Difference between revisions of "Timeline of artificial intelligence"

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| 1978 || || ". In 1978 Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold
 
| 1978 || || ". In 1978 Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold
 
for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."<ref name="washington.edu"/> ||
 
for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."<ref name="washington.edu"/> ||
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| 1978 || || " Herbert  Simon  earned  a  Nobel  Prize  for  his limited Rationality Theory, which is an  important work on Artificial Intelligence."<ref name="Mijwil"/> ||
 
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| 1979 || || "The Stanford Cart successfully crosses a chair-filled room without human intervention in about five hours, becoming one of the earliest examples of an autonomous vehicle."<ref name="forbes.coms"/> ||
 
| 1979 || || "The Stanford Cart successfully crosses a chair-filled room without human intervention in about five hours, becoming one of the earliest examples of an autonomous vehicle."<ref name="forbes.coms"/> ||

Revision as of 09:43, 9 March 2020

This is a timeline of FIXME.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

Big picture

Time period Development summary More details
1940s Maturation of artificial intelligence "Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons." "Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning."[1] "More recently, in the 1940s, a school of thought called “Connectionism” was developed to study the process of thinking"[2]
1952–1956 "The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)" "Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems." "Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field."[1]
1950s "At the beginning of 1950, John Von Neumann and Alan Turing did not create the term AI but were the founding fathers of the technology behind it: they made the transition from computers to 19th century decimal logic (which thus dealt with values from 0 to 9) and machines to binary logic (which rely on Boolean algebra, dealing with more or less important chains of 0 or 1). The two researchers thus formalized the architecture of our contemporary computers and demonstrated that it was a universal machine, capable of executing what is programmed."[3] " By the 1950s, we had a generation of scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers with the concept of artificial intelligence (or AI) culturally assimilated in their minds. One such person was Alan Turing, a young British polymath who explored the mathematical possibility of artificial intelligence. "[4] "Expert systems, as a subset of AI, first emerged in the early 1950s when the Rand-Carnegie team developed the

general problem solver to deal with theorems proof, geometric problems and chess playing"[5]

1957–1974 "From 1957 to 1974, AI flourished. Computers could store more information and became faster, cheaper, and more accessible. Machine learning algorithms also improved and people got better at knowing which algorithm to apply to their problem."[4]
1974–1980 AI winter " After several reports criticizing progress in AI, government funding and interest in the field dropped off – a period from 1974–80 that became known as the "AI winter.""[6] "Artificial Intelligence research funding was cut in the 1970s, after several reports criticized a lack of progress. Efforts to imitate the human brain, called “neural networks,” were experimented with, and dropped. The most impressive, functional programs were only able to handle simplistic problems, and were described as toys by the unimpressed. AI researchers had been overly optimistic in establishing their goals, and had made naive assumptions about the problems they would encounter. When the results they promised never materialized, it should come as no surprise their funding was cut."[2]
1980–1987 "A boom of AI" " After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert."[1] "In the 1980’s, AI was reignited by two sources: an expansion of the algorithmic toolkit, and a boost of funds. John Hopfield and David Rumelhart popularized “deep learning” techniques which allowed computers to learn using experience. On the other hand Edward Feigenbaum introduced expert systems which mimicked the decision making process of a human expert. The program would ask an expert in a field how to respond in a given situation, and once this was learned for virtually every situation, non-experts could receive advice from that program. Expert systems were widely used in industries. The Japanese government heavily funded expert systems and other AI related endeavors as part of their Fifth Generation Computer Project (FGCP). From 1982-1990, they invested $400 million dollars with the goals of revolutionizing computer processing, implementing logic programming, and improving artificial intelligence. "[4] " The field later revived in the 1980s when the British government started funding it again in part to compete with efforts by the Japanese."[6] " AI research resumed in the 1980s, with the U.S. and Britain providing funding to compete with Japan’s new “fifth generation” computer project, and their goal of becoming the world leader in computer technology."[2] "Amid the AI Winter in the United States an epic attempt to realize the ‘AI dream’ was underway in Japan in the

form of the Fifth Generation Computer System (FGCS) project during the 1980s."[5]

