning | Notable case | Researchers successfully clone human embryos.[74] | |
1993 | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed law review Medical Law International is established. It covers issues in medical law, bioethics, and health governance.[114] | United States | |
1994 | Data fraud | Notable case | Montreal surgeon Roger Poisson admits to fabricating and falsifying patient data in NIH-funded breast cancer clinical trials in order allow his patients to qualify for enrollment and have access to experimental treatments.[115][116] | Canada |
1994 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | The United States Government declassifies information about secret human radiation experiments conducted from the 1940s-1980s and issues an apology.[74] | United States |
1994 | Unethical human experimentation | Organization | The Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments is formed to investigate questions of the record of the United States government with respect to human radiation experiments.[117][118] | United States |
1994 | Health law | Literature (journal) | The European Journal of Health Law is first issued.[119] | Netherlands |
1994 | Nursing ethics | Literature (journal) | Peer-reviewed academic journal Nursing Ethics is first issued.[120] | United Kingdom |
1994 | Literature (book) | American philosophers Tom Beauchamp and James Childress publish The principles of biomedical ethics, in which they state their basic principles of bioethics as "the principle of respect for patient autonomy, which has grounded, in particular, the concept of informed consent; dates back to the Hippocratic principle of “do no harm,” which requires minimization of damage to the patient during the medical intervention; the principle of “do good” (beneficence), emphasizing the physician’s responsibility to take positive steps to improve the condition of the patient; and the principle of justice, emphasizing the need for fairness and equal treatment of patients, and equitable distribution of resources (which are always limited) in the provision of medical care".[121] | United States | |
1997 | Unethical human experimentation | Notable case | United States President Bill Clinton formally apologizes on behalf of the United States to victims of the syphilis study at Tuskegee.[122][123] | United States |
1997 | Human Genome research | Adoption | The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights is issued by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) at its 29th session. It is perhaps best known for its statement against human cloning and abuse of human genome against human dignity.[124][125] | |
1997 | Euthanasia (assisted suicide) | Policy | The Constitutional Court of Colombia decriminalises piety homicide, for terminally ill patients, stating that "the medical author cannot be held responsible for the assisted suicide of a terminally ill patient" and urges Congress to regulate voluntary euthanasia "in the shortest time possible".[126] | Colombia |
1997 | Education | Service launch | The first research ethics consultation (REC) service is established at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Clinical Center. REC describes a formal way for researchers to solicit and receive expert ethical guidance related to biomedical research.[127] | United States |
1998 | Biomedical research | Literature (book) | American bioethicist Baruch Brody publishes The Ethics of Biomedical Research.[128] | United States |
1998 | Literature (journal) | Medicine Health Care and Philosophy is launched by the European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare.[103] | Europe | |
1998 | Literature (book) | Allen M. Hornblum publishes Acres of Skin, which documents clinical non-therapeutic medical experiments on prison inmates at Holmesburg Prison in Philadelphia from 1951 to 1974, conducted under the direction of dermatologist Albert Kligman.[129] | United States | |
1998 | Stem cell controversy | Notable case | Methods for growing human embryonic stem cells are perfected. Some countries ban the research; others promote it.[74][130][131][132] | |
1998 | Literature (journal) | Quarterly peer-reviewed medical journal Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy is launched.[133] | ||
1999 | Reproductive technology, human genetics | Organization | Human Genetics Alert is founded in London.[134] It advocates against uses of reproductive technology and human genetics research, which it considers harmful.[135] | United Kingdom |
1999 | Education | Policy | The National Institutes of Health and the Office for Human Research Protections require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research have some training in research ethics.[74] | United States |
1999 | Policy | The United States National Institutes of Health and the Office for Human Research Protections require all people conducting or overseeing human subjects research to have training in research ethics.[74] | United States | |
2000 | Organization | The Office for Human Research Protections is established.[136] | United States | |
2000 | Ethical code | Adoption | The Declaration of Helsinki is revised.[137] This revision requires monitoring of scientific research on human subjects to assure ethical standards are being met.[138] | Finland |
