Timeline of reservations and affirmative action

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This is a Timeline of reservations and affirmative action, tracing major laws, court rulings, policies, debates, and research from Reconstruction-era America to twenty-first-century gender quotas and admissions controversies worldwide. It follows how governments, universities, courts, and international bodies have addressed historical disadvantage, representation, and equality, while also documenting criticism, public opinion, policy reversals, and long-term targets across diverse national contexts.

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Big picture

Time period Development summary More details
1865–1969 Origins and legal foundations of affirmative action Early attempts to address structural inequality appear after the abolition of slavery in the United States during Reconstruction. Similar experiments occur elsewhere, including Soviet policies promoting women and ethnic minorities in the early twentieth century. After World War II, equality principles are embedded in constitutions and international law. India institutionalizes reservations for disadvantaged castes, while the United States introduces the term “affirmative action” through Kennedy and Johnson-era executive orders and civil-rights legislation. Malaysia’s ethnic tensions and economic disparities also motivate redistributive group-based policies.
1970s–1990s Global expansion and institutionalization Affirmative action spreads internationally as a policy tool aimed at correcting historical inequalities and increasing representation. The United States records measurable gains in employment for women and minorities. Malaysia implements the New Economic Policy favoring Bumiputera populations. Canada, New Zealand, and several European countries adopt legal frameworks allowing special measures for disadvantaged groups. After the end of apartheid in 1994, South Africa introduces extensive employment-equity and empowerment policies designed to address racial inequality.
2000–2015 Sector diversification and legal debate Governments increasingly apply affirmative action to specific sectors such as university admissions, corporate governance, and policing. Brazil introduces racial and social quota systems in universities, Israel experiments with class-based admissions criteria, and Norway pioneers gender quotas for corporate boards. During this period, courts and scholars intensify debates over fairness and effectiveness, including controversies surrounding the “mismatch hypothesis” in higher education.
2016–onwards Contemporary reforms, backlash, and target-based policies Recent decades show both expansion and retrenchment. Some countries introduce new representation targets, especially gender quotas in corporate boards and political institutions, including EU directives and Ghana’s affirmative action legislation. At the same time, opposition grows in some jurisdictions; the 2023 U.S. Supreme Court decision ending race-conscious admissions marks a major rollback. Modern policies increasingly emphasize measurable targets and time-limited programs rather than open-ended affirmative action regimes.

Full timeline

Year (month and date) Event type Details Country/location
1865–1877 Historical period During the Reconstruction Era, early policies aimed at assisting formerly enslaved people and addressing racial inequality lay foundations for later affirmative action policies.[1] United States
1918 Government initiative Following the Russian Revolution, activist Inessa Armand helps establish institutions advocating women's equality within the Bolshevik government, laying groundwork for early Soviet gender-focused policies.[2] Soviet Russia
1919 Government organization The Zhenotdel (Women's Department of the Communist Party) begins operating to promote women's participation in politics, labor, and public life.[3] Soviet Union
1920s–early 1930s Government policy The policy of Korenizatsiia promotes members of ethnic minorities into local government and party leadership roles, functioning as a form of affirmative action in Soviet nationalities policy.[4][5] Soviet Union
1930 Institutional reform The Zhenotdel women's department is dissolved as Soviet leadership shifts away from earlier gender-focused mobilization policies.[6] Soviet Union
1934 Policy change Soviet authorities abandon the official classification of certain ethnic minorities as "culturally backward" within nationalities policy.[7] Soviet Union
Late 1930s Policy shift Elements of the earlier Korenizatsiia affirmative-action policy are gradually phased out as Soviet nationalities policy emphasizes Russian leadership within the union.[8] Soviet Union
1948 Government policy The apartheid government in South Africa begins implementing legislation that institutionalizes racial segregation and discrimination across social, political, and economic life, establishing a racial hierarchy privileging white people and marginalizing black Africans and other groups.[9][10] South Africa
1948–1974 Government policy The apartheid government introduces statutes enforcing racial discrimination in employment and other areas of life, reserving skilled and higher-paying jobs for whites and reinforcing the labor-market “colour bar”.[9][11][12] South Africa