1987–1993 Second AI winter "Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective."[1] "The field experienced another major winter from 1987 to 1993, coinciding with the collapse of the market for some of the early general-purpose computers, and reduced government funding."[6] "The AI field experienced another major winter from 1987 to 1993. This second slowdown in AI research coincided with XCON, and other early Expert System computers, being seen as slow and clumsy. Desktop computers were becoming very popular and displacing the older, bulkier, much less user-friendly computer banks. Eventually, Expert Systems simply became too expensive to maintain, when compared to desktops. They were difficult to update, and could not “learn.” These were problems desktop computers did not have. At about the same time, DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) concluded AI would not be “the next wave” and redirected its funds to projects deemed more likely to provide quick results. As a consequence, in the late 1980s, funding for AI research was cut deeply, creating the Second AI Winter."[2] However, " By the end of 1980s, over half of the Fortune 500 companies were involved in either developing or maintaining of expert systems"[5]
1993–2011 "The emergence of intelligent agents" "In the early 1990s, Artificial Intelligence research shifted its focus to something called an intelligent agent. These intelligent agents can be used for news retrieval services, online shopping, and browsing the web. Intelligent agents are also sometimes called agents or bots."[2] "Ironically, in the absence of government funding and public hype, AI thrived. During the 1990s and 2000s, many of the landmark goals of artificial intelligence had been achieved."[4] "However, neural networks would not become financially successful until the 1990s, when they started being used to operate optical character recognition programs and speech pattern recognition programs."[2]
2011-onward Massive data and new computing power. "Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence" "In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly."[1] "Two factors explain the new boom in the discipline around 2010. 1) First of all, access to massive volumes of data. To be able to use algorithms for image classification and cat recognition, for example, it was previously necessary to carry out sampling yourself. Today, a simple search on Google can find millions. 2) Then the discovery of the very high efficiency of computer graphics card processors to accelerate the calculation of learning algorithms. The process being very iterative, it could take weeks before 2010 to process the entire sample. The computing power of these cards (capable of more than a thousand billion transactions per second) has enabled considerable progress at a limited financial cost (less than 1000 euros per card)."[3]

