Timeline of model organisms

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This is a model organisms, which are non-human species extensively studied in biological research to gain insights into various processes that can be applicable to other organisms, including humans. These organisms are selected for their ease of maintenance, rapid life cycles, and well-characterized genetics. They play a crucial role in fields such as genetics, developmental biology, and neuroscience.

Sample questions

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Big picture

Time period Development summary More details
Ancient Times to Early 19th Century Pre-Modern Era During this period, early naturalists and philosophers such as Aristotle observe animals and plants, focusing primarily on descriptive biology. Humans and domestic animals are studied for agricultural, medical, and practical purposes, with limited experimentation. Comparative anatomy begins to emerge with scientists like Andreas Vesalius, who uses human cadavers and animals for anatomical studies, though the approach is largely observational and lacks the rigor of controlled experiments.[1]
Mid-19th Century to Early 20th Century Early Experimental Biology The mid-19th century marks a turning point with the advent of systematic biological experimentation. Gregor Mendel’s experiments with pea plants in the 1850s uncover the basic laws of inheritance, forming the foundation of genetics. By the early 20th century, Thomas Hunt Morgan’s introduction of Drosophila melanogaster in genetics research help establish the chromosomal theory of inheritance, making the fruit fly a pioneering model organism. This period also sees early embryological studies using frogs and chickens, as researchers begin to explore developmental biology in a more structured way.[2]
Mid-20th Century to Late 20th Century The Rise of Molecular Biology The mid-20th century brings revolutionary advancements in molecular biology, with model organisms playing central roles. Bacteria like Escherichia coli becomes vital for studying DNA replication, gene expression, and molecular genetics, while Caenorhabditis elegans provides insights into developmental biology and programmed cell death. Mice emerged as key models for human disease research, especially in cancer, immunology, and developmental studies. This era is characterized by the discovery of the DNA double helix, the rise of recombinant DNA technology in the 1970s, and the first successful gene cloning experiments, all of which rely on these model organisms.
Late 20th Century to Present Genomics and Systems Biology Era With the late 20th century comes the sequencing of genomes, including those of model organisms like Drosophila, C. elegans, and mice, ushering in the genomics era. New technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 revolutionize gene editing, allowing scientists to modify genes with precision in organisms like zebrafish and mice. This period sees the rise of systems biology, integrating data from various biological scales to understand complex processes such as disease mechanisms, development, and aging. Model organisms remain indispensable in fields like synthetic biology, drug discovery, and personalized medicine, as researchers now leverage the power of genomics to tackle complex biological questions on a large scale.

Full timeline

Year Species Event type Details Location/researcher affiliation
1822 Danio rerio Discovery Danio rerio, initially designated as Brachydanio rerio, is first described by English physician Sir Francis Hamilton in his book on the fishes of the Ganges River. Hamilton identifies ten species at that time, (the Danio genus now comprises 45 known species). D. rerio is a monophyletic species within the Cyprinidae family, characterized by a bilobate caudal fin.[3] United Kingdom
1833 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Discovery German scientist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg describes the genus Chlamydomonas, which includes the species Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a single-celled green alga found in temperate soil habitats. By the mid-20th century, C. reinhardtii would become a vital model organism for investigating fundamental cellular processes, such as photosynthesis, light perception, and the structure, function, and biogenesis of cilia. Research on this alga would notably advance plant and cell biology, contributing to algal biotechnology, and enhancing our understanding of human diseases.[4] Germany
1853 Pisum sativum Experiment Gregor Mendel begins his groundbreaking experiments with pea plants, which lays the foundation for classical genetics. He focuses on easily observable traits like plant height, seed color, and flower color. Mendel employs controlled breeding, cross-pollinating plants with distinct traits to study inheritance patterns. Unlike earlier researchers, he meticulously counted and analyzed his results, identifying consistent patterns of trait transmission. His findings led to the formulation of key genetic principles, the "Law of Segregation" and the "Law of Independent Assortment," which explain how traits are passed from parents to offspring.[5][6][7][8] Czech Republic (Austrian Empire)
