Timeline of artificial intelligence

This is a timeline of artificial intelligence.

Sample questions

The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:

Big picture

Summary by year

Time period	Development summary	More details
1940s-1950s	Early work	This period sees the first explorations of AI, including the development of artificial neurons, learning rules for adjusting neuron connections, and the concept of connectionism. Expert systems, which are a type of AI, are first introduced in the early 1950s. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon create the first artificial intelligence program. In 1956, the term "Artificial Intelligence" is first adopted. Many consider John Von Neumann and Alan Turing to be the founding fathers of the technology behind AI. They pioneer the transition from 19th century decimal logic to binary logic in computer architecture. This transition leads to the development of modern computers and their ability to execute programs based on Boolean algebra. They also demonstrate that computers are universal machines capable of performing a wide range of tasks based on programming. By the 1950s, a group of scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers already become familiar with the concept of artificial intelligence (AI).
1960s-1970s	Knowledge-based AI	During this time, AI researchers focus on developing rule-based systems that can reason and make decisions based on knowledge representations. Around this period, AI experiences significant growth.The availability and affordability of computers increase, allowing for more data storage and faster processing. Additionally, machine learning algorithms improve and people become more knowledgeable about which algorithm to use for specific problems.
1974–1980	AI winter	After criticism of the lack of progress in artificial intelligence (AI), government funding and interest in the field decrease during this period. Research efforts focuse on neural networks, but progress is limited, and functional programs can only handle simple problems. AI researchers have been overly optimistic in setting their goals and have made naive assumptions about the challenges they would face. When they failed to deliver promised results, funding was cut.
1980–1987	A boom of AI	Following the period of AI winter, the field of artificial intelligence makes a comeback with the introduction of expert systems. These systems are designed to mimic the decision-making abilities of a human expert through programming. AI is reignited by two sources: an expansion of the algorithmic toolkit, and a boost of funds. John Hopfield and David Rumelhart popularize “deep learning” techniques which allow computers to learn using experience. Funding from the United States and Britain resume to compete with Japan's "fifth generation" computer project and its goal of becoming the global leader in computer technology.
1987–1993	Second AI winter	Investors and governments stop funding AI research due to high costs and inefficient results, leading to another major AI winter. This coincides with the decline of early general-purpose computers and reduced government funding. Expert systems such as XCON are cost-effective but become too expensive to maintain compared to desktop computers. At the same time, DARPA concludes that AI would not be the next big thing and redirects funds to other projects. However, by the end of the 1980s, over half of the Fortune 500 companies were involved in either developing or maintaining expert systems.
1993–2011	"The emergence of intelligent agents"	"In the early 1990s, Artificial Intelligence research shifted its focus to something called an intelligent agent. These intelligent agents can be used for news retrieval services, online shopping, and browsing the web. Intelligent agents are also sometimes called agents or bots." "Ironically, in the absence of government funding and public hype, AI thrived. During the 1990s and 2000s, many of the landmark goals of artificial intelligence had been achieved." "However, neural networks would not become financially successful until the 1990s, when they started being used to operate optical character recognition programs and speech pattern recognition programs." "Major advances in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning, multi-agent planning, scheduling, uncertain reasoning, data mining, natural language understanding and translation, vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics."
2011-onward	Massive data and new computing power. "Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence"	"In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly." "Two factors explain the new boom in the discipline around 2010. 1) First of all, access to massive volumes of data. To be able to use algorithms for image classification and cat recognition, for example, it was previously necessary to carry out sampling yourself. Today, a simple search on Google can find millions. 2) Then the discovery of the very high efficiency of computer graphics card processors to accelerate the calculation of learning algorithms. The process being very iterative, it could take weeks before 2010 to process the entire sample. The computing power of these cards (capable of more than a thousand billion transactions per second) has enabled considerable progress at a limited financial cost (less than 1000 euros per card)."

Full timeline

Year	Event type	Details	Country/location
4th century B.C.		Greek philosopher Aristotle invents syllogistic logic, the first formal deductive reasoning system.
1 AC		Greek mathematician and engineer Hero of Alexandria creates automatons that operate with mechanical mechanisms powered by water and steam.
1206		Ebru İz Bin Rezzaz Al Jezeri, who some consider a pioneer in cybernetic science, creates water-operated automatic controlled machines.
1308		Catalan poet Ramon Llull publishes "Ars generalis ultima" (The Ultimate General Art). This work improves his method of using mechanical tools made of paper to generate new ideas by combining different concepts.
1623		German professor Wilhelm Schickard invents a calculating machine capable of four operations.	Germany
1642		Blaise Pascal creates the first mechanical digital calculating machine.
1666		German polymath Gottfried Leibniz releases his work Dissertatio de arte combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art). In this work, he follows Ramon Llull's idea of suggesting an alphabet of human thought and argues that all ideas are merely combinations of a small number of simple concepts.
1672		Gottfried Leibniz in Paris develops a binary counting system that forms the abstract basis of modern computers.	France
1703		Gottfried Leibniz has a foresight of how binary arithmetic could be suitable for automatic calculation.
1726		Jonathan Swift releases Gulliver's Travels, a book containing a portrayal of the Engine, a contraption situated on the island of Laputa that satirizes Llull's concepts. The Engine is described as "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations." According to the depiction, using this device, even an uneducated individual could produce books on various subjects, such as Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with minimal assistance from creativity or education, but with some physical effort and at a reasonable cost.