Full timeline

Year Event type Details Country/location
1 AC "May 1. year: Alexander Heron in antiquity made automatons with mechanical mechanisms working with water and steam power."[7]
1206 "1206: Ebru İz Bin Rezzaz Al Jezeri, one of the pioneers of cybernetic science, has made water-operated automatic controlled machines."[7]
1308 " Catalan poet and theologian Ramon Llull publishes Ars generalis ultima (The Ultimate General Art), further perfecting his method of using paper-based mechanical means to create new knowledge from combinations of concepts."[8]
1623 "1623: Wilhelm Schickard invented a mechanic and a calculator capable of four operations."[7]
1666 "Mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz publishes Dissertatio de arte combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art), following Ramon Llull in proposing an alphabet of human thought and arguing that all ideas are nothing but combinations of a relatively small number of simple concepts."[8]
1672 "1672: Gottfried Leibniz has developed a binary counting system that forms the abstract basis of today's computers."[7]
1726 "onathan Swift publishes Gulliver's Travels, which includes a description of the Engine, a machine on the island of Laputa (and a parody of Llull's ideas): "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations." By using this "Contrivance," "the most ignorant Person at a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with the least Assistance from Genius or study.""[8]
1763 "Thomas Bayes develops a framework for reasoning about the probability of events. Bayesian inference will become a leading approach in machine learning."[8]
1854 " George Boole argues that logical reasoning could be performed systematically in the same manner as solving a system of equations."[8]
1898 "At an electrical exhibition in the recently completed Madison Square Garden, Nikola Tesla makes a demonstration of the world’s first radio-controlled vessel. The boat was equipped with, as Tesla described, “a borrowed mind.”"[8]
1914 "The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrates the first chess-playing machine, capable of king and rook against king endgames without any human intervention."[8]
1921 "Czech writer Karel Čapek introduces the word "robot" in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word "robot" comes from the word "robota" (work)."[8]
1925 " Houdina Radio Control releases a radio-controlled driverless car, travelling the streets of New York City."[8]
1927 "he science-fiction film Metropolis is released. It features a robot double of a peasant girl, Maria, which unleashes chaos in Berlin of 2026—it was the first robot depicted on film, inspiring the Art Deco look of C-3PO in Star Wars."[8]
1929 "Makoto Nishimura designs Gakutensoku, Japanese for "learning from the laws of nature," the first robot built in Japan. It could change its facial expression and move its head and hands via an air pressure mechanism."[8]
1931 "1931: Kurt Gödel introduced the theory of deficiency, which is called by his own name."[7]
1936 "1936: Konrad Zuse developed a programmable computer named Z1 named 64K memory."[7]
1943 "Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts publish “A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity” in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics. This influential paper, in which they discussed networks of idealized and simplified artificial “neurons” and how they might perform simple logical functions, will become the inspiration for computer-based “neural networks” (and later “deep learning”) and their popular description as “mimicking the brain.”"[8] "a first mathematical and computer model of the biological neuron (formal neuron) had been developed by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts as early as 1943."[3] "The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons."[1]
1946 ": ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), the first computer in a room size of 30 tons, started to work."[7]
1948 "John von Neumann introduced the idea of self-replicating program"[7]
1949 " Edmund Berkeley publishes Giant Brains: Or Machines That Think in which he writes: “Recently there have been a good deal of news about strange giant machines that can handle information with vast speed and skill….These machines are similar to what a brain would be if it were made of hardware and wire instead of flesh and nerves… A machine can handle information; it can calculate, conclude, and choose; it can perform reasonable operations with information. A machine, therefore, can think.”"[8]
1949 "Donald Hebb publishes Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory in which he proposes a theory about learning based on conjectures regarding neural networks and the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time."[8] "Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning."[1]
1950 " Claude Shannon’s “Programming a Computer for Playing Chess” is the first published article on developing a chess-playing computer program."[8]
1950 " Alan Turing publishes “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” in which he proposes “the imitation game” which will later become known as the “Turing Test.”"[8]
1950 ". Turing, on the other hand, raised the question of the possible intelligence of a machine for the first time in his famous 1950 article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" and described a "game of imitation", where a human should be able to distinguish in a teletype dialogue whether he is talking to a man or a machine."[3]
1951 " Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmunds build SNARC (Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforcement Calculator), the first artificial neural network, using 3000 vacuum tubes to simulate a network of 40 neurons."[8]
1951 "1951: The first artificial intelligence programs for the Mark 1 device were written"[7]
1952 " Arthur Samuel develops the first computer checkers-playing program and the first computer program to learn on its own."[8]
1952 "Hodgkin-Huxley model of the brain as neurons forming an electrical network, with individual neurons firing in all-or-nothing (on/off) pulses."[2]
1954 "In the US, one of the main motivations for the funding of AI research was the promise of machine translation (MT). Because of Cold War concerns, the US government was particularly interested in the automatic and instant translation of Russian. In 1954, the first demonstration of MT, the Georgetown-IBM experiment, showed a great promise. The system was by no means complete, consisting only six rules, a 250-item vocabulary and specialized only in Organic Chemistry."[5]
1955 "August 31, 1955 The term “artificial intelligence” is coined in a proposal for a “2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence” submitted by John McCarthy (Dartmouth College), Marvin Minsky (Harvard University), Nathaniel Rochester (IBM), and Claude Shannon (Bell Telephone Laboratories). The workshop, which took place a year later, in July and August 1956, is generally considered as the official birthdate of the new field."[8]