1949 Constitutional provision Article 3 of the German Basic Law establishes equality before the law regardless of sex, race, or social background, forming the legal foundation for later equality and diversity policies. Germany
1950 Constitutional policy The Constitution of India establishes a system of reservations (affirmative action) for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in education, government employment, and political representation. India
1957–1958 Economic data Early post-independence income statistics show significant disparities among ethnic groups in Malaysia, with mean incomes reported as 134 for Malays, 288 for Chinese Malaysians, and 228 for Indian Malaysians.[13] Malaysia
1961 (6 March) Executive order U.S. President John F. Kennedy signs Executive Order 10925, introducing the term "affirmative action" and requiring government contractors to take "affirmative action" to ensure that applicants are employed and treated fairly without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin.[14][15] United States
Early 1960s Government policy Affirmative action policies are introduced in the United States to combat racial discrimination in employment, later expanding to address gender discrimination.[16] United States
1964 Legislation The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is enacted in the United States, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and other areas of public life. United States
1964 Legislative debate During debate on the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Senator Hubert Humphrey, the Senate floor manager of the bill, states that the legislation would prohibit preferential treatment for particular groups and rejects the idea that it would lead to racial quotas.[17] United States
1965 Executive order U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson issues Executive Order 11246, requiring government contractors to hire without regard to race, religion, or national origin and to take affirmative action to ensure equal employment opportunities.[18] United States
1965 (December 21) International treaty The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is adopted by the United Nations, allowing and in some cases requiring affirmative action measures to address systemic racial discrimination.[19] International
1967–1968 Economic data Updated income data reveal continuing ethnic income disparities, with mean incomes recorded as 154 for Malays, 329 for Chinese Malaysians, and 245 for Indian Malaysians.[20] Malaysia
1969 (4 January) Treaty enters into force The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination enters into force, encouraging states to adopt temporary special measures to eliminate discrimination.[19] International
1969 (May 13) Civil unrest Sectarian violence known as the 13 May incident occurs in Malaysia, prompting government initiatives aimed at addressing ethnic economic disparities. Malaysia
1971 Government policy The Malaysian government introduces the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP), an ethnicity-based affirmative-action program designed to improve socioeconomic conditions for Bumiputera populations.[21][22] Malaysia
1973–2003 Long-term study period A later empirical analysis examines the impact of affirmative-action policies on occupational advancement for women and minorities in the United States during this thirty-year period, focusing on outcomes among federal contractors compared with non-contractors.[23]
1970s–early 1980s Policy impact According to later empirical analysis, affirmative-action policies in the United States contribute significantly to increased representation of black, Hispanic, and white women in management, professional, and technical occupations during this period.[24] United States
1970s Higher education policy context Statistics concerning graduation outcomes of Māori and Polynesian students in targeted university access programs begin to be recorded, later becoming part of debates around affirmative action and the "mismatch theory" in New Zealand universities.[25] New Zealand
1982 (17 April) Constitutional provision The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms comes into force, and Section 15 explicitly allows laws and programs designed to improve conditions for disadvantaged groups.[26] Canada
1986 Legislation The Employment Equity Act requires employers in federally regulated industries to promote employment opportunities for four designated groups: women, persons with disabilities, Indigenous peoples, and visible minorities. Canada
1980s Education policy A French model of affirmative action based on geographic disadvantage is introduced through "Priority Education Zones", providing additional funding and support for schools in disadvantaged neighborhoods.[27] France
Late 1980s Policy impact The measurable positive effects of affirmative-action policies on occupational advancement for women and minorities decline significantly, a change attributed by some researchers to political shifts affecting affirmative-action enforcement during the Ronald Reagan administration.[28] United States