1763		English statistician Thomas Bayes develops a framework for reasoning about the probability of events. The Bayesian inference would become a leading approach in machine learning.	United Kingdom (Kingdom of Great Britain)
1801		Joseph-Marie Jacquard invents the Jacquard loom, the first programmable machine, with instructions on punched cards.
1854		Self-taught English mathematician, philosopher, and logician George Boole claims that logical reasoning can be systematically carried out, similar to solving a system of equations. He develops a binary algebra that represents some "laws of thought," which is published in his work titled The Laws of Thought (1854).
1863		Samuel Butler suggests that Darwinian evolution also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity.
1879		Gottlob Frege develops modern propositional logic in his work Begriffsschrift. This would be later later clarified and expanded by Russell,Tarski, Godel, Church and others.
1898		Nikola Tesla showcases the world's first remote-controlled boat at an electrical exhibition in the newly built Madison Square Garden. Tesla referred to the vessel as having "a borrowed mind."
1910		"Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead published Principia Mathematica, which revolutionaized formal logic. Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Rudolf Carnap lead philosophy into logical analysis of knowledge."
1912		Torres y Quevedo constructs a chess machine called the "Ajedrecista" that utilizes electromagnets located beneath the board to play out the endgame scenario of a rook and king against a single king. This creation is believed to be the earliest example of a computer game.
1914		Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, a Spanish engineer, presents a chess-playing device that can play endgames with just a king and rook against a king without any human involvement.
1921		"Czech writer Karel Čapek introduces the word "robot" in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word "robot" comes from the word "robota" (work)."
1925		" Houdina Radio Control releases a radio-controlled driverless car, travelling the streets of New York City."
1929		The first robot ever built in Japan is designed by Makoto Nishimura and named Gakutensoku, which means "learning from the laws of nature." This robot has the ability to alter its facial expression and move its head and hands, which is accomplished through an air pressure mechanism.
1931		Kurt Gödel introduces the theory of deficiency, which is called by his own name. "In 1931, Goedel layed the foundations of Theoretical Computer Science and AI"
1936		Konrad Zuse creates a computer with programmable capabilities called Z1, which has a memory capacity of 64K.
1936–1937		Alan Turing proposes the universal Turing machine.
1943		Warren McCulloch, a neurophysiologist at the University of Illinois, and Walter Pitts, a mathematician at the University of Chicago, release a significant publication regarding neural networks and automatons. They suggest that each neuron in the brain functions as a basic digital processor and that the entire brain is a type of computerized machine. This concept would have a significant impact on the field of artificial intelligence and would provide a theoretical foundation for the use of neural networks in modern technology.
1943		Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener and Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics" in a paper. Wiener would publish a popular book by that name in 1948.
1943		Emil Post demonstrates that production systems are a universal computational mechanism. His work on completeness, inconsistency, and proof theory is also significant. Chapter 2 of the book "Rule Based Expert Systems" discusses the applications of production systems in artificial intelligence.
1945		George Polya publishes his best-selling book on thinking heuristically, How to Solve It. This book introduces the term 'heuristic' into modern thinking and would influence many AI scientists.
1945		Vannevar Bush publishes As We May Think, a prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities.
1946		": ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), the first computer in a room size of 30 tons, started to work."
1948		Hungarian-American polymath John von Neumann introduces the idea of self-replicating program.	United States
1949		Edmund Berkeley writes a book titled "Giant Brains: Or Machines That Think", where he discusses the emergence of news about large machines with the ability to handle vast amounts of information at a great speed and with great skill. According to him, these machines are comparable to a brain made of wires and hardware instead of flesh and nerves. In his opinion, machines are capable of thinking because they are capable of performing logical operations, making conclusions, and decisions based on information.
1949		Donald Hebb publishes a book called "Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory," which proposes a theory about learning based on the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time in neural networks. Hebb demonstrates an updating rule for modifying the connection strength between neurons, which would be later known as Hebbian learning.
1950		" Claude Shannon’s “Programming a Computer for Playing Chess” is the first published article on developing a chess-playing computer program."
1950		Alan Turing publishes his article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", which introduces the concept of the Turing Test, also known as the imitation game. This game involves a human judge trying to distinguish between a human and a machine in a teletype conversation. Turing's article is the first to raise the question of whether a machine could exhibit intelligence.
1950		Claude Shannon publishes detailed analysis of chess playing as search in "Programming a computer to play chess".
1951		Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmunds build SNARC (Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforcement Calculator), the first artificial neural network, using 3000 vacuum tubes to simulate a network of 40 neurons.
1950		"In a 1950 Scientific American article, Claude Shannon argued that only an artificial intelligence program could play computer chess"
1951		"1951: The first artificial intelligence programs for the Mark 1 device were written"
1952		" Arthur Samuel develops the first computer checkers-playing program and the first computer program to learn on its own."
1952		"Hodgkin-Huxley model of the brain as neurons forming an electrical network, with individual neurons firing in all-or-nothing (on/off) pulses."
1953		"Other recent work includes the development of languages for reasoning about time-dependent data such as “the account was paid yesterday.” These languages are based on tense logic, which permits statements to be located in the flow of time. (Tense logic was invented in 1953 by the philosopher Arthur Prior at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.)"
1954		"In the US, one of the main motivations for the funding of AI research was the promise of machine translation (MT). Because of Cold War concerns, the US government was particularly interested in the automatic and instant translation of Russian. In 1954, the first demonstration of MT, the Georgetown-IBM experiment, showed a great promise. The system was by no means complete, consisting only six rules, a 250-item vocabulary and specialized only in Organic Chemistry."