1857 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Discovery Louis Pasteur discovers Saccharomyces cerevisiae, identifying it as the key microbe in winemaking and bread baking. He classifies this yeast as a facultative anaerobe, meaning it can switch to fermentation in the absence of oxygen. This discovery would not only revolutionize food and beverage production but also establishes S. cerevisiae as a model organism in scientific research. Its simple eukaryotic structure and genetic tractability would make it a powerful tool for studying fundamental biological processes, including genetics, cell biology, and biochemistry, further enhancing our understanding of more complex organisms.[9][10] France
1900 Zea mays Genetic validation German botanist Carl Correns conducts experiments on Zea mays, commonly known as corn or maize. Correns confirms the findings of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, regarding the principles of inheritance and genetic traits. Mendel's work, initially published in 1866, outlines the laws of inheritance based on his experiments with pea plants. Correns' validation of Mendel's findings with Zea mays provides further evidence for the existence of discrete units of inheritance, which would be later known as genes. This confirmation plays a crucial role in the establishment of modern genetics and lays the foundation for understanding heredity in plants and animals.[11] Germany
1902 Mus musculus Genetic research American biologist William Ernest Castle begins genetic studies on Mus musculus, commonly known as the house mouse. This marks the initiation of systematic genetic research on this species. Castle's work contributes to the understanding of inheritance patterns and genetic variation in mice, laying the groundwork for further investigations into the genetic basis of traits and the mechanisms of heredity. His studies on Mus musculus were instrumental in the development of mouse models for genetic research, which continue to be crucial in biomedical research and the study of human genetics.[12][13] United States
1909 Drosophila melanogaster Gene mapping American scientist Thomas Hunt Morgan begins his groundbreaking work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which would become synonymous with his name. Prior to this, C. W. Woodworth and W. E. Castle had shown interest in Drosophila for genetic studies. Morgan's research with Drosophila would lead to the discovery of sex linkage of the gene for white eyes, demonstrating the phenomenon of linkage. He bred Drosophila in large quantities, facilitating the analysis of spontaneous mutations and the localization of genes. Morgan's work laid the foundation for understanding the linear arrangement of genes in chromosomes and significantly advanced the field of genetics.[14] United States (Columbia University)
1913 Zea mays Research Edgar Nelson Emerson and Roland McMillan East publish a significant paper on quantitative genetics in Zea mays. This paper marks an important milestone in the understanding of genetic principles governing quantitative traits, which are traits controlled by multiple genes and influenced by environmental factors. Emerson and East's work would contribute to the development of quantitative genetics as a field by elucidating the complex inheritance patterns of traits such as height, yield, and other quantitative characteristics in maize. Their research lays the foundation for further studies in the genetics of complex traits in various organisms.[15] United States
1915 Drosophila melanogaster Publication The Morgan Group, led by Thomas Hunt Morgan, publishes the first book on Mendelian genetics focusing on Drosophila melanogaster, commonly known as the fruit fly. This publication represents a significant milestone in the field of genetics, as it provides a comprehensive overview of the principles of Mendelian inheritance as observed in Drosophila. The book likely covers topics such as the inheritance of traits, the mapping of genes, and the understanding of genetic linkage. This work serves as a foundational resource for researchers studying genetics and paves the way for further investigations into the mechanisms of inheritance in various organisms.[16] United States
1927 Neurospora crassa Discovery Researchers Shear and Dodge make a notable discovery regarding Neurospora crassa, a type of bread mold. They identify and describe the sexual cycle of Neurospora crassa, shedding light on its reproductive mechanisms. Additionally, they characterize different mating types within the species, which are essential for sexual reproduction. This finding is significant in advancing the understanding of fungal genetics and reproductive biology. It lays the groundwork for further studies on the genetics and life cycle of Neurospora crassa, making it an essential model organism in genetic research.[17][18][19] United States
