Timeline of animal testing
From Timelines
This is a timeline of animal testing. Most Nobel Prizes in Medicine have involved some form of animal research.[1]
Contents
Big picture
| Time period | Development summary | |
|---|---|---|
| Ancient history | Animals testing is early documented in the history of biomedical research. Aristotle and Erasistratus already perform experiments on living animals. Greek physician Galen also conducts experiments on animals to advance the understanding of anatomy, physiology, pathology, and pharmacology. Arab physician Ibn Zuhr introduces animal testing as an experimental method for testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.[2] | |
| 17th century | Debates on the ethics of animal testing are already conducted in the seventeenth century.[2] Throughout the Age of Enlightenment, physiological experiments on animals are carried out for the purpose of scientific progress. However, the moral acceptability of inducing suffering in animals in the name of scientific advancement also becomes an issue raised in opposition of vivisection before the end of the century.[3] | |
| 18th century | The century marks the rise of moral consideration for animals. Scientists like Stephen Hales and Albrecht Von Haller are known to be concerned about the moral justification of experimenting on animals.[3] | |
| 19th century | By the beginning of the century, the topic of discussion is not if animals can feel or not and to what extent, but rather, whether vivisection is justifiable based on the benefit for humans derived from it. While the second half of the nineteenth century marks the beginning of scientifically meaningful and medically relevant animal research, this period also sees opposition to vivisection becoming widespread in England.[3] | |
| 20th century | Before 1900, animal models were mainly used to study the pathophysiology of infections.[4] Drug testing using animals becomes important in the twentieth century.[2] The 1950s marks the beginning of a new concern for animals on the part of scientists and the public.[5] | |
| 21st century | Recently, the practice of using animals for biomedical research has come under severe criticism by animal protection and animal rights groups, with several countries passing laws to make the practice more ‘humane’.[2] However it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year,[6] with 10–11 million of them in the European Union.[7] |
Full timeline
| Year | Event type | Details | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| 300 | Writings of ancient civilizations all document the use of animal testing. These civilizations, led by men like Aristotle and Erasistratus, use live animals to test various medical procedures.[8] | ||
| 1242 | Using animals to study blood circulation, Syrian Arab physician Ibn al-Nafis manages to theorize about the human blood circulatory system. His theories are eventually proven hundreds of years later by William Harvey.[8] | ||
| 1596 – 1650 | French philosopher René Descartes performs vivisections on animals under his belief that animals are ‘machine-like’, interpreted as a belief that animals can not feel pain.[3] | France | |
| 1660 | Anglo-Irish scientist Robert Boyle theorizes that living beings need air to live —something unknown at the time. Using animals, Boyle tests and proves his theories.[8] | United Kingdom | |
| 1700s | Scientists like Stephen Hales and Luigi Galvani use animals to prove their scientific theories. Some of the theories proved during the 1700's include animation caused by electricity, respiration as combustion, and blood pressure theories.[8] | ||
| 1724 – 1804 | German philosopher Immanuel Kant acknowledges the sentience of non-human species.[3] | ||
| 1783 | A sheep, duck and rooster are sent up in the newly invented hot-air balloon. The balloon flies for 3.2 kilometers and lands safely.[9] | ||
| 1783 – 1855 | French physiologist François Magendie lives. Magendie is considered among the most infamous of his time for the types of experiments he conducts and the cruelty they entail. A notorious vivisector, Magendie would shock even many of his contemporaries with the live dissections performed by him at public lectures in physiology.[3] | France | |
| 1840s | Animal experimentation becomes routine after the discovery of anesthetic allows for experiments on animals to continue with less guilt due to less pain inducement.[3] | ||
| 1866 | Organization | Philantropist Henry Bergh founds the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), which would press unsuccessfully for laws to abolish experiments involving animals in the 1860s and 1870s.[10] | United States |
| 1875 | The Victoria Street Society for the Protection of Animals Liable to Vivisection is founded. It is the first society for animal protection. | ||
| 1876 | Legal | Great Britain passes the Cruelty to Animals Act.[8] However, the Act's implementation permits "a great amount of pain and suffering to animals", and the adequacy of anaesthetics is questionable.[11] | United Kingdom |
| 1880 | French biologist Louis Pasteur uses sheep and anthrax to prove the theory that germs are harmful and what causes illness. He eventually develops the practice of pasteurization, which consists in boiling the milk to kill bacteria and germs.[8] | France | |
| 1883 | Organization | American philanthropist Caroline Earle White establishes the American Anti-Vivisection Society.[10] | United States |
| 1890s | Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov uses dogs to describe classical conditioning.[12] | Russia | |
| 1901 | German physiologist Emil von Behring uses guinea pigs to test his theories on diphtheria, and later uses the findings to create an immunization for humans. Von Behring would be awarded the Nobel Prize for his advancement of medicine.[8] | Germany | |
| 1920 | English electrophysiologist Edgar Adrian experiments on a frog to prove the way the brain sends signals for communication. Adrian is later awarded the Nobel Prize for his findings.[8] | ||
| 1921 | Canadian scientist Frederick Banting uses dogs, and later cows, to experiment with the pancreas and insulin to develop a treatment for diabetes.[8] | ||
| 1938 | Policy | The United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requires safety testing of drugs on animals before they can be marketed.[2][13] | United States |