1955 "December 1955 Herbert Simon and Allen Newell develop the Logic Theorist, the first artificial intelligence program, which eventually would prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica."[8] " An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems."[1]
1956 "In 1956, a conference "Artificial Intelligence" was held for the first time in Hanover, New Hampshire, at Dartmouth College. "[9] "August 31, 1955 The term “artificial intelligence” is coined in a proposal for a “2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence” submitted by John McCarthy (Dartmouth College), Marvin Minsky (Harvard University), Nathaniel Rochester (IBM), and Claude Shannon (Bell Telephone Laboratories). The workshop, which took place a year later, in July and August 1956, is generally considered as the official birthdate of the new field.""[8] "The summer 1956 conference at Dartmouth College (funded by the Rockefeller Institute) is considered the founder of the discipline. Anecdotally, it is worth noting the great success of what was not a conference but rather a workshop. Only six people, including McCarthy and Minsky, had remained consistently present throughout this work (which relied essentially on developments based on formal logic)."[3][5][1]
1956 "Five years later, the proof of concept was initialized through Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert Simon’s, Logic Theorist. The Logic Theorist was a program designed to mimic the problem solving skills of a human and was funded by Research and Development (RAND) Corporation. It’s considered by many to be the first artificial intelligence program and was presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI) hosted by John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky in 1956."[4] "But the field of AI wasn't formally founded until 1956, at a conference at Dartmouth College, in Hanover, New Hampshire, where the term "artificial intelligence" was coined."[6] "1956: The logic theorist (Logic Theory-LT) program for solving mathematical problems is introduced by Neweell, Shaw and Simon. The system is regarded as the first artificial intelligence system."[7]
1957 " Frank Rosenblatt develops the Perceptron, an early artificial neural network enabling pattern recognition based on a two-layer computer learning network. The New York Times reported the Perceptron to be "the embryo of an electronic computer that [the Navy] expects will be able to walk, talk, see, write, reproduce itself and be conscious of its existence." The New Yorker called it a “remarkable machine… capable of what amounts to thought.”"[8]
1957 "Herbert Simon, economist and sociologist, prophesied in 1957 that the AI would succeed in beating a human at chess in the next 10 years, but the AI then entered a first winter. Simon's vision proved to be right... 30 years later."[3]
1958 "John McCarthy develops programming language Lisp which becomes the most popular programming language used in artificial intelligence research."[8] "1958: John McCarty of MIT created the LISP (list Processing language) language."[7]
1959 "Arthur Samuel coins the term “machine learning,” reporting on programming a computer “so that it will learn to play a better game of checkers than can be played by the person who wrote the program.”"[8]
1959 "Oliver Selfridge publishes “Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning” in the Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes, in which he describes a model for a process by which computers could recognize patterns that have not been specified in advance."[8]
1959 "John McCarthy publishes “Programs with Common Sense” in the Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes, in which he describes the Advice Taker, a program for solving problems by manipulating sentences in formal languages with the ultimate objective of making programs “that learn from their experience as effectively as humans do.”"[8]
1960 "JCR Licklider described the human-machine relationship in his work"[7]
1961 "The first industrial robot, Unimate, starts working on an assembly line in a General Motors plant in New Jersey."[8]
1961 "James Slagle develops SAINT (Symbolic Automatic INTegrator), a heuristic program that solved symbolic integration problems in freshman calculus."[8]
1963 " 1963 article by Reed C. Lawlor, a member of the California Bar, entitled "What Computers Can Do: Analysis and Prediction of Judicial Decisions""[3]
1964 "Daniel Bobrow completes his MIT PhD dissertation titled “Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System” and develops STUDENT, a natural language understanding computer program."[8]
1964 Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Behaviour United Kingdom
1965 "Herbert Simon predicts that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do.""[8]
1965 "Hubert Dreyfus publishes "Alchemy and AI," arguing that the mind is not like a computer and that there were limits beyond which AI would not progress."[8]
1965 "I.J. Good writes in "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" that “the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make, provided that the machine is docile enough to tell us how to keep it under control.”"[8]
1965 " Joseph Weizenbaum develops ELIZA, an interactive program that carries on a dialogue in English language on any topic. Weizenbaum, who wanted to demonstrate the superficiality of communication between man and machine, was surprised by the number of people who attributed human-like feelings to the computer program."[8]
1965 "Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl Djerassi start working on DENDRAL at Stanford University. The first expert system, it automated the decision-making process and problem-solving behavior of organic chemists, with the general aim of studying hypothesis formation and constructing models of empirical induction in science."[8]
1965 Expert system "The path was actually opened at MIT in 1965 with DENDRAL (expert system specialized in molecular chemistry) "[3]
1966 "Shakey the robot is the first general-purpose mobile robot to be able to reason about its own actions. In a Life magazine 1970 article about this “first electronic person,” Marvin Minsky is quoted saying with “certitude”: “In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being.”"[8]
1966 "1966: Birth of the first chatbot The German-American computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology invents a computer program that communicates with humans. ‘ELIZA’ uses scripts to simulate various conversation partners such as a psychotherapist. Weizenbaum is surprised at the simplicity of the means required for ELIZA to create the illusion of a human conversation partner."[10] " The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA."[1]
1966 "The onset of the AI winter could be traced to the government’s decision to pull back on AI research. The decisions