1954		"It was not until 1954, however, that Belmont Farley and Wesley Clark of MIT succeeded in running the first artificial neural network—albeit limited by computer memory to no more than 128 neurons. They were able to train their networks to recognize simple patterns."
1955		"August 31, 1955 The term “artificial intelligence” is coined in a proposal for a “2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence” submitted by John McCarthy (Dartmouth College), Marvin Minsky (Harvard University), Nathaniel Rochester (IBM), and Claude Shannon (Bell Telephone Laboratories). The workshop, which took place a year later, in July and August 1956, is generally considered as the official birthdate of the new field."
1955		"December 1955 Herbert Simon and Allen Newell develop the Logic Theorist, the first artificial intelligence program, which eventually would prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica." " An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems."
1955–1956		" An important landmark in this area was a theorem-proving program written in 1955–56 by Allen Newell and J. Clifford Shaw of the RAND Corporation and Herbert Simon of the Carnegie Mellon University. The Logic Theorist, as the program became known, was designed to prove theorems from Principia Mathematica (1910–13), a three-volume work by the British philosopher-mathematicians Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell. In one instance, a proof devised by the program was more elegant than the proof given in the books."
1956		"In 1956, a conference "Artificial Intelligence" was held for the first time in Hanover, New Hampshire, at Dartmouth College. " "August 31, 1955 The term “artificial intelligence” is coined in a proposal for a “2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence” submitted by John McCarthy (Dartmouth College), Marvin Minsky (Harvard University), Nathaniel Rochester (IBM), and Claude Shannon (Bell Telephone Laboratories). The workshop, which took place a year later, in July and August 1956, is generally considered as the official birthdate of the new field."" "The summer 1956 conference at Dartmouth College (funded by the Rockefeller Institute) is considered the founder of the discipline. Anecdotally, it is worth noting the great success of what was not a conference but rather a workshop. Only six people, including McCarthy and Minsky, had remained consistently present throughout this work (which relied essentially on developments based on formal logic)."
1956		"Newell and Simon [1956] built a program, Logic Theorist, that discovers proofs in propositional logic." "Five years later, the proof of concept was initialized through Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert Simon’s, Logic Theorist. The Logic Theorist was a program designed to mimic the problem solving skills of a human and was funded by Research and Development (RAND) Corporation. It’s considered by many to be the first artificial intelligence program and was presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI) hosted by John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky in 1956." "But the field of AI wasn't formally founded until 1956, at a conference at Dartmouth College, in Hanover, New Hampshire, where the term "artificial intelligence" was coined." "1956: The logic theorist (Logic Theory-LT) program for solving mathematical problems is introduced by Neweell, Shaw and Simon. The system is regarded as the first artificial intelligence system."
1957		" Frank Rosenblatt develops the Perceptron, an early artificial neural network enabling pattern recognition based on a two-layer computer learning network. The New York Times reported the Perceptron to be "the embryo of an electronic computer that [the Navy] expects will be able to walk, talk, see, write, reproduce itself and be conscious of its existence." The New Yorker called it a “remarkable machine… capable of what amounts to thought.”"
1957		Herbert Simon, an economist and sociologist, predicts that artificial intelligence would be able to defeat a human at chess within a decade. However, AI research would experience a setback and would go through a period of dormancy. Nevertheless, Simon's prediction ultimately would come true, but it would take 30 years for AI to accomplish this feat.
1957		"The General Problem Solver (GPS) demonstrated by Newell, Shaw & Simon." "Newell, Simon, and Shaw went on to write a more powerful program, the General Problem Solver, or GPS. The first version of GPS ran in 1957, and work continued on the project for about a decade. GPS could solve an impressive variety of puzzles using a trial and error approach."
1958		"John McCarthy develops programming language Lisp which becomes the most popular programming language used in artificial intelligence research." "1958: John McCarty of MIT created the LISP (list Processing language) language."
1958		"1958: Herbert Gelernter’s “geometry machine” becomes the first advanced AI programme to prove geometric theorems and the third ever in creation."
1959		"Arthur Samuel coins the term “machine learning,” reporting on programming a computer “so that it will learn to play a better game of checkers than can be played by the person who wrote the program.”"
1959		"Oliver Selfridge publishes “Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning” in the Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes, in which he describes a model for a process by which computers could recognize patterns that have not been specified in advance."
1959		"John McCarthy publishes “Programs with Common Sense” in the Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes, in which he describes the Advice Taker, a program for solving problems by manipulating sentences in formal languages with the ultimate objective of making programs “that learn from their experience as effectively as humans do.”"
1959		Samuel creates a checkers program. Later in the late 1950s, he would design a program that can learn how to play checkers.
1960		American psychologist and computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider described the human-machine relationship in his work.	United States
1961		Unimate, the first industrial robot, starts working on an assembly line in a General Motors plant in New Jersey.	United States
1961		James Slagle in his PhD dissertation writes in Lisp the first symbolic integration program, SAINT, which solves calculus problems at the college freshman level.
1961		"James Slagle develops SAINT (Symbolic Automatic INTegrator), a heuristic program that solved symbolic integration problems in freshman calculus."
1963		" 1963 article by Reed C. Lawlor, a member of the California Bar, entitled "What Computers Can Do: Analysis and Prediction of Judicial Decisions""
1963		"Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQ tests."
1963		"Ivan Sutherland's MIT dissertation on Sketchpad introduced the idea of interactive graphics into computing."