| 1940s | By experimenting on guinea pigs, Corwin Hinshaw finds that antibodies found in the soil could help cure tuberculosis.[8] | ||
| 1940s | American medical researcher Jonas Salk uses monkeys to isolate and vaccinate against the polio virus.[8] | ||
| 1949 | Albert II becomes the first monkey in space on June 4, 1949. He reaches an altitude of 83 miles (134 km), but dies on impact when the parachute fails.[9] | ||
| 1950s | Scientists use rodents, dogs, cats, monkeys, and rabbits to test the use of anesthesia.[8] In the 1950s, the Soviet Union launches a total of 12 dogs on various suborbital flights. Stray dogs are used since they are thought to be capable of handling extreme cold.[9] | ||
| 1951 | Organization | The Animal Welfare Institute is founded.[5] | |
| 1951 | First dogs are sent in space. | ||
| 1957 (November 3) | Laika | Russia | |
| 1959 | Literature | William Russell and Rex Burch publish The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique.[5] | |
| 1963 | France launches the first cat into space. Félicette reaches an altitude of 160 km and lands safely.[9] | France | |
| 1964 – 1966 | China launches mice, rats and dogs into space.[9] | China | |
| 1966 | Policy | The United States Congress passes the Animal Welfare Act, a federal law regulating animal use in the United States.[5] | United States |
| 1968 | Medics and scientists use dogs to attempt the replacing of a heart valve. Other studies using animals today include the studying of AIDS and leprosy.[8] | ||
| 1968 | First animals are sent in deep spax ce and to circle the Moon. The Soviet Zond 5 becomes the first spacecraft to circle the satellite, carrying a payload of two Russian tortoises, wine flies, mealworms, plants, seeds and bacteria.[9] | ||
| 1970s | Australian psychiatrist John Cade uses lithium salts in guinea pigs in his investigation to find a treatment for depression and other manic conditions.[8] | ||
| 1974 | German biologist Rudolf Jaenisch manages to produce the first transgenic mammal, by integrating DNA from the SV40 virus into the genome of mice.[14] | ||
| 1975 | Literature | Australian philosopher Peter Singer publishes Animal Liberation, arguing that the interests of animals should be considered because of their ability to feel suffering and that the idea of rights was not necessary to weigh against the relative worth of animal experimentation. | |
| c.1980 | The movement against animal testing in North America begins.[3] | United States | |
| 1986 | The United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment reports that estimates of the animals used in the United States range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate is at least 17 million to 22 million.[15] | United States | |
| 1992 | Researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimate that 14–21 million animals were used in U.S. laboratories in 1992, a reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970.[16] | United States | |
| 1996 | Dolly the sheep becomes the first cloned animal, coming from an adult sheep cell. Science continues using animals for research, in spite of protests.[3][8] | ||
| 2001 | The number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 is estimated at 80 million.[17] | United States | |
| 2014 | "Known as PETA, they are the largest animal advocacy group in the world. While animals may be needed for certain medical and scientific advancements, PETA works to protect animals to the best of their abilities."[8] |
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References
- ↑ Coyne, Mark S.; Allin, Craig Willard; Adams, McCrea. Natural Resources: Abrasives; general mining law of 1872.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Hajar, Rachel. "Animal Testing and Medicine". PMC 3123518
. PMID 21731811. doi:10.4103/1995-705X.81548. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 "Medical Testing on Animals: A Brief History". animaljustice.ca. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
- ↑ Animal Testing in Infectiology (Axel Schmidt, Olaf F. Weber ed.).
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Hayhurst, Chris. Animal Testing: The Animal Rights Debate.
- ↑ Taylor, Katy; Gordon, Nicky; Langley, Gill; Higgins, Wendy (2008). "Estimates for worldwide laboratory animal use in 2005". ATLA. FRAME. 36 (3): 327–42. PMID 18662096.
- ↑ Hunter, Robert G. (1 January 2014). "Alternatives to animal testing drive market". Gen. Eng. Biotechnol. News. 34 (1). p. 11.
While growth has leveled off and there have been significant reductions in some countries, the number of animals used in research globally still totals almost 100 million a year.
Template:Open access - ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 "History of Animal Testing". softschools.com. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 "Cosmic Menagerie: A History of Animals in Space (Infographic)". space.com. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Rothenberg, Marc. History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia.
- ↑ Lyons, Dan. The Politics of Animal Experimentation.
- ↑ Windholz G (1987). "Pavlov as a psychologist. A reappraisal". Pavlov. J. Biol. Sci. 22 (3): 103–12. PMID 3309839.
- ↑ Gad, Shayne C. Animal Models in Toxicology.
- ↑ Jaenisch R, Mintz B (1974). "Simian Virus 40 DNA Sequences in DNA of Healthy Adult Mice Derived from Preimplantation Blastocysts Injected with Viral DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (4): 1250–4. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.1250J. PMC 388203. PMID 4364530. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250.
- ↑ Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing and Education, U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1986, p. 64. In 1966, the Laboratory Animal Breeders Association estimated in testimony before Congress that the number of mice, rats, guinea pigs, hamsters, and rabbits used in 1965 was around 60 million. (Hearings before the Subcommittee on Livestock and Feed Grains, Committee on Agriculture, U.S. House of Representatives, 1966, p. 63.)
- ↑ Rowan, A., Loew, F., and Weer, J. (1995) "The Animal Research Controversy. Protest, Process and Public Policy: An Analysis of Strategic Issues." Tufts University, North Grafton. cited in Carbone 2004, p. 26.
- ↑ Carbone, p. 26.
