Difference between revisions of "Timeline of model organisms"

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| 1941 || ''{{w|Neurospora crassa}}'' || || American geneticists {{w|George Beadle}} and {{w|Edward Tatum}}'s experiments with ''{{w|Neurospora crassa}}'' lead to the isolation of the first biochemical mutants, providing key insights into gene function. By exposing the fungus to X-rays, they induce mutations and identified strains requiring specific nutrients for growth. This indicates defects in certain metabolic pathways, and their work formulate the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis, which proposes that each gene is responsible for producing a single enzyme. This groundbreaking research marks a pivotal step in understanding gene roles in metabolism and would earn them the Nobel Prize in 1958.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beadle and Tatum's 1941 Experiments with Neurospora Revealed that Genes Produce Enzymes |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/beadle-and-tatums-1941-experiments-neurospora-revealed-genes-produce-enzymes |website=embryo.asu.edu |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Favorable Features of Tryptophan Synthase for Proving Beadle and Tatum's One Gene–One Enzyme Hypothesis |author=Charles Yanofsky |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1449131/ |doi=10.1093/genetics/169.2.511 |journal=Genetics |date=2005-02 |volume=169 |issue=2 |pages=511–516 |pmcid=PMC1449131 |pmid=15731515 |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Development in Neurospora crassa |author=Vincenzo E. A. Russo, Niketan N. Pandit |chapter=Development |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-77043-2_7 |pages=88–102 |publisher=Springer |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
| 1941 || ''{{w|Neurospora crassa}}'' || || American geneticists {{w|George Beadle}} and {{w|Edward Tatum}}'s experiments with ''{{w|Neurospora crassa}}'' lead to the isolation of the first biochemical mutants, providing key insights into gene function. By exposing the fungus to X-rays, they induce mutations and identified strains requiring specific nutrients for growth. This indicates defects in certain metabolic pathways, and their work formulate the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis, which proposes that each gene is responsible for producing a single enzyme. This groundbreaking research marks a pivotal step in understanding gene roles in metabolism and would earn them the Nobel Prize in 1958.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beadle and Tatum's 1941 Experiments with Neurospora Revealed that Genes Produce Enzymes |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/beadle-and-tatums-1941-experiments-neurospora-revealed-genes-produce-enzymes |website=embryo.asu.edu |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Favorable Features of Tryptophan Synthase for Proving Beadle and Tatum's One Gene–One Enzyme Hypothesis |author=Charles Yanofsky |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1449131/ |doi=10.1093/genetics/169.2.511 |journal=Genetics |date=2005-02 |volume=169 |issue=2 |pages=511–516 |pmcid=PMC1449131 |pmid=15731515 |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Development in Neurospora crassa |author=Vincenzo E. A. Russo, Niketan N. Pandit |chapter=Development |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-77043-2_7 |pages=88–102 |publisher=Springer |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref> || {{w|United States}}
 
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| 1943 || || || ''Arabidopsis thaliana'': Laibach initiates program in genetics and development. ||
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| 1943 || ''{{w|Arabidopsis thaliana}}'' || || German botanist {{w|Friedrich Laibach}} first promotes ''{{w|Arabidopsis thaliana}}'' as a model organism for genetic studies. Despite possessing ideal traits for genetic analysis, such as its small size, short generation time, and simple genome, ''Arabidopsis'' does not gain widespread popularity immediately. Laibach's pioneering efforts to use ''Arabidopsis'' for understanding genetics and development lays the groundwork for its eventual adoption as a model organism, which would later become central to plant molecular biology research.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arabidopsis Thaliana, a Model Organism for Molecular Genetic Studies in Plants: How and Why Was Arabidopsis Chosen Over Other Plants? |author=George Haughn, Ljerka Kunst |url=https://blogs.ubc.ca/haughn/files/2011/05/Essay-Arabidopsis-as-a-model-organism-2010-proof.pdf |website=blogs.ubc.ca |publisher=University of British Columbia |accessdate=17 October 2024}}</ref> ||
 
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| 1943 || || || ''S.cerevisiae'': Lindegren begins genetics with heterothallic strains. ||
 
| 1943 || || || ''S.cerevisiae'': Lindegren begins genetics with heterothallic strains. ||

Revision as of 19:30, 17 October 2024

This is a model organisms, which are non-human species extensively studied in biological research to gain insights into various processes that can be applicable to other organisms, including humans. These organisms are selected for their ease of maintenance, rapid life cycles, and well-characterized genetics. They play a crucial role in fields such as genetics, developmental biology, and neuroscience.