1963		"Edward A. Feigenbaum & Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought, the first collection of articles about artificial intelligence."
1964		"Daniel Bobrow completes his MIT PhD dissertation titled “Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System” and develops STUDENT, a natural language understanding computer program."
1964		Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Behaviour	United Kingdom
1964		"Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (tech.report #1 from MIT's AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly."
1964		"Bert Raphael's MIT dissertation on the SIR program demonstrates the power of a logical representation of knowledge for question-answering systems"
1965		"Herbert Simon said in The Shape of Automation for Men and Management (1965) that “machines will be capable, within 20 years, of doing any work a man can do”" "Herbert Simon predicts that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do.""
1965		American philosopher Hubert Dreyfus publishes Alchemy and AI, which argues that the mind is not like a computer and that there are limits beyond which artificial intelligence would not progress.	United States
1965		"I.J. Good writes in "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" that “the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make, provided that the machine is docile enough to tell us how to keep it under control.”"
1965		Joseph Weizenbaum creates ELIZA, an interactive software that engages in conversations in English about various subjects. Weizenbaum's objective was to exhibit the superficial nature of communication between humans and machines. However, he would be taken aback by the number of individuals attributing human-like emotions to the computer program.
1965		"Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl Djerassi start working on DENDRAL at Stanford University. The first expert system, it automated the decision-making process and problem-solving behavior of organic chemists, with the general aim of studying hypothesis formation and constructing models of empirical induction in science."
1965	Expert system	"The path was actually opened at MIT in 1965 with DENDRAL (expert system specialized in molecular chemistry) "
1965	Literature	Hubert Dreyfus publishes Alchemy and AI.
1965		"J. Alan Robinson invented a mechanical proof procedure, the Resolution Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with formal logic as a representation language. (See Carl Hewitt's downloadable PDF file Middle History of Logic Programming)."
1965		Joseph Weizenbaum, a researcher at MIT, develops ELIZA, an interactive software that engages in conversations in the English language on various subjects. Initially, it is a well-liked application at AI centers on the ARPA-net. However, a modified version would be created to imitate the conversation style of a psychotherapist.
1966		"Shakey the robot is the first general-purpose mobile robot to be able to reason about its own actions. In a Life magazine 1970 article about this “first electronic person,” Marvin Minsky is quoted saying with “certitude”: “In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being.”"
1966		"1966: Birth of the first chatbot The German-American computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology invents a computer program that communicates with humans. ‘ELIZA’ uses scripts to simulate various conversation partners such as a psychotherapist. Weizenbaum is surprised at the simplicity of the means required for ELIZA to create the illusion of a human conversation partner." " The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA."
1966		"The onset of the AI winter could be traced to the government’s decision to pull back on AI research. The decisions were often attributed to a couple of infamous reports, specifically the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) report by U.S. Government in 1966, and the Lighthill report for the British government in 1973." ||
1966	Organization	Canadian engineer Charles Rosen founds the Artificial Intelligence Center.
1966		Ross Quillian in his PhD dissertation at Carnegie Institute of Technology demonstrates semantic networks, which are basically graphic depictions of knowledge composed of nodes and links that show hierarchical relationships between objects. Semantic networks are an alternative to first-order logic as a form of knowledge representation.	United States
1966		"First Machine Intelligence workshop at Edinburgh - the first of an influential annual series organized by Donald Michie and others."
1966		"Negative report on machine translation kills much work in Natural Language Processing (NLP) for many years."
1967		"Dendral program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg, Bruce Buchanan, Georgia Sutherland at Stanford) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific reasoning."
1967		"Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma (PDF file) program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics."
1967		"Richard Greenblatt at MIT built a knowledge-based chess-playing program, MacHack, that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play."
1967		"For example, the STUDENT program of Daniel Bobrow [1967] could solve high school algebra tasks expressed in natural language."
1968		"The film 2001: Space Odyssey is released, featuring Hal, a sentient computer." "In 1968 Stanley Kubrick directed the film "2001 Space Odyssey" where a computer - HAL 9000 (only one letter away from those of IBM) summarizes in itself the whole sum of ethical questions posed by AI: will it represent a high level of sophistication, a good for humanity or a danger? The impact of the film will naturally not be scientific but it will contribute to popularize the theme, just as the science fiction author Philip K. Dick, who will never cease to wonder if, one day, the machines will experience emotions."
1968		"Terry Winograd develops SHRDLU, an early natural language understanding computer program."
1969		"Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho describe backpropagation as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method. A learning algorithm for multi-layer artificial neural networks, it has contributed significantly to the success of deep learning in the 2000s and 2010s, once computing power has sufficiently advanced to accommodate the training of large networks."
1969		"Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry, highlighting the limitations of simple neural networks. In an expanded edition published in 1988, they responded to claims that their 1969 conclusions significantly reduced funding for neural network research: “Our version is that progress had already come to a virtual halt because of the lack of adequate basic theories… by the mid-1960s there had been a great many experiments with perceptrons, but no one had been able to explain why they were able to recognize certain kinds of patterns and not others.”"
1969	Conference	International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence "First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held in Washington, D.C."
1969		"SRI robot, Shakey, demonstrated combining locomotion, perception and problem solving."
1969		"Roger Schank (Stanford) defined conceptual dependency model for natural language understanding. Later developed (in PhD dissertations at Yale) for use in story understanding by Robert Wilensky and Wendy Lehnert, and for use in understanding memory by Janet Kolodner."
1970		"It was with the advent of the first microprocessors at the end of 1970 that AI took off again and entered the golden age of expert systems."