1990 Government initiative The French Ministry of Defence proposes measures to facilitate promotion and driving-license access for soldiers of North African descent, but the plan is later canceled after internal protests.[29] France
1990 Legislation The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 establishes protections against discrimination and permits measures designed to assist disadvantaged groups under Section 19(2).[30] New Zealand
1990s–present Regional policy Some Canadian provinces and territories implement affirmative action measures, including employment preferences for Indigenous peoples and other designated groups in regions such as the Northwest Territories.[31] Canada
1993 Legislation The Human Rights Act 1993 provides a legal basis for affirmative action measures under Section 73, allowing programs designed to assist disadvantaged groups and promote equality.[32] New Zealand
1994 Policy shift Following the end of apartheid and the rise of the African National Congress government, South Africa adopts affirmative-action policies intended to correct historic racial inequalities in employment and economic participation.[33] South Africa
1997 (June 13) Legislation Norway adopts the Public Limited Liability Companies Act (Allmennaksjeloven), which later becomes the legal basis for gender quota requirements on boards of public limited companies (ASA).[34] Norway
1998 (April 10) Peace agreement The Good Friday Agreement establishes reforms to policing in Northern Ireland, later leading to recruitment policies aimed at balancing representation between Catholic and Protestant communities. United Kingdom
1998 Legislation The Employment Equity Act is enacted in South Africa, requiring employers to promote equal opportunity and implement affirmative-action measures for historically disadvantaged groups, including black South Africans, women, and people with disabilities.[35][36] South Africa
Early–mid 2000s University admissions policy Several of the most selective universities in Israel introduce a class-based affirmative-action admissions policy that evaluates applicants based on structural disadvantages such as neighborhood socioeconomic status and high school context rather than ethnicity or financial status.[37] Israel
Early–mid 2000s Policy impact Implementation of class-based affirmative action in Israeli university admissions increases geographic, economic, and demographic diversity among students in selective departments.[37] Israel
2000s Higher education policy Several Brazilian federal and state universities introduce admission quota systems favoring racial minorities (Black and Indigenous students), low-income applicants, and persons with disabilities.[38] Brazil
2001 (September 12) Recruitment policy The Police Service of Northern Ireland introduces a “50:50” recruitment policy requiring that half of new police recruits come from the Catholic community and half from Protestant or other communities.[39] United Kingdom
2002 Education policy The Ministry of Education and the Council of Aboriginal Affairs announce that Taiwanese Aboriginal students may receive a 33% score boost on high-school or undergraduate entrance examinations if they demonstrate knowledge of their tribal language and culture.[40] Taiwan
2002 Legislation The Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002 permits political parties to use all-women shortlists in selecting parliamentary candidates to increase female representation.[41] United Kingdom
2003 Legislation The Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act is enacted in South Africa, establishing a framework to increase participation of historically disadvantaged groups in the economy through ownership, management, employment, and procurement policies.[42] South Africa
2003 Court ruling The Supreme Court of the United States upholds the use of race-conscious admissions policies in higher education in Grutter v. Bollinger, affirming that limited consideration of race in university admissions can be constitutional when used to promote diversity. United States
2003 Scientific publication Research analyzes the role of affirmative action in post-apartheid South Africa, arguing that policy debates often frame the issue in racialized terms within organizational and public discourse.[43] South Africa
2004 Corporate governance reform A gender quota requirement is introduced requiring boards of public stock companies (ASA) to include at least 40% of each gender.[44] Norway
2004 Academic study Richard Sander publishes A Systemic Analysis of Affirmative Action in American Law Schools in the *Stanford Law Review*, arguing that affirmative action may produce “mismatch” effects that reduce bar-pass rates among Black law students.[45] United States
2004 Legislation Taiwan enacts a law requiring companies with 100 or more employees competing for government contracts to ensure that at least 1% of their workforce consists of Taiwanese aborigines.[46] Taiwan
2005 (April 29) Academic critique Economists and legal scholars including Ian Ayres and Richard Brooks criticize Sander’s mismatch thesis, arguing that eliminating affirmative action would likely reduce the number of Black lawyers.[47] United States
2005 (May 20) Public opinion poll A USA Today poll finds that a majority of Americans support affirmative action for women, while views on racial affirmative action are more divided.[48] United States