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Year Species Event type Details Location/researcher affiliation
1900 German botanist Carl Correns conducts experiments on Zea mays, commonly known as corn or maize. Correns confirms the findings of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, regarding the principles of inheritance and genetic traits. Mendel's work, initially published in 1866, outlines the laws of inheritance based on his experiments with pea plants. Correns' validation of Mendel's findings with Zea mays provided further evidence for the existence of discrete units of inheritance, which we now know as genes. This confirmation plays a crucial role in the establishment of modern genetics and lays the foundation for understanding heredity in plants and animals.[1] Germany
1902 American biologist William Ernest Castle begins genetic studies on Mus musculus, commonly known as the house mouse. This marks the initiation of systematic genetic research on this species. Castle's work contributes to the understanding of inheritance patterns and genetic variation in mice, laying the groundwork for further investigations into the genetic basis of traits and the mechanisms of heredity. His studies on Mus musculus were instrumental in the development of mouse models for genetic research, which continue to be crucial in biomedical research and the study of human genetics.[2][3] United States
1909 Thomas Hunt Morgan begins his groundbreaking work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which would become synonymous with his name. Prior to this, C. W. Woodworth and W. E. Castle had shown interest in Drosophila for genetic studies. Morgan's research with Drosophila would lead to the discovery of sex linkage of the gene for white eyes, demonstrating the phenomenon of linkage. He bred Drosophila in large quantities, facilitating the analysis of spontaneous mutations and the localization of genes. Morgan's work laid the foundation for understanding the linear arrangement of genes in chromosomes and significantly advanced the field of genetics.[4]
1913 Edgar Nelson Emerson and Roland McMillan East publish a significant paper on quantitative genetics in Zea mays. This paper marks an important milestone in the understanding of genetic principles governing quantitative traits, which are traits controlled by multiple genes and influenced by environmental factors. Emerson and East's work would contribute to the development of quantitative genetics as a field by elucidating the complex inheritance patterns of traits such as height, yield, and other quantitative characteristics in maize. Their research lays the foundation for further studies in the genetics of complex traits in various organisms.[5]
1915 The Morgan Group, led by Thomas Hunt Morgan, publishes the first book on Mendelian genetics focusing on Drosophila melanogaster, commonly known as the fruit fly. This publication represents a significant milestone in the field of genetics, as it provides a comprehensive overview of the principles of Mendelian inheritance as observed in Drosophila. The book likely covers topics such as the inheritance of traits, the mapping of genes, and the understanding of genetic linkage. This work serves as a foundational resource for researchers studying genetics and paves the way for further investigations into the mechanisms of inheritance in various organisms.
1927 Researchers Shear and Dodge make a notable discovery regarding Neurospora crassa, a type of bread mold. They identify and describe the sexual cycle of Neurospora crassa, shedding light on its reproductive mechanisms. Additionally, they characterize different mating types within the species, which are essential for sexual reproduction. This finding is significant in advancing the understanding of fungal genetics and reproductive biology. It lays the groundwork for further studies on the genetics and life cycle of Neurospora crassa, making it an essential model organism in genetic research.