2000 | Literature (book) | American lawyer and author Wesley J. Smith publishes Culture of Death: The Assault on Medical Ethics in America, which describes medical ethics as a field in crisis. This book would be named Best Health Book of the Year at the 2001 Independent Publishers Book Awards.[139][140] | United States | |
2000 | Medical error | Literature (report) | The Institute of Medicine releases "To Err is Human," which asserts that the problem in medical errors is not bad people in health care but it is that good people are working in bad systems that need to be made safer.[141] | United States |
2001 | Literature (journal) | Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics is launched.[142] | United States | |
2001 | Human cloning | Notable case | The United States Congress starts debating legislation on human cloning.[74][143][144][145] | United States |
2001 | Embryonic stem cell research | Policy | United Sates President George W. Bush introduces a ban on federal funding for research on newly created human embryonic stem cell lines. He also announces the creation of a special council to oversee stem cell research.[146] | United States |
2001 | Philosophy of healthcare | Program launch | The United States federal government takes up an initiative to provide patients with an explicit list of rights concerning their healthcare. The political philosophy behind such an initiative essentially blends ideas of the Consumers' Bill of Rights with the field of healthcare. It is undertaken in an effort to ensure the quality of care of all patients by preserving the integrity of the processes that occur in the healthcare industry.[147] | United States |
2002 | Euthanasia | Notable case | The Netherlands legalizes voluntary euthanasia.[148][149] | Netherlands |
2003 | Adoption | The International Bioethics Committee issues a second global instrument, the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data, which may be regarded as an extension of the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights.[150][151] | ||
2003 | Notable case | The Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute takes place as a decision by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida which rules that individuals do not own their tissue samples when researchers take them for testing.[152] This case sets a precedent for determining ownership of donated tissue samples.[153][154] | United States | |
2003 | Literature (book) | Tony Hope publishes Medical Ethics and Law: The Core Curriculum, a short textbook of medical ethics and law primarily aimed at medical students.[155] | ||
2004 | Literature | Medical ethicist James Hughes publishes Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future, which argues that technologies pushing the boundaries of humanness can radically improve our quality of life if they are controlled democratically.[156] | United States | |
2004 | Literature (book) | New Zelander ethics professor Nicholas Agar publishes Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement[157][158] | New Zeland | |
2004 | Military medical ethics | Literature (book) | Edmund D. Pelegrino and Anthony E. Hartle publish Military Medical Ethics, which addresses medical ethics within a military context.[159] | |
2004 | Ethical code | Adoption | Poland publishes its medical ethics code Kodeks Etyki Lekarskiej.[160] | Poland |
2005 | Adoption | The Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights is adopted by UNESCO.[161][162] | ||
2006 | Literature (journal) | Quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal Clinical Ethics is launched.[163] | United Kingdom | |
2006 | Euthanasia | Research | By this time, euthanasia becomes the most active area of research in bioethics.[164] | |
2006 | Literature (journal) | The Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics is launched.[165] | United States | |
2007 | Unethical human experimentation | Literature (book) | Harriet A. Washington publishes Medical Apartheid, which recounts the history of medical experimentation on African Americans.[166] | United States |
2007 | Ethics of circumcision | Notable statement | The World Health Organization states that provision of circumcision should be consistent with "medical ethics and human rights principles." They state that "[i]nformed consent, confidentiality and absence of coercion should be assured. ... Parents who are responsible for providing consent, including for the circumcision of male infants, should be given sufficient information regarding the benefits and risks of the procedure in order to determine what is in the best interests of the child."[167] | |
2008 | Literature | The Catholic Church publishes a document entitled Dignitas Personae, about a range of bioethical issues related to the areas of assisted reproduction and human genetics. The paper analizes and comments the bioethical thinking of the Catholic Church.[168][169][170] | ||
2008 | Literature (book) | Candace C. Gauthier and John E. Snyder publish Evidence-Based Medical Ethics: Cases for Practice-Based Learning, which aims to address ethical and legal guidelines essential to the everyday practice of medicine.[171] | ||
2008 | Neuroethics | Literature (journal) | Triannual peer-reviewed academic journal Neuroethics is launched.[172] | |
2008 | Policy | The United States FDA publishes its decision to abandon the Declaration of Helsinki as a guide for clinical research ethics.[173] This allows the pharmaceutical industry to run international clinical trials in which patients in the control group can be treated with placebos instead of the best standard medical care.[174] | United States | |