2005 (August 23) Public opinion poll A Gallup poll reports that 72% of Black Americans and 44% of white Americans support racial affirmative action, with Hispanic opinion falling between the two groups.[49] United States
2005 (October) Court ruling The Constitutional Court of Slovakia rules that affirmative action favoring ethnic or racial minorities violates the Constitution of Slovakia.[50] Slovakia
2006 Policy analysis A policy study evaluates affirmative action and state capacity in democratic South Africa, examining economic impacts and governance challenges associated with employment equity and empowerment programs.[51] South Africa
2006 Constitutional provision The Constitution of Serbia explicitly permits affirmative action as "special measures" for marginalized groups such as national minorities.[52] Serbia
2006 (September 25) Public discussion International reporting highlights Brazil’s emerging university quota systems aimed at increasing access for historically disadvantaged racial groups.[53] Brazil
2006 (September 29) Report/public discussion The Commission for Racial Equality publishes material discussing affirmative action policies internationally, including examples in New Zealand.[54] New Zealand
2006 (21 December) Court ruling The Supreme Court of Sweden rules that ethnic quotas used in university admissions constitute discrimination and are therefore unlawful, stating that admission requirements must be the same for all applicants.[55] Sweden
2007 (August 24) Public commentary Law professor Gail Heriot discusses evidence for the mismatch hypothesis in a *Wall Street Journal* opinion article addressing affirmative action in legal education.[56] United States
2007 (1 September) Demographic study A survey reports that Other Backward Classes (OBC) constitute approximately 41% of India's population, highlighting the demographic scale of groups eligible for reservation policies.[57] India
2007 Employment policy Diversity policies in public sector and university employment commonly provide that women may be favored over men with equal qualifications and that disabled candidates should be favored over non-disabled applicants. Germany
2007–2008 Education policy Romania implements quota policies allowing Romani people access to reserved places in public schools and state universities.[58] Romania
2008 (September 3) Academic study A study by Jesse Rothstein and Albert H. Yoon critiques the mismatch hypothesis, concluding that eliminating affirmative action would drastically reduce Black enrollment in law schools while providing little evidence of large mismatch harms.[59] United States
2008 (December 17) Policy proposal President Nicolas Sarkozy proposes measures intended to promote greater equality of opportunity for Arab-French students, but the initiative fails to gain sufficient political support to amend the constitution.[60] France
2008 (December 29) Policy debate Politicians from The Left Party propose social quotas to increase access for working-class students to elite secondary schools (Gymnasium), sparking debate among educators.[61] Germany
2009 (February) Policy debate School administrators publicly oppose proposed social quotas for Gymnasium admissions, arguing such policies could harm disadvantaged students.[62] Germany
2009 (3 June) Public opinion poll A Quinnipiac University Polling Institute survey finds that 55% of Americans believe affirmative action should generally be discontinued, though the same percentage supports affirmative action policies for people with disabilities. The same Quinnipiac poll finds that 65% of American voters oppose extending affirmative action policies to homosexuals, while 27% support it.[63] United States
2009 (July 20) Constitutional challenge The Democrats party files a case before the Supreme Federal Court challenging the constitutionality of racial quotas used by the University of Brasília.[64] Brazil
2009 (August) Policy impact Studies show the number of prominent women corporate directors rises significantly after the implementation of gender quota rules for public companies.[65] Norway
2009 (November 20) Policy debate Public debate continues in South Africa over Black Economic Empowerment, including calls for stricter enforcement and discussion of the program’s social and economic effects.[66] South Africa
2010 (3 February) Policy criticism Media commentary criticizes aspects of Black Economic Empowerment policies, arguing that implementation risks benefiting elites rather than broadly addressing inequality.[67] South Africa
2010 Legislation The Equality Act 2010 introduces provisions allowing limited “positive action”, enabling employers to favor candidates from underrepresented protected groups when applicants are equally qualified.[68][69] United Kingdom
2010 (12 August) Public opinion poll A Leger Marketing poll reports that 59% of Canadians oppose considering race, gender, or ethnicity in government hiring decisions.[70] Canada
2010 (December) Academic commentary Legal scholar Gail Heriot publishes an article in *Engage* arguing that affirmative action admissions advantages may harm minority students’ academic outcomes by creating mismatch effects.[71] United States