1930 Chlamydomonas German biologist Franz Moewus pioneer biochemical genetics research on Chlamydomonas, focusing on Chlamydomonas eugametos. He claims to have identified carotenoid-related hormones that selectively activate male or female gametes and reports isolating and genetically mapping mutants along their biosynthetic pathways. Over a decade, he would analyze 200,000 zygotes for ten phenotypes, though many of his findings would be later deemed irreproducible, raising doubts about his conclusions. Despite these issues, Moewus significantly influences Chlamydomonas research, inspiring further studies and reinforcing concepts like gene-chromosome localization and the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, which later led to the use of *C. reinhardtii* as a model organism.[6]
1935 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Danish biologist Øjvind Winge, later regarded as the "Father of Yeast Genetics," elucidates the life cycle of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, marking the beginning of yeast genetics research. Winge’s work in Denmark laid the foundation for subsequent studies in yeast genetics, which were later pursued by researchers such as Lindegren in the U.S. and Ephrussi in France. Meanwhile, Leupold pioneered genetic studies on *Schizosaccharomyces pombe* in Switzerland during the 1940s. Over the next four decades, yeast became an essential model organism in eukaryotic molecular biology, with early researchers contributing significantly to the field's growth and recognition.[7][8]
1937 Paramecium American biologist Tracy Sonneborn and H.S. Jennings make a significant breakthrough in Paramecium genetics by successfully establishing the conditions necessary for mating. They also define a system of mating types, with most Paramecium species exhibiting two distinct mating types. This discovery marks a key advancement in the understanding of reproduction and genetics in Paramecium species, contributing to its establishment as a model organism in cellular and genetic research. Their work lay the groundwork for future studies on sexual reproduction and genetic exchange in single-celled organisms.[9][10][11] United States
1939 American biochemist Emory Ellis and German–American biophysicist Max Delbrück conduct a pivotal one-step growth experiment using T2 bacteriophages to investigate viral replication. They mix bacteria with sufficient viruses to ensure each host cell had a virus attached, then remove the free viruses and sample at regular intervals for a plaque assay. Initially, the number of plaques remain constant during the latent period, followed by a progressive increase, indicating that infected cells were lysing and releasing phages. This experiment illustrates the three main phases of virus replication: initiation of infection, genome replication and expression, and release of mature virions. The method would be also used to estimate burst size, although it may not account for variations in lysis timing, potentially biasing viral trait estimates.[12][13][14] United States
1941 Neurospora crassa American geneticists George Beadle and Edward Tatum's experiments with Neurospora crassa lead to the isolation of the first biochemical mutants, providing key insights into gene function. By exposing the fungus to X-rays, they induce mutations and identified strains requiring specific nutrients for growth. This indicates defects in certain metabolic pathways, and their work formulate the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis, which proposes that each gene is responsible for producing a single enzyme. This groundbreaking research marks a pivotal step in understanding gene roles in metabolism and would earn them the Nobel Prize in 1958.[15][16][17] United States
1943 Arabidopsis thaliana German botanist Friedrich Laibach first promotes Arabidopsis thaliana as a model organism for genetic studies. Despite possessing ideal traits for genetic analysis, such as its small size, short generation time, and simple genome, Arabidopsis does not gain widespread popularity immediately. Laibach's pioneering efforts to use Arabidopsis for understanding genetics and development lays the groundwork for its eventual adoption as a model organism, which would later become central to plant molecular biology research.[18]