2008 | Public health | Literature (journal) | Triannual peer-reviewed academic journal Public Health Ethics is launched.[175] | |
2009 | Embryonic stem cell research | Policy | The Obama Administration announces it will significantly expand National Institutes of Health funding of human embryonic stem cell research which was restricted under the Bush Administration.[74][176] | United States |
2009 | Ethical code | Adoption | Brazil publishes its Medical Ethics Code (Código de Ética Médica).[177] | Brazil |
2010 | Human enhancement | Literature (book) | Nicholas Agar publishes Humanity's End: Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement. The book argues against the doctrine of radical enhancement sometimes identified with the transhumanist movement.[178] | New Zeland |
2011 | Ethical code | Adoption | Spain publishes its medical ethics code Código de Deontología Médica. Guía de Ética Médica.[179] | Spain |
2016 | Chimeras | Legal | The United States National Institutes of Health places a temporary moratorium on funding for experiments involving part-human and part-animal organisms known as chimeras.[180] | United States |
2016 | Medical error | Statistics | According to a study from Johns Hopkins Medicine, medical errors are the third-leading cause of death in the United States.[181] | United States |
2016 | Medical torture | Notable case | A group consisting of 71 British medical doctors urge that Israel's membership in the World Medical Association should be revoked, alleging that Israeli doctors perform state-endorsed "medical torture" on Palestinians.[182] | Israel |
2016 | Medical malpractice | Legal | A survey in the United States finds that 8.2 percent of physicians under the age of forty reported having been sued for malpractice during their careers, with 49.2 percent of physicians over the age of 54 reporting having been sued.[183] | United States |
2018 | Euthanasia | Policy | The Supreme Court of India legalizes passive euthanasia in the country during a case involving Aruna Shanbaug, a nurse who spent 37 years in a vegetative state as a result of sexual assault.[184][185] | India |
2018 | Genome editing | Notable case | The birth of the world’s first gene edited babies, both girls, is announced by He Jiankui, a scientist of the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China. Jiankui claims having used CRISPR-Cas 9 technology to modify the CCR5 gene to give the girls immunity to HIV. The announcement would generate outrage around the world and many scientists and policymakers would call for a ban on human germline, genome editing.[186][187][188] | China |
Meta information on the timeline
How the timeline was built
The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.
Funding information for this timeline is available.
Feedback and comments
Feedback for the timeline can be provided at the following places:
- FIXME
What the timeline is still missing
- List of medical ethics cases
- Fee splitting
- Medical Code of Ethics
- Resources for clinical ethics consultation
Timeline update strategy
See also
External links
References
- ↑ Riddick, Frank (2003). "The Code of Medical Ethics of the American Medical Association". The Ochsner Journal. 5 (2): 6–10. PMC 3399321. PMID 22826677.
- ↑ Callahan, Daniel. "Bioethics and Policy—A History". The Hastings Center. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
- ↑ Giorgini, V., Mecca, J. T., Gibson, C., Medeiros, K., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, S., & Devenport, L. D. (2015). Researcher perceptions of ethical guidelines and codes of conduct. Accountability in research, 22(3), 123-138.
- ↑ "Applied and Professional Ethics" (PDF). diva-portal.org. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ "Applied Ethics | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ Oakley, Justin (January 2015). "Good medical ethics, from the inside out—and back again". Journal of Medical Ethics. 41 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1136/medethics-2014-102292.
- ↑ "The New Challenges for Medical Ethics". doi:10.5772/intechopen.94833.
- ↑ Moy, A (August 2017). "Why the moratorium on human-animal chimera research should not be lifted.". The Linacre quarterly. 84 (3): 226–231. PMID 28912615. doi:10.1080/00243639.2017.1293931.
- ↑ Borry, P; Schotsmans, P; Dierickx, K (April 2006). "Empirical research in bioethical journals. A quantitative analysis.". Journal of medical ethics. 32 (4): 240–5. PMID 16574880. doi:10.1136/jme.2004.011478.
- ↑ "Medical ethics". Google Trends. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ↑ "Medical ethics". books.google.com. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ↑ "Medical ethics". wikipediaviews.org. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ↑ Norman, Jeremy. "Perhaps the Earliest Surviving Text of the Hippocratic Oath". HistoryofInformation.com. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ↑ Victory, Regardless. RDV'S INTERNET ANTHLOGY PLUS.
- ↑ "Bioethics". britannica.com. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- ↑ "Johann Peter Frank's A Complete System of Medical Policy published". Environment & Society Portal. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ LEAKE, CHAUNCEY D. "PERCIVAL'S CODE: A CHAPTER IN THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL ETHICS". doi:10.1001/jama.1923.02650050020007.