1930 Chlamydomonas Genetics research German biologist Franz Moewus pioneer biochemical genetics research on Chlamydomonas, focusing on Chlamydomonas eugametos. He claims to have identified carotenoid-related hormones that selectively activate male or female gametes and reports isolating and genetically mapping mutants along their biosynthetic pathways. Over a decade, he would analyze 200,000 zygotes for ten phenotypes, though many of his findings would be later deemed irreproducible, raising doubts about his conclusions. Despite these issues, Moewus significantly influences Chlamydomonas research, inspiring further studies and reinforcing concepts like gene-chromosome localization and the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, which later led to the use of *C. reinhardtii* as a model organism.[20] Germany
1935 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Foundational research Danish biologist Øjvind Winge, later regarded as the "Father of Yeast Genetics," elucidates the life cycle of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, marking the beginning of yeast genetics research. Winge’s work in Denmark laid the foundation for subsequent studies in yeast genetics, which were later pursued by researchers such as Lindegren in the U.S. and Ephrussi in France. Meanwhile, Leupold pioneered genetic studies on *Schizosaccharomyces pombe* in Switzerland during the 1940s. Over the next four decades, yeast became an essential model organism in eukaryotic molecular biology, with early researchers contributing significantly to the field's growth and recognition.[21][22]
1935 Genetic research When Emil Winge begins conducting genetic research with yeast, advancements in genetics using other model organisms pave the way for his experiments. Key developments include the understanding of four-strand crossing over, which improves insights into genetic recombination; chromosome mapping, which facilitates the identification of gene locations; the discovery of lethal genes, which helps researchers understand gene functions and interactions; and the transformation of Pneumococcus, which demonstrates the principles of genetic transfer and transformation. These foundational discoveries provide a practical framework for genetic studies in yeast, ultimately contributing to the field of genetics.[2]
1937 Paramecium Reproduction American biologist Tracy Sonneborn and H.S. Jennings make a significant breakthrough in Paramecium genetics by successfully establishing the conditions necessary for mating. They also define a system of mating types, with most Paramecium species exhibiting two distinct mating types. This discovery marks a key advancement in the understanding of reproduction and genetics in Paramecium species, contributing to its establishment as a model organism in cellular and genetic research. Their work lay the groundwork for future studies on sexual reproduction and genetic exchange in single-celled organisms.[23][24][25] United States
1939 T2 bacteriophage One-step growth experiment American biochemist Emory Ellis and German–American biophysicist Max Delbrück conduct a pivotal one-step growth experiment using T2 bacteriophages to investigate viral replication. They mix bacteria with sufficient viruses to ensure each host cell had a virus attached, then remove the free viruses and sample at regular intervals for a plaque assay. Initially, the number of plaques remain constant during the latent period, followed by a progressive increase, indicating that infected cells were lysing and releasing phages. This experiment illustrates the three main phases of virus replication: initiation of infection, genome replication and expression, and release of mature virions. The method would be also used to estimate burst size, although it may not account for variations in lysis timing, potentially biasing viral trait estimates.[26][27][28] United States
1941 Neurospora crassa Genetics American geneticists George Beadle and Edward Tatum's experiments with Neurospora crassa lead to the isolation of the first biochemical mutants, providing key insights into gene function. By exposing the fungus to X-rays, they induce mutations and identified strains requiring specific nutrients for growth. This indicates defects in certain metabolic pathways, and their work formulate the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis, which proposes that each gene is responsible for producing a single enzyme. This groundbreaking research marks a pivotal step in understanding gene roles in metabolism and would earn them the Nobel Prize in 1958.[29][30][31] United States
1943 Arabidopsis thaliana Model introduction German botanist Friedrich Laibach first promotes Arabidopsis thaliana as a model organism for genetic studies. Despite possessing ideal traits for genetic analysis, such as its small size, short generation time, and simple genome, Arabidopsis does not gain widespread popularity immediately. Laibach's pioneering efforts to use Arabidopsis for understanding genetics and development lays the groundwork for its eventual adoption as a model organism, which would later become central to plant molecular biology research.[32] Germany