were often attributed to a couple of infamous reports, specifically the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) report by U.S. Government in 1966, and the Lighthill report for the British government in 1973."[5] ||

1966 Artificial Intelligence Center[11]
1968 "The film 2001: Space Odyssey is released, featuring Hal, a sentient computer."[8] "In 1968 Stanley Kubrick directed the film "2001 Space Odyssey" where a computer - HAL 9000 (only one letter away from those of IBM) summarizes in itself the whole sum of ethical questions posed by AI: will it represent a high level of sophistication, a good for humanity or a danger? The impact of the film will naturally not be scientific but it will contribute to popularize the theme, just as the science fiction author Philip K. Dick, who will never cease to wonder if, one day, the machines will experience emotions."[3]
1968 "Terry Winograd develops SHRDLU, an early natural language understanding computer program."[8]
1969 "Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho describe backpropagation as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method. A learning algorithm for multi-layer artificial neural networks, it has contributed significantly to the success of deep learning in the 2000s and 2010s, once computing power has sufficiently advanced to accommodate the training of large networks."[8]
1969 "Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry, highlighting the limitations of simple neural networks. In an expanded edition published in 1988, they responded to claims that their 1969 conclusions significantly reduced funding for neural network research: “Our version is that progress had already come to a virtual halt because of the lack of adequate basic theories… by the mid-1960s there had been a great many experiments with perceptrons, but no one had been able to explain why they were able to recognize certain kinds of patterns and not others.”"[8]
1969 Conference International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence
1970 "It was with the advent of the first microprocessors at the end of 1970 that AI took off again and entered the golden age of expert systems."[3]
1970 Literature Artificial Intelligence (journal)[12]
1970 "The first anthropomorphic robot, the WABOT-1, is built at Waseda University in Japan. It consisted of a limb-control system, a vision system and a conversation system."[8]
1970 " In 1970 Marvin Minsky told Life Magazine, “from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being.” However, while the basic proof of principle was there, there was still a long way to go before the end goals of natural language processing, abstract thinking, and self-recognition could be achieved."[4]
1972 Expert system "MYCIN, an early expert system for identifying bacteria causing severe infections and recommending antibiotics, is developed at Stanford University."[4] "Stanford University in 1972 with MYCIN (system specialized in the diagnosis of blood diseases and prescription drugs). "[3] "1972: AI enters the medical field. With ‘MYCIN’, artificial intelligence finds its way into medical practices: The expert system developed by Ted Shortliffe at Stanford University is used for the treatment of illnesses. Expert systems are computer programs that bundle the knowledge for a specialist field using formulas, rules, and a knowledge database. They are used for diagnosis and treatment support in medicine."[10]
1972 "The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as WABOT-1."[1]
1973 "James Lighthill reports to the British Science Research Council on the state artificial intelligence research, concluding that "in no part of the field have discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised," leading to drastically reduced government support for AI research."[4] "The “Lighthill report” commonly refers to “Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey” by Professor Sir James Lighthill of Cambridge University in 1973. His review of AI was at the request of Brian Flowers, the head of the British Science Research Council, the main funding body of British university scientific research. The review was to help the council evaluate requests for support in AI research. In the paper, Lighthill offered a pessimistic prognosis for AI, stating that “in no part of the field have discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised”"[5]
1973 "The onset of the AI winter could be traced to the government’s decision to pull back on AI research. The decisions were often attributed to a couple of infamous reports, specifically the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) report by U.S. Government in 1966, and the Lighthill report for the British government in 1973."[5]
1973 "1973: DARPA begins development for protocols called TCP / IP"[7]
1974 Conference European Conference on Artificial Intelligence[13]
1976 "Computer scientist Raj Reddy publishes “Speech Recognition by Machine: A Review” in the Proceedings of the IEEE, summarizing the early work on Natural Language Processing (NLP)."[8]
1977 iLabs[14] Italy
1978 Expert system "The XCON (eXpert CONfigurer) program, a rule-based expert system assisting in the ordering of DEC's VAX computers by automatically selecting the components based on the customer's requirements, is developed at Carnegie Mellon University."[8]
1978 ". In 1978 Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold

for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."[5] ||

1978 " Herbert Simon earned a Nobel Prize for his limited Rationality Theory, which is an important work on Artificial Intelligence."[7]
1979 "The Stanford Cart successfully crosses a chair-filled room without human intervention in about five hours, becoming one of the earliest examples of an autonomous vehicle."[8]
1979 Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence United States
1980 Expert system " After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert."[1]
1980 "Wabot-2 is built at Waseda University in Japan, a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person, read a musical score and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ."[8]
1980 Expert system "Digital Equipment Corporation began requiring their sales team use an Expert System named XCON when placing customer orders. DEC sold a broad range of computer components, but the sales force was not especially knowledgeable about what they were selling."[2]
1980 "In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University."[1]
1980 "The year of AI. In 1980, AI research fired back up with an expansion of funds and algorithmic tools. With deep learning techniques, the computer learned with the user experience."[15]
1981 "In 1981 an expert system named SID (Synthesis of Integral Design) designed 93% of the VAX 9000 CPU logic gates. The SID system was existing out of 1,000 hand-written-rules. The final design of the CPU took 3 hours to calculate and outperformed in many ways the human experts. As an example, the SID produced a faster 64-bit adder than the manually designed one. Also the bug per gate rate, which where around 1 bug per 200 gates from human experts, was much lower at around 1 bug per 20,000 gates at the final result of the SID system."[16]
1981 "he Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry budgets $850 million for the Fifth Generation Computer project. The project aimed to develop computers that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings"[8]
1981 "Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."[5] Japan
1982 European Association for Artificial Intelligence
1983 Turing Institute United Kingdom
1984 "Electric Dreams is released, a film about a love triangle between a man, a woman and a personal computer."[8]
1984 "At the annual meeting of AAAI, Roger Schank and Marvin Minsky warn of the coming “AI Winter,” predicting an immanent bursting of the AI bubble (which did happen three years later), similar to the reduction in AI investment and research funding in the mid-1970s."[8]
1986 "First driverless car, a Mercedes-Benz van equipped with cameras and sensors, built at Bundeswehr University in Munich under the direction of Ernst Dickmanns, drives up to 55 mph on empty streets."[8]
1986 (October) Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics[17] India
1986 (October) "October 1986 David Rumelhart, Geoffrey Hinton, and Ronald Williams publish ”Learning representations by back-propagating errors,” in which they describe “a new learning procedure, back-propagation, for networks of neurone-like units.”"[8]
1986 "1986: ‘NETtalk’ speaks. The computer is given a voice for the first time. Terrence J. Sejnowski and Charles Rosenberg teach their ‘NETtalk’ program to speak by inputting sample sentences and phoneme chains. NETtalk is able to read words and pronounce them correctly, and can apply what it has learned to words it does not know. It is one of the early artificial neural networks — programs that are supplied with large datasets and are able to draw their own conclusions on this basis. Their structure and function are thereby similar to those of the human brain."[10]
1986 Conference International Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization
1987 "The video Knowledge Navigator, accompanying Apple CEO John Sculley’s keynote speech at Educom, envisions a future in which “knowledge applications would be accessed by smart agents working over networks connected to massive amounts of digitized information.”"[8]
1987 Literature AI & Society
1987 Literature Applied Artificial Intelligence
1987 Literature International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence
1988 "Judea Pearl publishes Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems. His 2011 Turing Award citation reads: “Judea Pearl created the representational and computational foundation for the processing of information under uncertainty. He is credited with the invention of Bayesian networks, a mathematical formalism for defining complex probability models, as well as the principal algorithms used for inference in these models. This work not only revolutionized the field of artificial intelligence but also became an important tool for many other branches of engineering and the natural sciences.”"[8]
1988 Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence Research Switzerland
1988 "Rollo Carpenter develops the chat-bot Jabberwacky to "simulate natural human chat in an interesting, entertaining and humorous manner." It is an early attempt at creating artificial intelligence through human interaction."[8]
1988 "Members of the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center publish “A statistical approach to language translation,” heralding the shift from rule-based to probabilistic methods of machine translation, and reflecting a broader shift to “machine learning” based on statistical analysis of known examples, not comprehension and “understanding” of the task at hand (IBM’s project Candide, successfully translating between English and French, was based on 2.2 million pairs of sentences, mostly from the bilingual proceedings of the Canadian parliament)."[8]
1988 German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence Germany
1989 "Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish an expanded edition of their 1969 book Perceptrons. In “Prologue: A View from 1988” they wrote: “One reason why progress has been so slow in this field is that researchers unfamiliar with its history have continued to make many of the same mistakes that others have made before them.”"[8]
1989 "Yann LeCun and other researchers at AT&T Bell Labs successfully apply a backpropagation algorithm to a multi-layer neural network, recognizing handwritten ZIP codes. Given the hardware limitations at the time, it took about 3 days (still a significant improvement over earlier efforts) to train the network."[8]
1989 Literature Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence
1990 "Rodney Brooks publishes “Elephants Don’t Play Chess,” proposing a new approach to AI—building intelligent systems, specifically robots, from the ground up and on the basis of ongoing physical interaction with the environment: “The world is its own best model… The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough.”"[8]
1991 European Neural Network Society[18][19]
1992 Literature International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools[20]
1993 Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research[21]
1993 "Vernor Vinge publishes “The Coming Technological Singularity,” in which he predicts that “within thirty years, we will have the technological means to create superhuman intelligence. Shortly after, the human era will be ended.”"[8]
1994 Conference Artificial Evolution Conference[22] France
1995 "Richard Wallace develops the chatbot A.L.I.C.E (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity), inspired by Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, but with the addition of natural language sample data collection on an unprecedented scale, enabled by the advent of the Web."[8]
1997 "Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber propose Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a type of a recurrent neural network used today in handwriting recognition and speech recognition."[8]
1997 ". In 1997, reigning world chess champion and grand master Gary Kasparov was defeated by IBM’s Deep Blue, a chess playing computer program. This highly publicized match was the first time a reigning world chess champion loss to a computer and served as a huge step towards an artificially intelligent decision making program."[4] "Deep Blue becomes the first computer chess-playing program to beat a reigning world chess champion."[8]