- ↑ "Medical Ethics". cambridge.org. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "Early smallpox vaccine is tested". history.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Riedel, Stefan. "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". PMC 1200696. PMID 16200144. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028.
- ↑ "Archived copy". Retrieved 2007-10-16.
- ↑ "Historical Background". link.springer.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Louis Pasteur and the Development of the Attenuated Vaccine". vbivaccines.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "July 6, 1885: Rabies Vaccine Saves Boy – and Pasteur". wired.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "The Rabies Vaccine Backstory". the-scientist.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Historical Background". link.springer.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Case 5 Roots of Informed Consent". highschoolbioethics.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Resnik, David B. The Ethics of Research with Human Subjects: Protecting People, Advancing Science, Promoting Trust.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "Brief History: Secret Medical Testing". content.time.com. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
- ↑ "Major Walter Reed and the Eradication of Yellow Fever". armyhistory.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Politics of Participation: Walter Reed's Yellow-Fever Experiments". journalofethics.ama-assn.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Walter Reed and Yellow Fever". exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Deacon, Harriet; Phillips, Howard; van Heyningen, Elizabeth, eds. (2004). The Cape Doctor in the Nineteenth Century: A Social History (Clio Medica, 74). Editions Rodipi B.V. ISBN 9042010649.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Pain, Suffering, and the History of Human Experimentation". Healthline. 12 October 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
- ↑ "ABORTION AND BIRTH CONTROL IN SOVIET RUSSIA". marxists.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Savage, Mark. "The Law of Abortion in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the People's Republic of China: Women's Rights in Two Socialist Countries". doi:10.2307/1228777.
- ↑ Reverby, Susan (2009). Examining Tuskegee:The Infamous Syphilis Study and its Legacy. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
- ↑ Newton-Matza, Mitchell. Disasters and Tragic Events: An Encyclopedia of Catastrophes in American History [2 volumes].
- ↑ Suffering and Bioethics (Ronald Michael Green, Nathan J. Palpant ed.).
- ↑ "The Linacre Quarterly". epublications.marquette.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Brody, Howard; Leonard, Sarah E.; Nie, Jing-Bao; Weindling, Paul. "United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency". PMC 4487829. PMID 24534743. doi:10.1017/S0963180113000753.
- ↑ Richardson, Ruth (June 2016). "A J Cronin's Citadel". The Lancet. 387 (10035): 2284–2285. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30696-1.
- ↑ "An expectant public: 1948–2008 60 years of the NHS". Birth of NHS in Scotland. Scottish Government. 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Osteopathic Oath". osteopathic.org. American Osteopathic Association. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
- ↑ Reynolds, Gretchen (16 March 2003). "The Stuttering Doctor's 'Monster Study'". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ "Josef Mengele and Experimentation on Human Twins at Auschwitz". 14 April 2015.
- ↑ "RADIATION TESTS ON WOMEN CONFIRMED". washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
- ↑ "Chapter 7: Conclusion". Retrieved 30 September 2021.
- ↑ BRONNER F, HARRIS RS, MALETSKOS CJ, BENDA CE (January 1956). "Studies in calcium metabolism. the fate of intravenously injected radiocalcium in human beings". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 35 (1): 78–88. PMC 438780. PMID 13278403. doi:10.1172/JCI103254.
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 "Bioethics". iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
- ↑ Fassin, Didier. A Companion to Moral Anthropology.
- ↑ Advancing the Human Right to Health (José M. Zuniga, Stephen P. Marks, Lawrence O. Gostin ed.).
- ↑ Lancet 1949 Aug 27;2(6574):358–60
- ↑ "Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences - CIOMS | Genève internationale". www.geneve-int.ch. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ↑ "front page • COUNCIL FOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF MEDICAL SCIENCES". COUNCIL FOR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF MEDICAL SCIENCES. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 "International Code of Medical Ethics | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ↑ "Henrietta Lacks: science must right a historical wrong". Nature. 1 September 2020. pp. 7–7. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02494-z. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
- ↑ "One of the Most Shocking CIA Programs of All Time: Project MKUltra". 2013-09-23. Retrieved 2016-08-18.
- ↑ "Osteopathic Oath". American Osteopathic Association. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
- ↑ "Morals and Medicine". press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ↑ Shamoo, Adil E.; Resnik, David B. Responsible Conduct of Research.