1943 S.cerevisiae: Lindegren begins genetics with heterothallic strains.
1944 T phages: Delbrück initiates Phage Group.
1946 Escherichia coli: Lederberg and Tatum discover gene exchange.
1946 S. cerevisiae: Ephrussi discovers cytoplasmic petite colonie variant.
1949 S. cerevisiae: Roman begins major US genetic studies.
1950 C. reinhardtii: Lewin and Sager begin nuclear and organelle genetic studies.
1950 Z. mays: McClintock describes transposable elements.
1951 Phage lambda: Lederberg laboratory discovers phage and specialized transduction
1952 Phage P22: Zinder and Lederberg discover transduction
1953 Aspergillus nidulans: Pontecorvo describes genetic and parasexual systems
1954 N. crassa: First major article on map construction in N. crassa
1956 C. reinhardtii: Levine develops important genetic programme
1958 C. reinhardtii: Gillham begins genetics of chloroplast
1958 Tetrahymena thermophila: Allen and Nanney describe genetic system
1960 E. coli: Jacob and Wollman fully describe genetic system.
1965 A. thaliana: First International Arabidopsis Symposium.
1965 Caenorhabditis elegans South African biologist Sydney Brenner selects Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism to study genetics, development, and neural function. Over the years, this nematode would become one of the most comprehensively understood metazoans, particularly in terms of anatomy, genetics, and behavior. Two major accomplishments in C. elegans research include the mapping of its complete cell lineage and the creation of a "wiring diagram" of its cell contacts through electron microscopy. Advances also include molecular cloning of developmental genes using transposon tagging and the development of a physical genome map. This knowledge serves as a foundation for future research in biology.[19][20]
1966 American internist and medical geneticist Victor A. McKusick publishes the first edition of Mendelian Inheritance in Man (MIM), a comprehensive knowledge base of human genes and genetic disorders. Initially developed in the early 1960s, MIM categorizes autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked phenotypes. The first print edition launched in 1966, with 12 editions published by 1998. In 1987, MIM would transition online as OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) at Johns Hopkins University, later moving to the National Center for Biotechnology Information in 1995. Today, OMIM is updated daily and serves as a crucial resource for students, researchers, and clinicians in genetics and genomics.[21] United States
1974 Caenorhabditis elegans Sydney Brenner conducts a groundbreaking genetic screen and creates the first genetic map for Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), isolating notable mutants such as Dumpy, Squat, Long, Blistered, and Roller. His genetic map identifies over 100 loci, and he estimates the genome to contain about 2,000 essential genes. As a nematode, C. elegans serves as a vital model organism in genetics due to its short lifespan, rapid generation time, and hermaphroditic nature, allowing for efficient isolation and characterization of mutants. Brenner's research also reveals the significance of a "nonsense" codon in mRNA, crucial for protein synthesis.[22][23][24][25][26][27]
1980 Drosophila melanogaster In their study published in Nature, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus investigate embryonic lethal mutants of Drosophila melanogaster, identifying 15 loci that significantly alter the segmental pattern of the larva. This comprehensive screening aims to uncover genes involved in segmentation, revealing that the segmentation process encompasses multiple levels of spatial organization: the egg as a developmental unit, a repeat unit spanning two segments, and the individual segment itself. Their findings not only provide insights into the genetic architecture governing body segmentation in Drosophila but also lays a foundation for understanding developmental biology. This work contributes to the broader use of Drosophila as a model organism in genetics, influencing research on gene function and developmental processes across various species.[28]
1981 Danio rerio Streisinger et al. publish a pivotal study in Nature detailing the production of clones of homozygous diploid zebrafish (danio rerio). This research demonstrates that large-scale production of homozygous diploid zebrafish can be achieved through simple physical treatments. By cloning individual homozygotes, the researchers established a reliable method for generating genetically identical fish, which is crucial for conducting genetic analyses in vertebrates. The availability of these cloned homozygous zebrafish not only advances the understanding of genetic inheritance and development in this model organism but also paves the way for further research in genetics, developmental biology, and toxicology, solidifying zebrafish's role as a valuable tool in scientific inquiry.[29][30]
1984 Arabidopsis thaliana Leutwiler et al. utilize reassociation kinetics and quantitative gel blot hybridization to estimate the genome size of Arabidopsis thaliana at approximately 70 megabases (Mb). However, other techniques, including Feulgen photometry and flow cytometry, suggest a range of 0.085–0.215 picograms (pg) for the genome size. The actual genome size of A. thaliana is closer to 135 Mb, consisting of five pairs of chromosomes, making it the smallest genome among flowering plants. The complete genome sequence would be published in 2000, revealing around 25,498 predicted genes. Variations in genome size among organisms can be attributed to differences in the amplification, deletion, and divergence of repetitive sequences, highlighting the complexity of genomic structure and evolution.[31][32][33][34][35]