1970	Literature	Journal Artificial Intelligence is first published by Elsevier.	Netherlands
1970		"The first anthropomorphic robot, the WABOT-1, is built at Waseda University in Japan. It consisted of a limb-control system, a vision system and a conversation system."
1970		" In 1970 Marvin Minsky told Life Magazine, “from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being.” However, while the basic proof of principle was there, there was still a long way to go before the end goals of natural language processing, abstract thinking, and self-recognition could be achieved."
1970		Uruguayan American Jaime Carbonell develops SCHOLAR, an interactive program for computer-aided instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge. SCHOLAR is perhaps the first intelligent tutoring system.	United States
1970		Bill Woods describes Augmented Transition Networks (ATN) as a representation for natural language understanding. The ATN is a formalism for writing parsing grammars that would be much used in artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.
1970		"Patrick Winston's PhD program, ARCH, at MIT learned concepts from examples in the world of children's blocks."
1971		"Terry Winograd's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU, with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English."
1972	Expert system	"MYCIN, an early expert system for identifying bacteria causing severe infections and recommending antibiotics, is developed at Stanford University." "Stanford University in 1972 with MYCIN (system specialized in the diagnosis of blood diseases and prescription drugs). " "1972: AI enters the medical field. With ‘MYCIN’, artificial intelligence finds its way into medical practices: The expert system developed by Ted Shortliffe at Stanford University is used for the treatment of illnesses. Expert systems are computer programs that bundle the knowledge for a specialist field using formulas, rules, and a knowledge database. They are used for diagnosis and treatment support in medicine."
1972		"The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as WABOT-1."
1972	Lierature	Hubert Dreyfus publishes What Computers Can't Do.
1972		"Prolog developed by Alain Colmerauer."
1972		"Work on MYCIN, an expert system for treating blood infections, began at Stanford University in 1972. MYCIN would attempt to diagnose patients based on reported symptoms and medical test results."
1973		James Lighthill is commissioned by the head of the British Science Research Council, Brian Flowers, to evaluate requests for support in AI research. His report, "Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey," published in 1973, concludes that the discoveries made in the field of AI research had not lived up to the earlier promises of major impact. This pessimistic prognosis by Lighthill would result in reduced government funding for AI research, and his report would be commonly referred to as the "Lighthill report."
1973		"The logic programming language PROLOG (Programmation en Logique) was conceived by Alain Colmerauer at the University of Aix-Marseille, France, where the language was first implemented in 1973. PROLOG was further developed by the logician Robert Kowalski, a member of the AI group at the University of Edinburgh. This language makes use of a powerful theorem-proving technique known as resolution, invented in 1963 at the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission’s Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois by the British logician Alan Robinson. PROLOG can determine whether or not a given statement follows logically from other given statements. For example, given the statements “All logicians are rational” and “Robinson is a logician,” a PROLOG program responds in the affirmative to the query “Robinson is rational?” PROLOG is widely used for AI work, especially in Europe and Japan."
1973		"The onset of the AI winter could be traced to the government’s decision to pull back on AI research. The decisions were often attributed to a couple of infamous reports, specifically the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) report by U.S. Government in 1966, and the Lighthill report for the British government in 1973."
1973		"1973: DARPA begins development for protocols called TCP / IP"
1974	Conference	European Conference on Artificial Intelligence
1974		"Ted Shortliffe's PhD dissertation on MYCIN (Stanford) demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for knowledge representation and inference in the domain of medical diagnosis and therapy. Sometimes called the first expert system."
1974		"Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first planning programs, ABSTRIPS, and developed techniques of hierarchical planning."
1975		"Marvin Minsky published his widely-read and influential article on Frames as a representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas and semantic links are brought together."
1975		"The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry (some rules of mass spectrometry) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a refereed journal."
1976		"Computer scientist Raj Reddy publishes “Speech Recognition by Machine: A Review” in the Proceedings of the IEEE, summarizing the early work on Natural Language Processing (NLP)."
1976		"AI research languishes as processing power proves unable to keep up with the promising theoretical groundwork being laid by computer scientists. Roboticist Hans Moravec says computers are “still millions of times too weak to exhibit intelligence.”"
1976		"Doug Lenat's AM program (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely-guided search for interesting conjectures)."
1976		"Randall Davis demonstrated the power of meta-level reasoning in his PhD dissertation at Stanford."
Mid1970s		"Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse and anaphoric references in NLP."
Mid1970s		"Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg (Xerox PARC) developed the Smalltalk language, establishing the power of object-oriented programming and of icon-oriented interfaces."
Mid1970s		"David Marr and MIT colleagues describe the "primal sketch" and its role in visual perception."
1977		iLabs	Italy
1978	Expert system	"The XCON (eXpert CONfigurer) program, a rule-based expert system assisting in the ordering of DEC's VAX computers by automatically selecting the components based on the customer's requirements, is developed at Carnegie Mellon University."
1978		". In 1978 Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence." ||
1978		" Herbert Simon earned a Nobel Prize for his limited Rationality Theory, which is an important work on Artificial Intelligence."
1978		"Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version Spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program."
1978		"Herb Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of bounded rationality, one of the cornerstones of AI known as "satisficing""
1978		"The MOLGEN program, written at Stanford by Mark Stefik and Peter Friedland, demonstrated that an object-oriented representation of knowledge can be used to plan gene-cloning experiments."
1979		"The Stanford Cart successfully crosses a chair-filled room without human intervention in about five hours, becoming one of the earliest examples of an autonomous vehicle."