1943 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Genetic mapping In St. Louis, Missouri, Carl and Gertrude Lindegren become the first to report the existence of two opposite mating types in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a and α. Their work with heterothallic strains lays the groundwork for understanding the genetic basis of mating in yeast. Subsequently, they publish the first genetic maps of S. cerevisiae in 1949 and 1951, significantly advancing the field of yeast genetics and establishing S. cerevisiae as a key model organism for studying eukaryotic genetics and cellular processes.[33][34][35] United States
1944 Bacteriophage Phage Group and Phage Treaty German–American biophysicist Max Delbrück initiates the Phage Group, advocating for the "Phage Treaty," which encourages phage researchers to concentrate on a limited number of phage and bacterial strains under standardized experimental conditions. This initiative aims to enhance the comparability and replicability of research across different laboratories, thereby unifying the field of bacterial genetics. Delbrück's efforts would significantly advance the study of bacteriophages and lay a foundation for future research in molecular biology and genetics.[36] United States
1946 Escherichia coli Genetic exchange Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum discover bacterial conjugation through experiments with Escherichia coli (E. coli). They find that bacteria can exchange genetic information via a process called conjugation, which involves a bridge-like connection between two cells that facilitates the transfer of DNA from the donor to the recipient. The agent responsible for this transfer is the F ("fertility") factor, an extra-chromosomal genetic element that can replicate and move across cell membranes. For their pioneering work on bacterial genetics, Lederberg, Tatum, and George Beadle would be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958. This discovery highlights that bacteria can change their genetic makeup in a manner analogous to sexual reproduction in more complex organisms, revealing conserved processes across different life forms.[37][38][39][40][41] United States
1949 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model introduction Jean Ephrussi and colleagues discover petite mutants in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast). These mutants have smaller colonies compared to normal strains and arise either spontaneously or after acriflavine treatment. They lack functional mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), resulting in impaired mitochondrial function, respiratory deficiency, and altered metabolism. The discovery is significant for mitochondrial genetics, as S. cerevisiae would become a model organism for studying the relationship between mitochondrial DNA and cellular processes, providing insights into genetic inheritance and cellular respiration in eukaryotic organisms.[42] France
1950 Zea mays Publication American scientist Barbara McClintock publishes her seminal paper titled The Origin and Behavior of Mutable Loci in Maize in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. In this work, she describes the discovery of transposable elements, or "jumping genes," which can move along chromosomes and influence genetic inheritance. McClintock's research demonstrates that genomic replication does not always follow a predictable pattern, revolutionizing the understanding of genetic inheritance. Her findings on the Suppressor-Mutator (Spm) element, which can toggle between active and inactive forms due to methylation, further highlights the complexity of gene regulation. Her groundbreaking contributions would ultimately earn her a Nobel Prize.[43][44][45][46] United States
1951 Escherichia virus Lambda Discovery American microbiologist Esther Lederberg, while a Ph.D. student at the University of Wisconsin, isolates bacteriophage lambda (λ), marking a significant discovery in microbial genetics. The details of this isolation and its implications for specialized transduction would be later elaborated upon in a 1953 paper co-authored with Joshua Lederberg. The discovery of λ facilitates a deeper understanding of genetic exchange mechanisms in bacteria, specifically through specialized transduction, where a bacteriophage transfers specific bacterial genes from one host to another, enhancing insights into gene mapping and bacterial genetics. This work establishes λ as a crucial model organism in genetic research.[47] United States
1952 Salmonella typhimurium Discovery Norton Zinder and Joshua Lederberg discover transduction, a process in which a virus (bacteriophage) transfers genetic material from a donor to a recipient bacterium. This breakthrough occurs at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where they identify generalized transduction using the bacteriophage P22, which infects Salmonella typhimurium. P22's unique DNA packaging allows some virions to carry fragments of the host's DNA, which can then be transferred to another bacterial cell. This discovery is the first identification of phage-mediated gene transfer, significantly advancing microbial genetics and providing a valuable tool for studying bacterial gene exchange.[48][49][50][51][52] United States