2011 Census The 2011 Census of India provides demographic data used to estimate the size of groups eligible for reservation policies, including SC, ST, and OBC communities.[72] India
2011 University policy Universities in Finland implement quota systems in certain programs, such as law and medicine, for students with Swedish-language proficiency to ensure adequate numbers of professionals able to serve Swedish-speaking communities.[73][74] Finland
2011 Academic study A study using Duke University data by Peter Arcidiacono, Esteban Aucejo, Hanming Fang, and Kenneth Spenner finds no evidence supporting the mismatch hypothesis in affirmative action admissions.[75] United States
2011 Scientific publication Research analyzes the effects of gender quotas on board membership, prominence, and social capital among corporate directors.[76] Norway
2012 (April 26) Supreme court ruling The Supreme Federal Court unanimously rules that racial quota systems used in Brazilian universities are constitutional.[77] Brazil
2012 Scientific publication Economist Fidan Ana Kurtulus publishes a study analyzing the impact of affirmative action on the occupational advancement of minorities and women in the United States between 1973 and 2003.[78] United States
2012 Policy proposal The European Commission approves a plan proposing that women should constitute 40% of non-executive board directorships in large publicly listed companies in the European Union by 2020.[79] European Union
2013 (April 4) Government guidance The UK government publishes guidance clarifying that discrimination based on protected characteristics is generally unlawful, but limited forms of “positive action” are permitted under equality legislation.[80] United Kingdom
2013 (August 19) Policy revision Taiwan revises regulations concerning educational benefits for Aboriginal students, increasing the maximum entrance-exam score boost to 35%.[81] Taiwan
2014 (January 1) Education policy Denmark introduces special university admission rules allowing applicants from Greenland to enter higher education programs without standard grade averages if certain residency and academic criteria are met.[82] Denmark
2014 (January 27) Legislation France introduces gender quotas requiring women to hold at least 20% of board seats in publicly listed and state-owned companies.[83] France
2014 (March) Scientific publication Sunhee Kim and Seoyong Kim publish a study analyzing support for affirmative-action programs for women, identifying gender, political factors, psychological factors, and social structure as key determinants influencing attitudes toward such policies.[84]
2014 (22 April) Public opinion poll A Pew Research Center poll finds that 63% of Americans consider affirmative action programs aimed at increasing minority representation in universities to be "a good thing".[85] United States
2014 Government survey The Indian National Sample Survey reports that about 12% of Indian households have received academic scholarships, with the majority awarded to members of SC, ST, and OBC categories.[86] India
2015 (26 August) Public opinion poll A Gallup poll shows that 67% of Americans support affirmative action programs aimed at increasing female representation, while 58% support such programs aimed at increasing racial minority representation.[87] United States
2016 (18 February) Government policy Russian law continues to provide targeted benefits for some ethnic minorities and residents of certain territories, reflecting partial continuation of earlier Soviet preferential policies.[88] Russia
2016 (March) Academic review Peter Arcidiacono and Michael Lovenheim review existing research on affirmative action and the quality–fit trade-off, suggesting possible mismatch effects in law schools but noting complex trade-offs in access and outcomes.[89] United States
2016 (June) Academic study A study by Surendrakumar Bagde, Dennis Epple, and Lowell Taylor finds no evidence supporting the mismatch hypothesis in affirmative action policies affecting Indian higher education.[90] India
2016 (September 2) Scientific study A study finds no measurable impact of Norway's gender quota requirement for corporate boards on company profitability or valuation.[91] Norway
2017 (January 27) Legislation Gender quota requirements for boards of listed and state-owned companies increase to 40%, with sanctions and invalid appointments applied if quotas are not met.[92] France
2017 (April) Academic study Economist Andrew J. Hill finds that bans on affirmative action reduce minority completion rates in four-year STEM programs, suggesting that mismatch theory may not explain observed outcomes.[93] United States
2017 Academic study A study by economist Conrad Miller finds that temporary federal affirmative action regulations increase the share of Black employees in regulated establishments over time.[94] United States
2019 (7 January) Legislation The Government of India approves a 10% reservation quota in government jobs and higher education for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) among the general category.[95][96] India
2019 (22 February) Court ruling An employment tribunal rules that positive action can be used to improve diversity but may only serve as a tie-breaker between candidates who are equally qualified.[97] United Kingdom