1979		The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence is founded.	United States
1979		"Mycin program, initially written as Ted Shortliffe's Ph.D. dissertation at Stanford, was demonstrated to perform at the level of experts. Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells"."
1979		"Jack Myers and Harry Pople at University of Pittsburgh developed INTERNIST, a knowledge-based medical diagnosis program based on Dr. Myers' clinical knowledge."
1979		"Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming."
1979		"Drew McDermott & Jon Doyle at MIT, and John McCarthy at Stanford begin publishing work on non-monotonic logics and formal aspects of truth maintenance."
Late 1970s		"Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration."
1980		"Computer scientist Edward Feigenbaum helps reignite AI research by leading the charge to develop “expert systems”—programs that learn by ask experts in a given field how to respond in certain situations. Once the system compiles expert responses for all known situations likely to occur in that field, the system can provide field-specific expert guidance to nonexperts."
1980	Expert system	" After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert."
1980		"Wabot-2 is built at Waseda University in Japan, a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person, read a musical score and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ."
1980	Expert system	"Digital Equipment Corporation began requiring their sales team use an Expert System named XCON when placing customer orders. DEC sold a broad range of computer components, but the sales force was not especially knowledgeable about what they were selling."
1980		"In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University."
1980		"The year of AI. In 1980, AI research fired back up with an expansion of funds and algorithmic tools. With deep learning techniques, the computer learned with the user experience."
1980		"Lee Erman, Rick Hayes-Roth, Victor Lesser and Raj Reddy published the first description of the blackboard model, as the framework for the HEARSAY-II speech understanding system."
1980		"First National Conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held at Stanford."
1980		" (The term strong AI was introduced for this category of research in 1980 by the philosopher John Searle of the University of California at Berkeley.) "
1981		"In 1981 an expert system named SID (Synthesis of Integral Design) designed 93% of the VAX 9000 CPU logic gates. The SID system was existing out of 1,000 hand-written-rules. The final design of the CPU took 3 hours to calculate and outperformed in many ways the human experts. As an example, the SID produced a faster 64-bit adder than the manually designed one. Also the bug per gate rate, which where around 1 bug per 200 gates from human experts, was much lower at around 1 bug per 20,000 gates at the final result of the SID system."
1981		"Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, a massively parallel architecture that brings new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines, Inc.)"
1981		"he Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry budgets $850 million for the Fifth Generation Computer project. The project aimed to develop computers that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings"
1981		"Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."	Japan
1982		European Association for Artificial Intelligence
1983	Organization	The Turing Institute is founded in Glasgow, Scotland as an Artificial Intelligence laboratory. The company would undertake basic and applied research, working directly with large companies across Europe, the United States, and Japan developing software as well as providing training, consultancy and information services. From 1989 onwards, the company would face financial difficulties and would close in 1994.	United Kingdom
1983		"John Laird & Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell, complete CMU dissertations on SOAR."
1983		James Allen invents the later called Allen's interval algebra, the first widely used formalization of temporal events. Alsocalled Allen's Interval Calculus, it is certainly the most well-known qualitative temporal calculus in artificial intelligence.
1984		"Electric Dreams is released, a film about a love triangle between a man, a woman and a personal computer."
1984		"At the annual meeting of AAAI, Roger Schank and Marvin Minsky warn of the coming “AI Winter,” predicting an immanent bursting of the AI bubble (which did happen three years later), similar to the reduction in AI investment and research funding in the mid-1970s."
1984		"CYC is a large experiment in symbolic AI. The project began in 1984 under the auspices of the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation, a consortium of computer, semiconductor, and electronics manufacturers. "
1985		"The autonomous drawing program, Aaron, created by Harold Cohen, is demonstrated at the AAAI National Conference (based on more than a decade of work, and with subsequent work showing major developments)."
1986		"First driverless car, a Mercedes-Benz van equipped with cameras and sensors, built at Bundeswehr University in Munich under the direction of Ernst Dickmanns, drives up to 55 mph on empty streets."
1986	Literature	Hubert Dreyfus publishes Mind over Machine.
1986		"In one famous connectionist experiment conducted at the University of California at San Diego (published in 1986), David Rumelhart and James McClelland trained a network of 920 artificial neurons, arranged in two layers of 460 neurons, to form the past tenses of English verbs. Root forms of verbs—such as come, look, and sleep—were presented to one layer of neurons, the input layer. A supervisory computer program observed the difference between the actual response at the layer of output neurons and the desired response—came, say—and then mechanically adjusted the connections throughout the network in accordance with the procedure described above to give the network a slight push in the direction of the correct response. About 400 different verbs were presented one by one to the network, and the connections were adjusted after each presentation. This whole procedure was repeated about 200 times using the same verbs, after which the network could correctly form the past tense of many unfamiliar verbs as well as of the original verbs."
1986 (October)	Organization	The Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics is founded in Bangalore as a laboratory of the Defence Research & Development Organization.	India
1986 (October)		"October 1986 David Rumelhart, Geoffrey Hinton, and Ronald Williams publish ”Learning representations by back-propagating errors,” in which they describe “a new learning procedure, back-propagation, for networks of neurone-like units.”"
1986		"1986: ‘NETtalk’ speaks. The computer is given a voice for the first time. Terrence J. Sejnowski and Charles Rosenberg teach their ‘NETtalk’ program to speak by inputting sample sentences and phoneme chains. NETtalk is able to read words and pronounce them correctly, and can apply what it has learned to words it does not know. It is one of the early artificial neural networks — programs that are supplied with large datasets and are able to draw their own conclusions on this basis. Their structure and function are thereby similar to those of the human brain."