1997 " speech recognition software, developed by Dragon Systems, was implemented on Windows. This was another great step forward but in the direction of the spoken language interpretation endeavor."[4]
1998 "Dave Hampton and Caleb Chung create Furby, the first domestic or pet robot."[4]
1998 Literature Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems[23]
1998 "Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio and others publish papers on the application of neural networks to handwriting recognition and on optimizing backpropagation."[4]
2000 "MIT’s Cynthia Breazeal develops Kismet, a robot that could recognize and simulate emotions."[4]
2000 "Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in a restaurant setting."[4]
2000 Conference Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence[24] Mexico
2001 "A.I. Artificial Intelligence is released, a Steven Spielberg film about David, a childlike android uniquely programmed with the ability to love."[4]
2001 Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute[25] United States
2002 "Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner."[1]
2002 Conference RuleML Symposium[26]
2003 "In 2003, Geoffrey Hinton (University of Toronto), Yoshua Bengio (University of Montreal) and Yann LeCun (University of New York) decided to start a research program to bring neural networks up to date. Experiments conducted simultaneously at Microsoft, Google and IBM with the help of the Toronto laboratory in Hinton showed that this type of learning succeeded in halving the error rates for speech recognition. Similar results were achieved by Hinton's image recognition team."[3]
2003 MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory[27] United States
2004 "The first DARPA Grand Challenge, a prize competition for autonomous vehicles, is held in the Mojave Desert. None of the autonomous vehicles finished the 150-mile route."[4]
2004 Conference International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics[28] Italy
2006 "Oren Etzioni, Michele Banko, and Michael Cafarella coin the term “machine reading,” defining it as an inherently unsupervised “autonomous understanding of text.”"[4]
2006 "Geoffrey Hinton publishes “Learning Multiple Layers of Representation,” summarizing the ideas that have led to “multilayer neural networks that contain top-down connections and training them to generate sensory data rather than to classify it,” i.e., the new approaches to deep learning."[4]
2006 "Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI."[1]
2006 The first AI doctor-conducted unassisted robotic surgery is on a 34-year-old male to correct heart arrythmia. The results are rated as better than an above-average human surgeon. The machine has a database of 10,000 similar operations, and so, in the words of its designers, is "more than qualified to operate on any patient".[29][30]
2006 Conference AI@50[31]
2007 "Fei Fei Li and colleagues at Princeton University start to assemble ImageNet, a large database of annotated images designed to aid in visual object recognition software research."[4]
2008 Eliezer Yudkowsky calls for the creation of “friendly AI” to mitigate existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence. Yudkowsky explains: "The AI does not hate you, nor does it love you, but you are made out of atoms which it can use for something else."[32] United States
2008 Conference Conference on Artificial General Intelligence[33]
2009 "Rajat Raina, Anand Madhavan and Andrew Ng publish “Large-scale Deep Unsupervised Learning using Graphics Processors,” arguing that “modern graphics processors far surpass the computational capabilities of multicore CPUs, and have the potential to revolutionize the applicability of deep unsupervised learning methods.”"[4]
2009 "Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test."[4]
2009 "Computer scientists at the Intelligent Information Laboratory at Northwestern University develop Stats Monkey, a program that writes sport news stories without human intervention."[4]
2010 "Launch of the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVCR), an annual AI object recognition competition."[4]
2010 DeepMind[34]
2011 "A convolutional neural network wins the German Traffic Sign Recognition competition with 99.46% accuracy (vs. humans at 99.22%)."[4]
2011 "And in 2011, the computer giant's question-answering system Watson won the quiz show "Jeopardy!" by beating reigning champions Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings."[6]
2011 "This year, the talking computer "chatbot" Eugene Goostman captured headlines for tricking judges into thinking he was real skin-and-blood human during a Turing test,"[6]
2011 "Watson, a natural language question answering computer, competes on Jeopardy! and defeats two former champions."[4]
2011 "Researchers at the IDSIA in Switzerland report a 0.27% error rate in handwriting recognition using convolutional neural networks, a significant improvement over the 0.35%-0.40% error rate in previous years."[4]
2011 "2011: AI enters everyday life. Technology leaps in the hardware and software fields pave the way for artificial intelligence to enter everyday life. Powerful processors and graphics cards in computers, smartphones, and tablets give regular consumers access to AI programs. Digital assistants in particular enjoy great popularity: Apple’s ‘Siri’ comes to the market in 2011, Microsoft introduces the ‘Cortana’ software in 2014, and Amazon presents Amazon Echo with the voice service ‘Alexa’ in 2015."[10]
2012 "June 2012 Jeff Dean and Andrew Ng report on an experiment in which they showed a very large neural network 10 million unlabeled images randomly taken from YouTube videos, and “to our amusement, one of our artificial neurons learned to respond strongly to pictures of... cats.”"[4]
2012 "October 2012 A convolutional neural network designed by researchers at the University of Toronto achieve an error rate of only 16% in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a significant improvement over the 25% error rate achieved by the best entry the year before."[8]
2014 "Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test."[4]
2014 Allen Institute for AI[35][36] United States
2014 "Microsoft introduces the ‘Cortana’ software"[10]
2014 Future of Life Institute[37] United States
2014 Squirrel AI[38][39] China
2014 Kiev Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence[40] Ukraine
2014 "Ian Goodfellow comes up with Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN)."[41]
2015 "Amazon introduces service ‘Alexa’ in 2015."[10]
2015 Open Letter on Artificial Intelligence[42]
2016 "March 2016 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo defeats Go champion Lee Sedol."[4]
2016 Center for Human-Compatible Artificial Intelligence[43] United States
2016 (February 16) Active Intelligence Pte Ltd[44] Singapore
2016 (September 28) Partnership on AI[45]
2017 OpenAI Five[46] United States
2017 DeepMind releases AI Safety Gridworlds, which evaluate AI algorithms on nine safety features, such as whether the algorithm wants to turn off its own kill switch. DeepMind confirms that existing algorithms perform poorly, which is "unsurprising" because the algorithms "are not designed to solve these problems"; solving such problems might require "potentially building a new generation of algorithms with safety considerations at their core".[47][48][49]
2017 Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI[50]
2017 "The first AI for Good Global summit took place from 7 to 9 June 2017"
2017 AI Now Institute[51] United States
2017 "The AI market (hardware and software) has reached $8 billion"[16]
2018 "2018: AI debates space travel and makes a hairdressing appointment. These two examples demonstrate the capabilities of artificial intelligence: In June, ‘Project Debater’ from IBM debated complex topics with two master debaters — and performed remarkably well. A few weeks before, Google demonstrated at a conference how the AI program ‘Duplex’ phones a hairdresser and conversationally makes an appointment — without the lady on the other end of the line noticing that she is talking to a machine."[10]
2018 European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems[52]
2018 (April 26) Innovation Center for Artificial Intelligence[53][54] Netherlands
2019 Center for Security and Emerging Technology[55][56] United States
2019 Google AI Centre in Ghana[57][58] Ghana
2019 AI Artathon[59][60] Saudi Arabia