2019 (22 March) Policy advocacy Civil society groups call on the Indonesian government to increase recruitment of native Papuans into the Indonesian National Police academy as part of affirmative-action efforts to improve representation in state institutions.[98] Indonesia
2019 (May 10) Education program The Indonesian government promotes the ADik scholarship program, aimed at providing higher-education opportunities for native Papuans and students from remote or border regions.[99] Indonesia
2019 Public opinion poll A Pew Research Center survey finds that 73% of Americans believe race or ethnicity should not be considered in college admissions decisions.[100] United States
2019 (October) Social impact Following the 2019 Papua protests, some Papuan students receiving Indonesian government scholarships choose to abandon their studies and return to their home provinces.[101] Indonesia
2019 (December 10) Education program Government scholarship initiatives such as ADik are expanded to support undergraduate study for Papuan students and those from Indonesia’s peripheral regions.[102] Indonesia
2019 (13 December) Scientific publication A study analyzes public procurement policies related to Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment in South Africa, discussing lessons for sustainable procurement and the role of affirmative-action frameworks in reducing inequality.[103] South Africa
2020 (February 4) Government policy Indonesian civil service recruitment programs introduce special provisions for Papuan applicants, as part of broader affirmative-action policies intended to improve representation of indigenous Papuans in government employment.[104] Indonesia
2020 Academic study Economist Zachary Bleemer finds that California’s affirmative action ban (Proposition 209) reduced wages among underrepresented minority STEM graduates by approximately 5% annually.[105] United States
2021 Education policy Regulations allow members of the Roma minority to enroll in public secondary schools under more favorable admission conditions.[106] Serbia
2022 (April 26) Public opinion poll A Pew Research Center poll finds that 74% of Americans believe race or ethnicity should not be a factor in college admissions decisions.[107] United States
2022 (23 November) EU legislation The European Union adopts Directive (EU) 2022/2381 aimed at improving gender balance on the boards of listed companies, establishing targets for representation of the underrepresented sex among directors.[108] European Union
2023 Court ruling The Supreme Court of the United States overturns decades of precedent permitting race-conscious admissions policies in higher education in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, ruling that such policies violate the Equal Protection Clause and effectively ending most forms of affirmative action in U.S. college admissions.[109] United States
2024 (30 July) Legislation The Parliament of Ghana passes the Affirmative Action Act, 2024 (Gender Equity), aiming to increase women’s representation in politics, with targets of 30% by 2026, 35% by 2028, and 50% by 2030.[110] Ghana
2024 (December) Election The 2024 Ghanaian general election becomes the first national election held after the adoption of affirmative action legislation aimed at increasing women’s political representation. Both the ruling New Patriotic Party and the opposition NDC campaign in support of the gender representation targets.[111] Ghana
2024 (December) Election outcome Following the 2024 Ghanaian general election, the proportion of women in parliament remains unchanged at approximately 15%, the same level as after the 2020 Ghanaian general election.[112] Ghana
2024 (28 December) Policy deadline Under Directive (EU) 2022/2381, European Union member states are required to adopt national laws implementing gender-balance requirements for boards of listed companies.[113] European Union
2025 (7 January) Political statement Newly elected President John Mahama declares in his inaugural speech that the NDC is committed to “breaking the glass ceiling” for women in Ghanaian politics.[114] Ghana
2026 (30 June) Policy target Directive (EU) 2022/2381 sets a target date by which listed companies in the European Union must ensure that at least 40% of non-executive directors or 33% of all board directors are members of the underrepresented sex.[115] European Union
2026 Policy target The Affirmative Action Act, 2024 sets a target for women to hold at least 30% of political positions in Ghana.[116] Ghana
2028 Policy target The Affirmative Action Act, 2024 establishes a target of 35% female representation in political positions in Ghana.[117] Ghana
2030 Policy target The Affirmative Action Act, 2024 establishes a long-term goal of 50% female representation in political positions in Ghana.[118] Ghana
2038 (31 December) Policy expiration Directive (EU) 2022/2381 is scheduled to expire unless renewed, marking the end of the EU’s current legal framework for board gender-balance quotas.[119] European Union

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References

  1. ↑ Melvin I. Urofsky, The Affirmative Action Puzzle: A Living History From Reconstruction to Today (2020).