1986	Conference	International Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization
1987		"The video Knowledge Navigator, accompanying Apple CEO John Sculley’s keynote speech at Educom, envisions a future in which “knowledge applications would be accessed by smart agents working over networks connected to massive amounts of digitized information.”"
1987	Literature	AI & Society
1987	Literature	Applied Artificial Intelligence
1987	Literature	International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence
1987		"Marvin Minsky publishes The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents."
1988		"Judea Pearl publishes Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems. His 2011 Turing Award citation reads: “Judea Pearl created the representational and computational foundation for the processing of information under uncertainty. He is credited with the invention of Bayesian networks, a mathematical formalism for defining complex probability models, as well as the principal algorithms used for inference in these models. This work not only revolutionized the field of artificial intelligence but also became an important tool for many other branches of engineering and the natural sciences.”"
1988		Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence Research	Switzerland
1988		"Rollo Carpenter develops the chat-bot Jabberwacky to "simulate natural human chat in an interesting, entertaining and humorous manner." It is an early attempt at creating artificial intelligence through human interaction."
1988		"Members of the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center publish “A statistical approach to language translation,” heralding the shift from rule-based to probabilistic methods of machine translation, and reflecting a broader shift to “machine learning” based on statistical analysis of known examples, not comprehension and “understanding” of the task at hand (IBM’s project Candide, successfully translating between English and French, was based on 2.2 million pairs of sentences, mostly from the bilingual proceedings of the Canadian parliament)."
1988		German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence	Germany
1989		"Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish an expanded edition of their 1969 book Perceptrons. In “Prologue: A View from 1988” they wrote: “One reason why progress has been so slow in this field is that researchers unfamiliar with its history have continued to make many of the same mistakes that others have made before them.”"
1989		"Yann LeCun and other researchers at AT&T Bell Labs successfully apply a backpropagation algorithm to a multi-layer neural network, recognizing handwritten ZIP codes. Given the hardware limitations at the time, it took about 3 days (still a significant improvement over earlier efforts) to train the network."
1989	Literature	Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence
1989 (November 9)	Literature	The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics
1989		"Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network), which grew into the system that drove a car coast-to-coast under computer control for all but about 50 of the 2850 miles."
1990		"Rodney Brooks publishes “Elephants Don’t Play Chess,” proposing a new approach to AI—building intelligent systems, specifically robots, from the ground up and on the basis of ongoing physical interaction with the environment: “The world is its own best model… The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough.”"
1991		European Neural Network Society
1991		In 1991 the American philanthropist Hugh Loebner started the annual Loebner Prize competition, promising a $100,000 payout to the first computer to pass the Turing test and awarding $2,000 each year to the best effort. However, no AI program has come close to passing an undiluted Turing test.
1992	Literature	International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools
1992		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
1993		Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research
1993		"Vernor Vinge publishes “The Coming Technological Singularity,” in which he predicts that “within thirty years, we will have the technological means to create superhuman intelligence. Shortly after, the human era will be ended.”"
1994	Conference	Artificial Evolution Conference	France
1995		"Richard Wallace develops the chatbot A.L.I.C.E (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity), inspired by Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, but with the addition of natural language sample data collection on an unprecedented scale, enabled by the advent of the Web."
1995		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
1995		"1995: AltaVista becomes the first search engine to use natural language processing."
1996		"EQP theorem prover at Argonne National Labs proves the Robbins Conjecture in mathematics (October-November, 1996)."
1997		"Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber propose Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a type of a recurrent neural network used today in handwriting recognition and speech recognition."
1997		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
1997		". In 1997, reigning world chess champion and grand master Gary Kasparov was defeated by IBM’s Deep Blue, a chess playing computer program. This highly publicized match was the first time a reigning world chess champion loss to a computer and served as a huge step towards an artificially intelligent decision making program." "Deep Blue becomes the first computer chess-playing program to beat a reigning world chess champion."
1997		" speech recognition software, developed by Dragon Systems, was implemented on Windows. This was another great step forward but in the direction of the spoken language interpretation endeavor."
1998		Furby, the first domestic or pet robot, is created by Dave Hampton and Caleb Chung.
1998	Literature	Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems
1998		"Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio and others publish papers on the application of neural networks to handwriting recognition and on optimizing backpropagation."
1998		" And it was in 1998 that Amazon began using “collaborative filtering” enabling recommendations for millions of customers."
1998		"1998 Tiger Electronics' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment."
Late 1990s		"Late 1990s Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web."
1990s		"Demonstration of an Intelligent Room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab. Initiation of work on the Oxygen Architecture, which connects mobile and stationary computers in an adaptive network."
2000		"MIT’s Cynthia Breazeal develops Kismet, a robot that could recognize and simulate emotions."
2000		"Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in a restaurant setting."
2000	Conference	Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence	Mexico
2000		"Cynthia Breazeal at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable Machines, describing KISMET, a robot with a face that expresses emotions."
2001		"A.I. Artificial Intelligence is released, a Steven Spielberg film about David, a childlike android uniquely programmed with the ability to love."
2001		Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute	United States
2002		"Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner."
2002	Conference	RuleML Symposium
2003		"In 2003, Geoffrey Hinton (University of Toronto), Yoshua Bengio (University of Montreal) and Yann LeCun (University of New York) decided to start a research program to bring neural networks up to date. Experiments conducted simultaneously at Microsoft, Google and IBM with the help of the Toronto laboratory in Hinton showed that this type of learning succeeded in halving the error rates for speech recognition. Similar results were achieved by Hinton's image recognition team."