1986 D. rerio: Important genetics publication.
1996 (April) Saccharomyces cerevisiae Genome sequencing The complete genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) strain S288C is sequenced, making it the first eukaryotic genome to be fully mapped. This significant milestone involves over 600 scientists from North America, Japan, and Europe, who collaboratively sequenced its 12 million base pairs across 16 chromosomes. The S. cerevisiae genome contains about 6,000 genes, with roughly one-third having human counterparts. This achievement underscores S. cerevisiae's role as a model organism in eukaryotic genomics, proving invaluable for studying fundamental processes, such as cell cycle regulation, which is crucial for cancer research. Additionally, this unicellular fungus is widely used in the food and beverage industry.[36][37][38][39][40]
1996 Danio rerio A large-scale screen for developmental mutants in Danio rerio (zebrafish) was led by researchers Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard in Tübingen, Germany, and Wolfgang Driever in Boston, USA. This extensive effort results in thousands of mutant lines exhibiting defects in major organ systems and embryo patterning, with the findings published in a special issue of the journal Development, which would remain its largest issue to date. The success of this screen would inspire many research centers to continue exploring mutant genetics. The zebrafish would emerge as a prominent model organism in vertebrate developmental biology due to its small size, low maintenance cost, and the transparency of its early embryos, which facilitates the screening of morphological defects.[41][42][43][44] Germany, United States
1997 Escherichia coli Genome sequencing The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli is published, providing significant insights into one of the most extensively studied bacteria in molecular biology. E. coli resides in the lower intestinal tract of animals and is typically harmless, making it an ideal model organism for biochemists and geneticists. By this time, researchers had long used E. coli to investigate fundamental biochemical processes and gene regulation. The sequenced genome, comprising approximately 4.6 million base pairs and around 4,000 genes, enables scientists to deepen their understanding of its biology. Moreover, comparing non-pathogenic strains with pathogenic ones can aid in developing treatments and preventive strategies for illnesses such as food poisoning.[45]
1998 Caenorhabditis elegans Genome sequencing The genome of Caenorhabditis elegans, a small soil-dwelling nematode, is fully sequenced and published in Science, making it the first multicellular organism to have its genome completed. This effort, led by the C. elegans Sequencing Consortium—a collaboration between the Genome Sequencing Center in St. Louis and the Sanger Centre in Hinxton—demonstrates the feasibility of high-throughput sequencing techniques, crucial for the Human Genome Project. With an accuracy of one error per 10,000 bases, the C. elegans genome becomes a valuable resource for gene discovery. Its use as a model organism provides insights into genetic function and developmental biology, further influencing biomedical research.[46][47][48]
2000 (December) Arabidopsis thaliana Genome sequencing The genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, a small flowering plant, is fully sequenced, marking a historic milestone as the first complete genome of a flowering plant, and launching the era of plant genomics. This achievement provides an essential genetic reference that would be freely accessible to scientists, revolutionizing plant science by enabling in-depth studies on plant genetics, growth, and development. The global collaboration involves major institutions such as Stanford Genome Technology Center and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. The A. thaliana genome spans around 125 megabases, contains roughly 25,500 genes, and features about 35% unique genes, with evidence of ancient polyploidy in large segmental duplications.[49][50][51]
2000 The genome of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is sequenced in a groundbreaking effort published in the March 24, 2000 issue of Science. This project, a collaboration between Celera Genomics and the Drosophila Genome Projects, marks the first successful application of the whole genome shotgun (WGS) method in a multicellular organism. Researchers sequence approximately 97 to 98 percent of the genome, capturing nearly all of the estimated 13,600 genes. This achievement is significant in genetic research, establishing a precedent for future genome projects. Further improvements and annotations would since be made by the Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project and FlyBase.[52][53][54] United States
2001 Human Genome sequencing The International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium publishes a draft sequence of the human genome in Nature, marking a landmark achievement in genomics. This collaborative project involves 16 genome centers worldwide, which coordinated efforts through regular meetings and phone conferences. Following a policy of rapid data release, the consortium made the assembled genome sequence publicly available within 24 hours. The draft reveals key insights: the human genome spans 2.85 billion bases, with DNA sequences that are 99.9% identical between individuals. It includes approximately 22,300 protein-coding genes, numerous segmental duplications, and over 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The Human Genome Project lays a crucial foundation for biomedical research, enabling advancements in disease research and personalized medicine.[55][56][57]
2002 Genome sequencing The Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium—including the Broad Institute, Washington University, and the Sanger Institute—publish a draft of the mouse genome, using the C57BL/6J strain, the most widely studied inbred strain. This draft revealed around 24,500 protein-coding genes across 19 autosomal pairs, plus X and Y sex chromosomes. The mouse genome, about 14% shorter than the human genome, aligns with large human chromosomal segments, and 75% of mouse genes have direct human counterparts. The similarities between mouse and human genomes make the mouse an essential model for studying human disease, with its short lifecycle and rapid breeding facilitating genetic studies on a large scale.[58][59][60]