1953 Tetrahymena thermophila Model introduction David L. Nanney first describes the MAT locus in Tetrahymena thermophila. This discovery is instrumental in understanding the organism's mating types and genetic mechanisms, further establishing Tetrahymena as a model organism for studying cellular biology and genetics.[53] United States
1953 Aspergillus nidulans Model introduction Italian-born Scottish geneticist Guido Pontecorvo and his team publish a key study in Advances in Genetics, describing both the genetic and parasexual systems of Aspergillus nidulans. This work is pivotal in establishing A. nidulans as a genetically tractable model organism for studying fungal genetics. Pontecorvo's discovery of the parasexual cycle, an alternative to sexual reproduction, allows for genetic analysis in organisms lacking a traditional sexual cycle. This groundbreaking research opens doors for genetic mapping in fungi and even has implications for studying genetic recombination in human somatic cells, shaping the future of microbial genetics and genetic analysis techniques.[54] United Kingdom
1954 Neurospora crassa Genetic mapping Barratt and colleagues publish the first major article on map construction in Neurospora crassa titled Map construction in Neurospora crassa, marking a key moment in fungal genetics. This work, which would become a foundational resource in the field, combines theoretical insights with experimental findings and provides a comprehensive compendium of N. crassa mutants. The study contributes significantly to the standardization of genetic methods, strains, and nomenclature. It also advances the understanding of meiotic phenomena like segregation and intrachromosomal recombination, paving the way for deeper insights into gene conversion and molecular recombination.[55] United States
1965 Arabidopsis thaliana Model introduction Gerhard Röbbelen organizes the first International Arabidopsis Symposium. This event marks a significant step in the recognition and promotion of Arabidopsis thaliana as a model organism in plant genetics and developmental biology. The symposium brings together researchers interested in using Arabidopsis for genetic studies, helping to solidify its status as a key model organism due to its small genome, short generation time, and ease of genetic manipulation. This symposium plays a crucial role in fostering a community of scientists focused on Arabidopsis, which would later become one of the most widely studied organisms in plant biology.[56] Germany
1965 Caenorhabditis elegans Model introduction South African biologist Sydney Brenner selects Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism to study genetics, development, and neural function. Over the years, this nematode would become one of the most comprehensively understood metazoans, particularly in terms of anatomy, genetics, and behavior. Two major accomplishments in C. elegans research include the mapping of its complete cell lineage and the creation of a "wiring diagram" of its cell contacts through electron microscopy. Advances also include molecular cloning of developmental genes using transposon tagging and the development of a physical genome map. This knowledge serves as a foundation for future research in biology.[57][58] United Kingdom
1966 Literature American internist and medical geneticist Victor A. McKusick publishes the first edition of Mendelian Inheritance in Man (MIM), a comprehensive knowledge base of human genes and genetic disorders. Initially developed in the early 1960s, MIM categorizes autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked phenotypes. The first print edition launched in 1966, with 12 editions published by 1998. In 1987, MIM would transition online as OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) at Johns Hopkins University, later moving to the National Center for Biotechnology Information in 1995. Today, OMIM is updated daily and serves as a crucial resource for students, researchers, and clinicians in genetics and genomics.[59] United States
1974 Caenorhabditis elegans Genetic screening Sydney Brenner conducts a groundbreaking genetic screen and creates the first genetic map for Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), isolating notable mutants such as Dumpy, Squat, Long, Blistered, and Roller. His genetic map identifies over 100 loci, and he estimates the genome to contain about 2,000 essential genes. As a nematode, C. elegans serves as a vital model organism in genetics due to its short lifespan, rapid generation time, and hermaphroditic nature, allowing for efficient isolation and characterization of mutants. Brenner's research also reveals the significance of a "nonsense" codon in mRNA, crucial for protein synthesis.[60][61][62][63][64][65] United Kingdom