  2. ↑ Stites, Richard (1976). "Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917–1930". Russian History. 3 (1): 174–193. doi:10.1163/187633176X00107. JSTOR 24649711.
  3. ↑ Template:Cite thesis
  4. ↑ Nicolaïdis, Kalypso (2014). Echoes of Empire: Memory, Identity and Colonial Legacies. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85773-896-7.
  5. ↑ Chang, Jon K. "Tsarist continuities in Soviet nationalities policy: A case of Korean territorial autonomy in the Soviet Far East, 1923–1937". Eurasia Studies Society of Great Britain & Europe Journal.
  6. ↑ Stites, Richard (1976). "Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917–1930". Russian History. 3 (1): 174–193. doi:10.1163/187633176X00107. JSTOR 24649711.
  7. ↑ Martin, Terry Dean (2001). The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8677-7.
  8. ↑ Nicolaïdis, Kalypso (2014). Echoes of Empire: Memory, Identity and Colonial Legacies. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85773-896-7.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Thaver, Beverly. "Affirmative action in South Africa: The limits of history." In Race and Inequality, pp. 167-186. Routledge, 2017.
  10. ↑ "White Workers and the Colour Bar". Sahistory.org.za. 3 April 2011. Archived from the original on 19 March 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  11. ↑ "White Workers and the Colour Bar". Sahistory.org.za. 3 April 2011. Archived from the original on 19 March 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  12. ↑ Race, law and poverty in the new South Africa, The Economist, 30 September 1999
  13. ↑ Perumal, M. (1989). "Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Malaysia, 1957–1984". Singapore Economic Review. 34 (2): 33–46.
  14. ↑ "President Kennedy's E.O.10925: Seedbed of Affirmative Action" (PDF). Society for History in the Federal Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
  15. ↑ A Brief History of Affirmative Action Template:Webarchive, University of California, Irvine (access date 16 May 2015)
  16. ↑ "Affirmative Action: History and Rationale". Clinton Administration's Affirmative Action Review: Report to the President. 19 July 1995. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  17. ↑ "Today's racial quotas? Senator Humphrey would've eaten his hat". Family News Network. January 20, 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  18. ↑ Executive Order 11246
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 United Nations Committee on Human Rights, General Comment 18 on Non-discrimination, Paragraph 10
  20. ↑ Perumal, M. (1989). "Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Malaysia, 1957–1984". Singapore Economic Review. 34 (2): 33–46.
  21. ↑ Ravallion1, Martin. "Ethnic Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia" (PDF). Georgetown University, University of Malaya.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ "Encyclopedia of the Nations, "Malaysia Poverty and Wealth"". Nationsencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  23. ↑ Fidan Ana Kurtulus, "Affirmative Action and the Occupational Advancement of Minorities and Women During 1973–2003", Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society (2012) 51#2 pp 213–246. online
  24. ↑ Fidan Ana Kurtulus, "Affirmative Action and the Occupational Advancement of Minorities and Women During 1973–2003", Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society (2012) 51#2 pp 213–246. online
  25. ↑ Sowell, T. (1990). Preferential policies: An international perspective. William Morrow and Company.
  26. ↑ Heritage, Canadian (2017-10-23). "Guide to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  27. ↑ Ghorbal, Karim (2015). "Esencia colonial de una política contemporánea: Por un enfoque fanoniano de la discriminación positiva en Francia". Culture & History Digital Journal. 4 (2): e016. doi:10.3989/chdj.2015.016.
  28. ↑ Fidan Ana Kurtulus, "Affirmative Action and the Occupational Advancement of Minorities and Women During 1973–2003", Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society (2012) 51#2 pp 213–246. online
  29. ↑ Jean-Pierre Steinhofer, "Beur ou ordinaire", Armée d'ajourd'hui, 1991.
  30. ↑ "New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 No 109 (as of 1 July 2013), Public Act 19 Freedom from discrimination – New Zealand Legislation". Legislation.govt.nz. 1 July 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
  31. ↑ "GNWT – Human Resources – Affirmative Action". Hr.gov.nt.ca. 3 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  32. ↑ "Human Rights Act 1993 No 82 (as of 1 July 2013), Public Act 73 Measures to ensure equality – New Zealand Legislation". Legislation.govt.nz. 1 July 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
  33. ↑ Stokes, G. (15 March 2010). "The problem with affirmative action". Fanews.co.za.