2003 Genome sequencing N. crassa: Genome sequenced.

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References

  1. ↑ Rheinberger, H. J. (December 2000). "Mendelian inheritance in Germany between 1900 and 1910. The case of Carl Correns (1864-1933)". Comptes rendus de l'Academie des sciences. Serie III, Sciences de la vie. 323 (12): 1089–1096. ISSN 0764-4469. doi:10.1016/s0764-4469(00)01267-1. 
  2. ↑ Phifer-Rixey, Megan; Nachman, Michael W (15 April 2015). "Insights into mammalian biology from the wild house mouse Mus musculus". eLife. 4. doi:10.7554/eLife.05959. 
  3. ↑ "Chapter 1 - The Laboratory Mouse". www.informatics.jax.org. Retrieved 2 June 2024. 
  4. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2 June 2024. 
  5. ↑ "Google Scholar". scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2 June 2024. 
  6. ↑ Patrice A Salomé; Sabeeha S Merchant (19 June 2019). "A Series of Fortunate Events: Introducing Chlamydomonas as a Reference Organism". Plant Cell. 31 (8): 1682–1707. doi:10.1105/tpc.18.00952. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  7. ↑ "Full Catalog of Titles from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press". cshlpress.com. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  8. ↑ "Elucidation of the life cycle of Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast". winehistory.com.au. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
  10. ↑ Helmut Plattner (2022). "Ciliate research: From myth to trendsetting science". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. Wiley Periodicals LLC. doi:10.1111/jeu.12926. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  11. ↑ Helmut Plattner (2022). "Ciliate research: From myth to trendsetting science". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. doi:10.1111/jeu.12926. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  12. ↑ Marian Dominguez-Mirazo, Jeremy D. Harris, David Demory, Joshua S. Weitz. "Accounting for cellular-level variation in lysis: implications for virus–host dynamics". MBio. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01376-24 Check |doi= value (help). Retrieved 17 October 2024. 
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  16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
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  18. ↑ George Haughn, Ljerka Kunst. "Arabidopsis Thaliana, a Model Organism for Molecular Genetic Studies in Plants: How and Why Was Arabidopsis Chosen Over Other Plants?" (PDF). blogs.ubc.ca. University of British Columbia. Retrieved 17 October 2024. 
  19. ↑ "Genome Research". cshlpress.com. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  20. ↑ "C. elegans II. 2nd edition". ncb.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 17 October 2024. 
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  22. ↑ "Sydney Brenner". Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  23. ↑ Kenneth Kemphues. "Essential genes". NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
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  28. ↑ C Nüsslein-Volhard, E Wieschaus (1980-10-30). "Mutations affecting segment number and polarity in Drosophila". Nature. 287 (5785): 795–801. PMID 6776413. doi:10.1038/287795a0. 