1980 Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic mutagenesis In their study published in Nature, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus investigate embryonic lethal mutants of Drosophila melanogaster, identifying 15 loci that significantly alter the segmental pattern of the larva. This comprehensive screening aims to uncover genes involved in segmentation, revealing that the segmentation process encompasses multiple levels of spatial organization: the egg as a developmental unit, a repeat unit spanning two segments, and the individual segment itself. Their findings not only provide insights into the genetic architecture governing body segmentation in Drosophila but also lays a foundation for understanding developmental biology. This work contributes to the broader use of Drosophila as a model organism in genetics, influencing research on gene function and developmental processes across various species.[66] Germany
1981 Danio rerio Clonal production American molecular biologist George Streisinger et al. publish a pivotal study in Nature detailing the production of clones of homozygous diploid zebrafish (danio rerio). This research demonstrates that large-scale production of homozygous diploid zebrafish can be achieved through simple physical treatments. By cloning individual homozygotes, the researchers established a reliable method for generating genetically identical fish, which is crucial for conducting genetic analyses in vertebrates. The availability of these cloned homozygous zebrafish not only advances the understanding of genetic inheritance and development in this model organism but also paves the way for further research in genetics, developmental biology, and toxicology, solidifying zebrafish's role as a valuable tool in scientific inquiry.[67][68] United States
1984 Arabidopsis thaliana Genome estimation Leutwiler et al. utilize reassociation kinetics and quantitative gel blot hybridization to estimate the genome size of Arabidopsis thaliana at approximately 70 megabases (Mb). However, other techniques, including Feulgen photometry and flow cytometry, suggest a range of 0.085–0.215 picograms (pg) for the genome size. The actual genome size of A. thaliana is closer to 135 Mb, consisting of five pairs of chromosomes, making it the smallest genome among flowering plants. The complete genome sequence would be published in 2000, revealing around 25,498 predicted genes. Variations in genome size among organisms can be attributed to differences in the amplification, deletion, and divergence of repetitive sequences, highlighting the complexity of genomic structure and evolution.[69][70][71][72][73] United States
1996 (April) Saccharomyces cerevisiae Genome sequencing The complete genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) strain S288C is sequenced, making it the first eukaryotic genome to be fully mapped. This significant milestone involves over 600 scientists from North America, Japan, and Europe, who collaboratively sequenced its 12 million base pairs across 16 chromosomes. The S. cerevisiae genome contains about 6,000 genes, with roughly one-third having human counterparts. This achievement underscores S. cerevisiae's role as a model organism in eukaryotic genomics, proving invaluable for studying fundamental processes, such as cell cycle regulation, which is crucial for cancer research. Additionally, this unicellular fungus is widely used in the food and beverage industry.[74][75][76][77][78] North America, Japan, Europe
1996 Danio rerio Mutant screening A large-scale screen for developmental mutants in Danio rerio (zebrafish) is led by researchers Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard in Tübingen, Germany, and Wolfgang Driever in Boston, USA. This extensive effort results in thousands of mutant lines exhibiting defects in major organ systems and embryo patterning, with the findings published in a special issue of the journal Development, which would remain its largest issue to date. The success of this screen would inspire many research centers to continue exploring mutant genetics. The zebrafish would emerge as a prominent model organism in vertebrate developmental biology due to its small size, low maintenance cost, and the transparency of its early embryos, which facilitates the screening of morphological defects.[79][80][81][82] Germany, United States
1997 Escherichia coli Genome sequencing The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli is published, providing significant insights into one of the most extensively studied bacteria in molecular biology. E. coli resides in the lower intestinal tract of animals and is typically harmless, making it an ideal model organism for biochemists and geneticists. By this time, researchers had long used E. coli to investigate fundamental biochemical processes and gene regulation. The sequenced genome, comprising approximately 4.6 million base pairs and around 4,000 genes, enables scientists to deepen their understanding of its biology. Moreover, comparing non-pathogenic strains with pathogenic ones can aid in developing treatments and preventive strategies for illnesses such as food poisoning.[83] United States