  34. ↑ "LOV-1997-06-13-45 Lov om allmennaksjeselskaper (allmennaksjeloven)". Lovdata.no. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
  35. ↑ Archived copy Template:Webarchive
  36. ↑ "Employment Equity FAQ". Southafrica.info. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Alon, Sigal (2011). "The Diversity Dividends of a Need-blind and Color-blind Affirmative Action Policy". Social Science Research. 40 (6): 1494–1505. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.05.005.
  38. ↑ Plummer, Robert (25 September 2006). "Black Brazil Seeks a Better Future". BBC News. São Paulo.
  39. ↑ "Police recruitment 'will be 50:50'". BBC News. 12 September 2001.
  40. ↑ Donald B. Holsinger; W. James Jacob (29 May 2009). Inequality in Education: Comparative and International Perspectives. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 295. ISBN 978-90-481-2652-1.
  41. ↑ Richard Kelly and Isobel White (29 April 2009). All-women shortlists (PDF). House of Commons Library. SN/PC/05057. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
  42. ↑ Archived copy Template:Webarchive
  43. ↑ Franchi, V. (2003). "The racialization of affirmative action in organizational discourses: A case study of symbolic racism in post-apartheid South Africa". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 27 (2): 157–187. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00091-3.
  44. ↑ "27.000 flere bedrifter i Norge". nettavisen.no. 27 May 2004. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  45. ↑ Sander, Richard H. (2004). "A Systemic Analysis of Affirmative Action in American Law Schools" (PDF). Stanford Law Review. 57 (2): 367–483. JSTOR 40040209.
  46. ↑ "Taiwan: Indigenous peoples". Minority Rights Group International. 19 June 2015.
  47. ↑ Fisman, Ray (29 April 2005). "Slate.com". Slate.com. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  48. ↑ "Usatoday.Com". Usatoday.Com. 20 May 2005. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  49. ↑ Jones, Jeffrey M. (23 August 2005). "Race, Ideology, and Support for Affirmative Action". Gallup. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
  50. ↑ Goldirova, Renata (19 October 2005). "Slovakia bans positive discrimination". Euobserver.com. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  51. ↑ Edigheji, O. (2006). "Affirmative action and state capacity in a democratic South Africa. Policy: issues & actors, 20(4)" (PDF). cps.org.za. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2014.
  52. ↑ Constitution of The Republic of Serbia (Constitution of The Republic of Serbia), 2006.
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  94. ↑ Miller, Conrad (2017). "The Persistent Effect of Temporary Affirmative Action". American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 9 (3): 152–190. doi:10.1257/app.20160121.
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  107. ↑ "As courts weigh affirmative action, grades and test scores seen as top factors in college admissions". 26 April 2022.
  108. ↑ "Directive (EU) 2022/2381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 November 2022 on improving the gender balance among directors of listed companies and related measures". EUR-Lex. 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
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  111. ↑ "Ghana's democracy stress tested – three milestones passed - The Nordic Africa Institute". nai.uu.se. Retrieved 2025-02-07.
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  113. ↑ "Directive (EU) 2022/2381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 November 2022 on improving the gender balance among directors of listed companies and related measures". EUR-Lex. 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
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  116. ↑ admin (2024-08-08). "Affirmative Action Act, 2024 (Gender Equity ) Passed by Parliament | Newsroom - Ministry of Information, Ghana". Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  117. ↑ admin (2024-08-08). "Affirmative Action Act, 2024 (Gender Equity ) Passed by Parliament | Newsroom - Ministry of Information, Ghana". Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  118. ↑ admin (2024-08-08). "Affirmative Action Act, 2024 (Gender Equity ) Passed by Parliament | Newsroom - Ministry of Information, Ghana". Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  119. ↑ "Directive (EU) 2022/2381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 November 2022 on improving the gender balance among directors of listed companies and related measures". EUR-Lex. 2022-12-07. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
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