  29. ↑ G Streisinger, C Walker, N Dower, D Knauber, F Singer (February 1981). "Production of clones of homozygous diploid zebra fish (Brachydanio rerio)". Nature. 291: 293. doi:10.1038/291293a0. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  30. ↑ "Zebrafish (Danio rerio)". Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  31. ↑ "Arabidopsis thaliana". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  32. ↑ "Annotation for Arabidopsis thaliana". Ensembl Plants. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  33. ↑ Matthieu Boulesteix, Michèle Weiss, Christian Biémont (January 2006). "Differences in Genome Size Between Closely Related Species: The Drosophila melanogaster Species Subgroup". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 23 (1): 162–167. doi:10.1093/molbev/msj012. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  34. ↑ MICHAEL D BENNETT, ILIA J LEITCH, H JAMES PRICE, J SPENCER JOHNSTON (April 2003). "Comparisons with Caenorhabditis (∼100 Mb) and Drosophila (∼175 Mb) Using Flow Cytometry Show Genome Size in Arabidopsis to be ∼157 Mb and thus ∼25 % Larger than the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative Estimate of ∼125 Mb". Annals of Botany. 91 (5): 547–557. doi:10.1093/aob/mcg057. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  35. ↑ HEIKE SCHMUTHS, ARMIN MEISTER, RALF HORRES, KONRAD BACHMANN (March 2004). "Genome Size Variation among Accessions of Arabidopsis thaliana". Annals of Botany. 93 (3): 317–321. doi:10.1093/aob/mch037. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  36. ↑ "1996 Release: Yeast Genome Sequenced". Genome.gov. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  37. ↑ "Online Education Kit: 1996 Yeast Genome Sequenced". Genome.gov. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  38. ↑ Szymanski, Erika; Vermeulen, Niki; Wong, Mark (2019). "Yeast: one cell, one reference sequence, many genomes?". New Genetics and Society. 38 (4): 430–450. doi:10.1080/14636778.2019.1677150. 
  39. ↑ "Introducing Saccharomyces cerevisiae: The Best Known Yeast in the World". Quadram Institute. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
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  41. ↑ Mary C. Mullins, Matthias Hammerschmidt, Pascal Haffter, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (2000). "Large-scale mutagenesis in the zebrafish: in search of genes controlling development in a vertebrate". Current Biology. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  42. ↑ Judith S Eisen (1996). "Zebrafish Make a Big Splash". Cell. 87 (6): 969–977. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  43. ↑ Matthew B Veldman, Shuo Lin (2008). "Zebrafish as a Developmental Model Organism for Pediatric Research". Pediatric Research. 64: 470–476. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  44. ↑ Jan M Spitsbergen, Michael L Kent (2006). "The State of the Art of the Zebrafish Model for Toxicology and Toxicologic Pathology Research—Advantages and Current Limitations". Environmental Health Perspectives. 114 (4): 545–552. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  45. ↑ "Online Education Kit: 1997 E. coli Genome Sequenced". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  46. ↑ "Arabidopsis Genome Initiative". Nature. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  47. ↑ "The Pilot Project for the Human Genome Project: Sequencing C. elegans". Your Genome. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  48. ↑ "Online Education Kit: 1998 Genome of Roundworm C. elegans Sequenced". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  49. ↑ "Publication of the complete genome sequence: Importance for comparative genomics and pan-genomes". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 2021. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  50. ↑ "The Human Genome: December 2000 Update". National Science Foundation. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  51. ↑ "Twenty Years Ago: The Arabidopsis Genome Sequencing Project". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  52. ↑ "Drosophila Genome Sequenced". DOE Human Genome Project. Retrieved 29 September 2024. 
  53. ↑ Author(s) (2006). "Title of the Article". Journal Name. doi:10.1186/gb-2006-7-1-r10. 
  54. ↑ "Drosophila Genome Sequence Completed". HHMI. 2000. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  55. ↑ International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (2004-10-21). "Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome". Nature. 431 (7011): 931–945. PMID 15496913. doi:10.1038/nature03001. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  56. ↑ International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (2001-02-01). "Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome". Nature. 409: 860–921. Retrieved 2024-10-16. 
  57. ↑ "KEGG Homo sapiens Genome Database". KEGG. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  58. ↑ "UniProt: Homo sapiens (Human) Proteome". UniProt. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  59. ↑ "Mouse Genome Project". Broad Institute. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
  60. ↑ "Online Education Kit: 2002 Mouse Genome Sequenced". Genome.gov. Retrieved 16 October 2024. 
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