- ↑ "Research Ethics: Where are we, How did we get here, and Where are we going?" (PDF). research.columbia.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Jewish Medical Ethics: A Comparative and Historical Study of the Jewish Religious Attitude to Medicine and Its Practice". www.amazon.com. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
- ↑ "The Milgram Shock Experiment". simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ↑ "Rethinking One of Psychology's Most Infamous Experiments". theatlantic.com. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ↑ "DECLARATION OF HELSINKI". wma.net. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 World Medical Association (2013). "Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects". JAMA. 310 (20): 2191–2194. PMID 24141714. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.281053.
- ↑ Snežana, Bošnjak (2001). "The declaration of Helsinki: The cornerstone of research ethics". Archive of Oncology. 9 (3): 179–84.
- ↑ Tyebkhan, G (2003). "Declaration of Helsinki: the ethical cornerstone of human clinical research". Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 69 (3): 245–7. PMID 17642902.
- ↑ "The Hippocratic Oath Today".
- ↑ "Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research". medethics.org.il. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ "Partnership with the Dr. Falk Schlesinger Institute for Medical-Halachic Research and the International Responsa Project". israelrabbis.org. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 Have, Ten; Gordijn, Bert. Bioethics in a European Perspective.
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 74.3 74.4 74.5 74.6 74.7 74.8 74.9 "Research Ethics Timeline (1932-Present)". niehs.nih.gov. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- ↑ "Ethics and clinical research / Henry K. Beecher". apps.who.int. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Henry Knowles Beecher and the Development of Informed Consent in Anesthesia Research". anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Ashley, Benedict M. Health Care Ethics: A Catholic Theological Analysis, Fifth Edition.
- ↑ "The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics". journals.sagepub.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ Teaching Researchd (Richard W. ed.).
- ↑ "American Journal of Law and Medicine". linkedin.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "Editor-in-Chief Journal of Medical Ethics". blogs.bmj.com. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ VEATCH, ROBERT M. "How Philosophy of Medicine Has Changed Medical Ethics". Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ↑ McFadden RD (12 June 1985). "Karen Ann Quinlan, 31, Dies; Focus of '76 Right to Die Case". The New York Times.
- ↑ "WMA - The World Medical Association-WMA Declaration of Tokyo – Guidelines for Physicians Concerning Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Relation to Detention and Imprisonment". wma.net. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
- ↑ "DECLARATION OF TOKYO". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 255 (20): 2800. 23 May 1986. doi:10.1001/jama.1986.03370200102038.
- ↑ "THIS DAY IN HISTORY". history.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "Louise Brown Biography". biography.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Hunt, Luke. "Chilling Evidence in Khmer Rouge Trial". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ Van der Weyden, Martin B. "The ICMJE and URM: Providing Independent Advice for the Conduct of Biomedical Research and Publication". PMC 3192379. PMID 22058614. doi:10.4103/0973-1229.32145.
- ↑ Resnik, David B. Playing Politics with Science: Balancing Scientific Independence and Government Oversight.
- ↑ Metcalf, Jacob; Crawford, Kate. "Where are human subjects in Big Data research? The emerging ethics divide". doi:10.1177/2053951716650211.
- ↑ "Announcing Ethics & Human Research". thehastingscenter.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "About the Center for Health Care Ethics". slu.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics". catalog.slu.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "The Belmont Report". hhs.gov. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
- ↑ Beauchamp, Tom L.; Beauchamp, Professor of Philosophy and Senior Research Scholar Tom L.; Childress, James F. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505902-1.
- ↑ "Volume 1, Issue 1, February 1980". link.springer.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "Dr. Steven Miles Wins MacLean Prize". macleanethics.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Roberts, Laura Weiss; Siegler, Mark. Clinical Medical Ethics: Landmark Works of Mark Siegler, MD.
- ↑ "OHCHR | Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
- ↑ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Principles of Medical Ethics". Refworld. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 Cherry, Mark J.; Peppin, John F. Annals of Bioethics: Regional Perspectives in Bioethics.
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 "The European Society For Philosophy Of Medicine And Healthcare". espmh.org. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ Freedman, B. (1987) 'Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research'. The New England Journal of Medicine, 317, (3):141–145.
- ↑ Davies, Hugh (March 2007). "Ethical reflections on Edward Jenner's experimental treatment". Journal of Medical Ethics. 33 (3): 174–176. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 2598263. PMID 17329392. doi:10.1136/jme.2005.015339.