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How the timeline was built

The initial version of the timeline was written by User:Sebastian.

Funding information for this timeline is available.

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See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 "History of Artificial Intelligence". javatpoint.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 "A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". dataversity.net. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 "History of Artificial Intelligence". coe.int. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 "The History of Artificial Intelligence". harvard.edu. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 "The History of Artificial Intelligence" (PDF). washington.edu. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 "A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". livescience.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 Mijwil, Maad M. "History of Artificial Intelligence". Retrieved 9 March 2020. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.35 8.36 8.37 8.38 8.39 8.40 8.41 8.42 8.43 8.44 8.45 8.46 8.47 8.48 8.49 8.50 8.51 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.55 8.56 8.57 8.58 8.59 8.60 "A Very Short History Of Artificial Intelligence (AI)". forbes.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  9. ↑ "History of Artificial Intelligence". researchgate.net. Retrieved 9 March 2020. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 "The history of artificial intelligence". bosch.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020. 
  11. ↑ "AIC Timeline". ai.sri.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  12. ↑ "Artificial Intelligence Journal Division of IJCAI". ijcai.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  13. ↑ "ECAI 2010". iospress.nl. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  14. ↑ "ILabs". semanticscholar.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  15. ↑ "History of Artificial Intelligence – AI of the past, present and the future!". data-flair.training. Retrieved 4 March 2020. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "A Short History of Artificial Intelligence". dev.to. Retrieved 9 March 2020. 
  17. ↑ "Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR)". epicos.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  18. ↑ Taylor, J.G. The Promise of Neural Networks. 
  19. ↑ Artificial Neural Networks and Machine Learning – ICANN 2017: 26th International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks, Alghero, Italy, September 11-14, 2017, Proceedings, Part 1 (Alessandra Lintas, Stefano Rovetta, Paul F.M.J. Verschure, Alessandro E.P. Villa ed.). 
  20. ↑ "International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools". letpub.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  21. ↑ "Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research". jair.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  22. ↑ "Artificial Evolution 2019 (EA-2019)". iscpif.fr. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  23. ↑ "Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems". springer.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  24. ↑ "MICAI 2000: Advances in Artificial Intelligence". springer.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  25. ↑ "Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute". morebooks.de. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  26. ↑ Bikakis, Antonis; Fodor, Paul; Roman, Dumitru. Rules on the Web: From Theory to Applications: 8th International Symposium, RuleML 2014, Co-located with the 21st European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, ECAI 2014, Prague, Czech Republic, August 18-20, 2014, Proceedings. 
  27. ↑ "Mission & History". csail.mit.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  28. ↑ "INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE METHODS FOR BIOINFORMATICS AND BIOSTATISTICS". person.dibris.unige.it. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  29. ↑ "Autonomous Robotic Surgeon performs surgery on first live human". Engadget. 19 May 2006. 
  30. ↑ "Robot surgeon carries out 9-hour operation by itself". Phys.Org. 
  31. ↑ "Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference". dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  32. ↑ Eliezer Yudkowsky (2008) in Artificial Intelligence as a Positive and Negative Factor in Global Risk
  33. ↑ "Artificial General Intelligence 2008". iospress.nl. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  34. ↑ "Expanding our knowledge, finding new answers". deepmind.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  35. ↑ "Allen Institute for AI". glassdoor.com.ar. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  36. ↑ "Allen Institute for AI (AI2)". linkedin.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  37. ↑ "Future of Life Institute". linkedin.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  38. ↑ "Adaptive Learning Startup Squirrel AI Raises CN¥1B". medium.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  39. ↑ "Squirrel AI Learning". crunchbase.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  40. ↑ "Kiev Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence". semanticscholar.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  41. ↑ "History of Artificial Intelligence". qbi.uq.edu.au. Retrieved 9 March 2020. 
  42. ↑ "Elon Musk, Stephen Hawking warn of artificial intelligence dangers". mashable.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  43. ↑ "UC Berkeley launches Center for Human-Compatible Artificial Intelligence". news.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  44. ↑ "ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE PTE. LTD.". sgpbusiness.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  45. ↑ "Exploring The Partnership on AI". medium.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  46. ↑ "OpenAI Five". openai.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  47. ↑ "DeepMind Has Simple Tests That Might Prevent Elon Musk's AI Apocalypse". Bloomberg.com. 11 December 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2020. 
  48. ↑ "Alphabet's DeepMind Is Using Games to Discover If Artificial Intelligence Can Break Free and Kill Us All". Fortune. Retrieved 5 March 2020. 
  49. ↑ "Specifying AI safety problems in simple environments | DeepMind". DeepMind. Retrieved 5 March 2020. 
  50. ↑ "Video: Superintelligence Panel at Beneficial AI 2017 (FLI)". medium.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  51. ↑ "NYU Law and NYU's AI Now Institute analyze the ways emerging technology imposes upon civil liberties". law.nyu.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  52. ↑ "European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems (ELLIS) launched with Informatics researchers on board". ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 9 March 2020. 
  53. ↑ "Innovation Center for Artificial Intelligence officially launched". uva.nl. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  54. ↑ "Ahold Delhaize Helps Launch AI Innovation Center". consumergoods.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  55. ↑ "Center for Security and Emerging Technology". cset.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  56. ↑ "Center for Security and Emerging Technology". linkedin.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  57. ↑ "Google takes on 'Africa's challenges' with first AI centre in Ghana". thestar.com.my. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  58. ↑ "How Google is driving artificial intelligence for Africa by Africans". techpoint.africa. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  59. ↑ "About the Global AI Summit". theglobalaisummit.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
  60. ↑ "Riyadh to host AI art competition". arabnews.jp. Retrieved 6 March 2020. 
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