1998 Caenorhabditis elegans Genome sequencing The genome of Caenorhabditis elegans, a small soil-dwelling nematode, is fully sequenced and published in Science, making it the first multicellular organism to have its genome completed. This effort, led by the C. elegans Sequencing Consortium—a collaboration between the Genome Sequencing Center in St. Louis and the Sanger Centre in Hinxton—demonstrates the feasibility of high-throughput sequencing techniques, crucial for the Human Genome Project. With an accuracy of one error per 10,000 bases, the C. elegans genome becomes a valuable resource for gene discovery. Its use as a model organism provides insights into genetic function and developmental biology, further influencing biomedical research.[84][85][86] United States, United Kingdom
2000 (December) Arabidopsis thaliana Genome sequencing The genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, a small flowering plant, is fully sequenced, marking a historic milestone as the first complete genome of a flowering plant, and launching the era of plant genomics. This achievement provides an essential genetic reference that would be freely accessible to scientists, revolutionizing plant science by enabling in-depth studies on plant genetics, growth, and development. The global collaboration involves major institutions such as Stanford Genome Technology Center and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. The A. thaliana genome spans around 125 megabases, contains roughly 25,500 genes, and features about 35% unique genes, with evidence of ancient polyploidy in large segmental duplications.[87][88][89] United States
2000 Drosophila melanogaster Genome sequencing The genome of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is sequenced in a groundbreaking effort published in the March 24, 2000 issue of Science. This project, a collaboration between Celera Genomics and the Drosophila Genome Projects, marks the first successful application of the whole genome shotgun (WGS) method in a multicellular organism. Researchers sequence approximately 97 to 98 percent of the genome, capturing nearly all of the estimated 13,600 genes. This achievement is significant in genetic research, establishing a precedent for future genome projects. Further improvements and annotations would since be made by the Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project and FlyBase.[90][91][92] United States
2001 Human Genome sequencing The International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium publishes a draft sequence of the human genome in Nature, marking a landmark achievement in genomics. This collaborative project involves 16 genome centers worldwide, which coordinated efforts through regular meetings and phone conferences. Following a policy of rapid data release, the consortium made the assembled genome sequence publicly available within 24 hours. The draft reveals key insights: the human genome spans 2.85 billion bases, with DNA sequences that are 99.9% identical between individuals. It includes approximately 22,300 protein-coding genes, numerous segmental duplications, and over 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The Human Genome Project lays a crucial foundation for biomedical research, enabling advancements in disease research and personalized medicine.[93][94][95] United States
2002 Genome sequencing The Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium—including the Broad Institute, Washington University, and the Sanger Institute—publish a draft of the mouse genome, using the C57BL/6J strain, the most widely studied inbred strain. This draft revealed around 24,500 protein-coding genes across 19 autosomal pairs, plus X and Y sex chromosomes. The mouse genome, about 14% shorter than the human genome, aligns with large human chromosomal segments, and 75% of mouse genes have direct human counterparts. The similarities between mouse and human genomes make the mouse an essential model for studying human disease, with its short lifecycle and rapid breeding facilitating genetic studies on a large scale.[96][97][98] United States
2003 Neurospora crassa Genome sequencing The complete genome sequence of Neurospora crassa is reported, revealing a genome size of 43 million base pairs that encodes approximately 10,000 genes organized into seven linkage groups. The sequencing is conducted using whole genome shotgun sequencing and paired-end sequencing methods. Notably, N. crassa features a G + C content of about 50% and exhibits minimal repetitive DNA, making it a valuable model organism for studying genetics, gene regulation, and metabolic processes. This comprehensive genomic information enhances the understanding of fungal biology and facilitates comparative studies across various organisms.[99] United States
2003 Nothobranchius furzeri Model introduction Nothobranchius furzeri (Turquoise killifish) is introduced as model organism for aging and longevity research due to its short lifespan and vulnerability to age-related diseases. With a maximum survival time of under 12 weeks in laboratory conditions, N. furzeri exhibits a typical age-dependent increase in mortality. This species' short lifespan, small size, and ability to be propagated in captivity make it ideal for studying the biology of aging. Researchers, including Stefano Valdesalici and Alessandro Cellerino, highlighted its potential in evolutionary studies related to senescence and the effects of natural selection on lifespan.[100]