- ↑ "Accountability in Research". tandfonline.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "1990: Launch of the Human Genome Project". genome.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "The Human Genome Project (1990-2003)". embryo.asu.edu. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Making History with the 1990 Gene Therapy Trial". genengnews.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ Reprogenetics: Law, Policy, and Ethical Issues (Lori P. Knowles, Gregory E. Kaebnick ed.).
- ↑ "Code of Conduct for Health Systems Strengthening" (PDF). who.int. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
- ↑ "Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics". cambridge.org. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ Jesani, Amar. "In the 25th year of bioethics publishing: new challenges of the post-truth era". Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ "Medical Law International - Volume 1, Number 1, Mar 01, 1993". SAGE Journals. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
- ↑ "Doctor Says He Falsified Cancer Data to Help Patients". nytimes.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "2019 Tri-I Responsible Conduct of Research Course RCR Case Studies" (PDF). mskcc.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments". bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ↑ "Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments - Executive Summary". ehss.energy.gov. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ↑ Nys, Herman. "The European Journal of Health Law 1994-2019: How Innovative Has Its Contribution Been to the Development of Health Law in Europe?". doi:10.1163/15718093-12265006.
- ↑ "Nursing Ethics". us.sagepub.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "Russian School of Bioethics: History and the Present". intechopen.com. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
- ↑ "Presidential Apology". cdc.gov. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ↑ "Presidential Apology for the Study at Tuskegee". britannica.com. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ↑ "Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights". ohchr.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ Mayor, Federico. "The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human RightsLa Déclaration Universelle sur le Génome Humain et les Droits de l'Homme". doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2003.09.017.
- ↑ "REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA Corte Constitucional Sentencia No. C-239/97" (PDF). 20 May 1997. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ Emanuel, EJ (Dec 1998). "The blossoming of bioethics at NIH". Kennedy Inst Ethics J. 8 (4): 455–66. PMID 11657322.
- ↑ Brody, Baruch A.; Brody, Leon Jaworski Professor of Biomedical Ethics Director of the Center for Medical Ethics and Health Policy Baruch A. (1998). The Ethics of Biomedical Research: An International Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509007-9.
- ↑ Hornblum, Allen M. (1998). Acres of Skin: Human Experiments at Holmesburg Prison : a Story of Abuse and Exploitation in the Name of Medical Science. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-91990-6.
- ↑ "Stem Cell Research as Innovation: Expanding the Ethical and Policy Conversation". PMC 2941662. PMID 20579255. doi:10.1111/j.1748-720X.2010.00492.x.
- ↑ "Chapter 13Embryos, Cloning, Stem Cells, and the Promise of Reprogramming". ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "European Citizens' Initiative: European Commission replies to 'One of Us' – Q&A". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy". springer.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "About Human Genetics Alert". hgalert.org. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
- ↑ "Participant Detail". Within and Beyond the Limits to Human Nature. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ↑ "OHRP History". hhs.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Forster, Heidi P; Emanuel, Ezekiel; Grady, Christine (October 2001). "The 2000 revision of the Declaration of Helsinki: a step forward or more confusion?". The Lancet. 358 (9291): 1449–1453. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06534-5.
- ↑ Forster, Heidi P; Emanuel, Ezekiel; Grady, Christine (October 2001). "The 2000 revision of the Declaration of Helsinki: a step forward or more confusion?". The Lancet. 358 (9291): 1449–1453. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06534-5.
- ↑ "Culture of Death: The Assault on Medical Ethics in America". amazon.com. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ↑ "IPPY Awards 2001: The Results Are In!". independentpublisher.com. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ↑ Institute of Medicine (2000). To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-309-26174-6. PMID 25077248. doi:10.17226/9728.
- ↑ "Yale journal of health policy, law, and ethics.". search.library.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "THE HUMAN CLONING PROHIBITION ACT OF 2001 AND THE CLONING PROHIBITION". govinfo.gov. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Not Waiting for Congress to Act, Some States Move to Ban Human Cloning". guttmacher.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ Stolberg, Sheryl Gay. "HOUSE BACKS BAN ON HUMAN CLONING FOR ANY OBJECTIVE". nytimes.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "President George W. Bush's Announcement on Stem Cells, 9 August 2001 | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia". embryo.asu.edu. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
- ↑ "SUMMARY OF THE MCCAIN-EDWARDS-KENNEDY PATIENTS' BILL OF RIGHTS". web.archive.org. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ↑ "Euthanasia in the Netherlands". alliancevita.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Euthanasia now legal in Holland". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "International Declaration on Human Genetic Data". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "INTERNATIONAL DECLARATION ON HUMAN GENETIC DATA". who.int. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ United States District Court, S.D. Florida, Miami, Division. (2003). "Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute.". West's federal supplement. 264: 1064–78. PMID 15776537.