2004 Literature Pamela M. Carroll and Kevin Fitzgerald publish Model Organisms in Drug Discovery, which explores the use of model organisms like Drosophila (fruit flies), C. elegans worms, yeast, mice, and zebrafish in drug discovery and biomedical research. These organisms share many biological pathways with humans, making them invaluable for studying diseases and testing therapeutic compounds. The book highlights how advances in bioinformatics, proteomics, and automation technologies have enhanced the use of these models on an industrial scale. Leading experts discuss real-life applications of model organisms in therapeutic areas, their role in drug discovery, and their potential future impact.[101] United States
2007 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Genome sequencing The complete nuclear genome sequence of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is published. This organism diverged from land plants over 1 billion years ago and serves as a model for studying chloroplast-based photosynthesis and the structure and function of eukaryotic flagella, which are absent in land plants. The ∼120-megabase genome is sequenced, and comparative phylogenomic analyses identify genes encoding uncharacterized proteins likely related to chloroplast and flagellar function. This research enhances our understanding of the ancestral eukaryotic cell, uncovers novel genes associated with photosynthesis and flagellar functions, and links ciliopathy with flagellar composition and function.[102]
2009 Literature David A. Crotty and Alexander Gann publish Emerging Model Organisms: A Laboratory Manual, which explores the growing diversity of model organisms used in molecular, cellular, and developmental biology. With advances in gene expression technology, lower genome sequencing costs, and a rising interest in evolutionary biology, by this time researchers expand beyond traditional models. The book introduces 23 emerging model organisms, such as bats, butterflies, snails, and tomatoes, each offering unique research opportunities.[103]
2019 Literature Daiana S. Avila publishes Caenorhabditis Elegans: An Overview and Emerging Roles in Studying Disease, which examines the use of the nematode C. elegans as a model organism for studying various diseases. By this time, this nonpathogenic organism had been instrumental in uncovering genetic mechanisms linked to cancer, aging, and nervous system development. The book covers disease models in C. elegans for aging, metabolic syndrome, neurodegenerative diseases, and chemically induced neurodegeneration. It reviews the creation of transgenic animals mimicking human diseases, advances in molecular understanding, and potential treatments, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of these models.[104]

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References

  1. ↑ "Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)". The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Arizona State University. Retrieved 19 October 2024. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Bruno Müller, Ueli Grossniklaus (2010). "Model organisms--A historical perspective". Journal of Proteomics. 73 (12): 2182–2183. PMID 20727995. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2010.08.002. 
  3. ↑ Laura D. Mackey, D. Allan Smith, Richard D. Wood. "Probing the Mechanism of Nucleotide Excision Repair with Xenopus Egg Extracts". Nature Protocols. pp. 846–854. doi:10.1038/nprot.2016.049. Retrieved 20 October 2024. 
  4. ↑ Severin Sasso, Herwig Stibor, Maria Mittag, Arthur R Grossman (2018). "From molecular manipulation of domesticated Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to survival in nature". eLife. 7: e39233. doi:10.7554/eLife.39233. 
  5. ↑ "Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics who opened a biological world full of wonders" (PDF). Cell.com. Retrieved 24 October 2024. 
  6. ↑ "Gregor Mendel's Pea Plant Experiment" (PDF). Michigan.gov. Retrieved 24 October 2024. 
  7. ↑ "Mendel and his peas". LibreTexts. Retrieved 24 October 2024. 
  8. ↑ "Gregor Mendel: Genetics & Experiments". Study.com. Retrieved 24 October 2024. 
  9. ↑ "An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae". JoVE. Retrieved 20 October 2024. 
  10. ↑ "Compensatory evolution reveals ecological constraints on morphological evolution". eLife. doi:10.7554/eLife.05835. Retrieved 20 October 2024. 
  11. ↑ Rheinberger, H. J. (December 2000). "Mendelian inheritance in Germany between 1900 and 1910. The case of Carl Correns (1864-1933)". Comptes rendus de l'Academie des sciences. Serie III, Sciences de la vie. 323 (12): 1089–1096. ISSN 0764-4469. doi:10.1016/s0764-4469(00)01267-1. 
  12. ↑ Phifer-Rixey, Megan; Nachman, Michael W (15 April 2015). "Insights into mammalian biology from the wild house mouse Mus musculus". eLife. 4. doi:10.7554/eLife.05959. 
  13. ↑ "Chapter 1 - The Laboratory Mouse". www.informatics.jax.org. Retrieved 2 June 2024. 
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