- ↑ "Patent Rights in Biological Material". archive.md. 7 September 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ "ho Owns My Tissue?". dddmag.com. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- ↑ "Medical Ethics & Law: The Core Curriculum". amazon.com. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- ↑ "Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future". goodreads.com. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- ↑ "Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement". onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Liberal eugenics: In defence of human enhancement". link.springer.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Military Medical Ethics, Volume 1-2 (Textbooks of Military Medicine) by Pelegrino, M.D. Edmund D. 0160505011 9780160505010". Discover Books.
- ↑ "Kodeks Etyki Lekarskiej". www.mp.pl (in polski). Retrieved 30 August 2021.
- ↑ Langlois, Adèle. "The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights: Perspectives from Kenya and South Africa". PMC 2226192. PMID 18240025. doi:10.1007/s10728-007-0055-7.
- ↑ "Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "Clinical Ethics". journals.sagepub.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Borry, P (1 April 2006). "Empirical research in bioethical journals. A quantitative analysis". Journal of Medical Ethics. 32 (4): 240–245. doi:10.1136/jme.2004.011478.
- ↑ "Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics: An International Journal". jstor.org. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "Unequal treatment". nytimes.com. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
- ↑ WHO/UNAIDS Technical Consultation. Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention: Research Implications for Policy and Programming. Montreux, 6–8 March 2007
- ↑ Pastor, LM. "[Ethical analysis and commentary of Dignitas Personae document: from continuity toward the innovation].". PMID 21692553.
- ↑ "INSTRUCTION DIGNITAS PERSONAE". vatican.va. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
- ↑ "Vatican issues new document on biotechnology". ncronline.org. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
- ↑ Snyder, John E.; Gauthier, Candace C. (9 October 2008). Evidence-Based Medical Ethics:: Cases for Practice-Based Learning. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-60327-246-9.
- ↑ "Volume 1, Issue 1, March 2008". link.springer.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ "Timeline of Ethics in Clinical Research". ethicsinhealth.org. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
- ↑ "FDA abandons Declaration of Helsinki for international clinical trials". ALAMES: Latin American Social Medicine Asociation. 1 June 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
- ↑ "Volume 1, Issue 1, April 2008". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
- ↑ Wolinsky, Howard. "The pendulum swung. President Barack Obama removes restrictions on stem-cell research, but are expectations now too high?". PMC 2680887. PMID 19415078. doi:10.1038/embor.2009.78.
- ↑ "Código de Ética Médica (2009/2010) |". portal.cfm.org.br. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
- ↑ Nicholas., Agar (2013). Humanity's end : why we should reject radical enhancement. Bradford Books. ISBN 978-0262525176.
- ↑ "La OMC ultima la actualización del Código de Deontología Médica | Médicos y Pacientes". www.medicosypacientes.com. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
- ↑ "NIH moves to lift moratorium on animal-human chimera research". sciencemag.org. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
- ↑ Makary, Martin A; Daniel, Michael (3 May 2016). "Medical error—the third leading cause of death in the US". BMJ: i2139. doi:10.1136/bmj.i2139.
- ↑ "British doctors seek to expel Israel from World Medical Association".
- ↑ Guardado, José R. (December 2017). "Medical Liability Claim Frequency Among U.S. Physicians" (PDF). American Medical Association. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
- ↑ "Supreme Court allows passive euthanasia: How Aruna Shanbaug case changed right to die with dignity law". firstpost.com. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ↑ "The Aruna Shanbaug case which changed euthanasia laws in India". economictimes.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ↑ "Chinese Scientist Claims to Use Crispr to Make First Genetically Edited Babies". nytimes.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "The untold story of the 'circle of trust' behind the world's first gene-edited babies". sciencemag.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
- ↑ "CRISPR bombshell: Chinese researcher claims to have created gene-edited twins". sciencemag.org. Retrieved 13 July 2020.