2003		MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory	United States
2004		"The first DARPA Grand Challenge, a prize competition for autonomous vehicles, is held in the Mojave Desert. None of the autonomous vehicles finished the 150-mile route."
2004	Conference	International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics	Italy
2006		"Oren Etzioni, Michele Banko, and Michael Cafarella coin the term “machine reading,” defining it as an inherently unsupervised “autonomous understanding of text.”"
2006		"Geoffrey Hinton publishes “Learning Multiple Layers of Representation,” summarizing the ideas that have led to “multilayer neural networks that contain top-down connections and training them to generate sensory data rather than to classify it,” i.e., the new approaches to deep learning."
2006		"Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI."
2006		The first AI doctor-conducted unassisted robotic surgery is on a 34-year-old male to correct heart arrythmia. The results are rated as better than an above-average human surgeon. The machine has a database of 10,000 similar operations, and so, in the words of its designers, is "more than qualified to operate on any patient".
2006	Conference	AI@50
2007		"Fei Fei Li and colleagues at Princeton University start to assemble ImageNet, a large database of annotated images designed to aid in visual object recognition software research."
2008		Eliezer Yudkowsky calls for the creation of “friendly AI” to mitigate existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence. Yudkowsky explains: "The AI does not hate you, nor does it love you, but you are made out of atoms which it can use for something else."	United States
2008	Conference	Conference on Artificial General Intelligence
2009		"Rajat Raina, Anand Madhavan and Andrew Ng publish “Large-scale Deep Unsupervised Learning using Graphics Processors,” arguing that “modern graphics processors far surpass the computational capabilities of multicore CPUs, and have the potential to revolutionize the applicability of deep unsupervised learning methods.”"
2009		"Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test."
2009		"Computer scientists at the Intelligent Information Laboratory at Northwestern University develop Stats Monkey, a program that writes sport news stories without human intervention."
2010		"Launch of the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVCR), an annual AI object recognition competition."
2010		DeepMind
2011		"A convolutional neural network wins the German Traffic Sign Recognition competition with 99.46% accuracy (vs. humans at 99.22%)."
2011		"And in 2011, the computer giant's question-answering system Watson won the quiz show "Jeopardy!" by beating reigning champions Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings."
2011		"This year, the talking computer "chatbot" Eugene Goostman captured headlines for tricking judges into thinking he was real skin-and-blood human during a Turing test,"
2011		"Watson, a natural language question answering computer, competes on Jeopardy! and defeats two former champions."
2011		"Researchers at the IDSIA in Switzerland report a 0.27% error rate in handwriting recognition using convolutional neural networks, a significant improvement over the 0.35%-0.40% error rate in previous years."
2011		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2011		"2011: AI enters everyday life. Technology leaps in the hardware and software fields pave the way for artificial intelligence to enter everyday life. Powerful processors and graphics cards in computers, smartphones, and tablets give regular consumers access to AI programs. Digital assistants in particular enjoy great popularity: Apple’s ‘Siri’ comes to the market in 2011, Microsoft introduces the ‘Cortana’ software in 2014, and Amazon presents Amazon Echo with the voice service ‘Alexa’ in 2015."
2012		"June 2012 Jeff Dean and Andrew Ng report on an experiment in which they showed a very large neural network 10 million unlabeled images randomly taken from YouTube videos, and “to our amusement, one of our artificial neurons learned to respond strongly to pictures of... cats.”"
2012 (July 13)	Literature	The Machine Question: Critical Perspectives on AI, Robots, and Ethics
2012		"October 2012 A convolutional neural network designed by researchers at the University of Toronto achieve an error rate of only 16% in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a significant improvement over the 25% error rate achieved by the best entry the year before."
2012		The secutiry market is flooded by computer vision start-ups.
2013		"Boston Dynamics unveils Atlas , an advanced humanoid robot designed for various search-and-rescue tasks."
2013		". Automated Insights published 300 million pieces of content in 2013"
2014 (January)		"The 3-years-old DeepMind being acquired by Google in Jan. 2014;"
2014		"Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test."
2014		Allen Institute for AI	United States
2014		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2014		"Microsoft introduces the ‘Cortana’ software"
2014		Future of Life Institute	United States
2014		Squirrel AI	China
2014		Kiev Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence	Ukraine
2014		"Ian Goodfellow comes up with Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN)."
2014		"When programmatic ad buying was popularized in 2014, it introduced us to artificial intelligence-based ad buying, effectively removing the broken, laborious manual tasks of researching target markets, budgets, insertion orders, and layers of additional analytics tracking – not to mention high prices."
2015		"Amazon introduces service ‘Alexa’ in 2015."
2015 (march)		The algorithm for diffusion that would later serve as the foundation for text-to-image tools is initially introduced by researchers from Stanford and Berkeley.
2015		The Chinese Congress on Artificial Intelligence 2015 takes place in Beijing, giving the direction of AI-related industries in China.	China
2015		Open Letter on Artificial Intelligence
2015 (September 22)		The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World
2015		"t. In 2015, Google introduced its latest artificial intelligence algorithm, RankBrain, which makes significant advances in interpreting search queries in new ways. Through RankBrain, Google has been successful in interpreting the intent behind a user’s search terms, making for a more relevant result."
2016		"March 2016 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo defeats Go champion Lee Sedol."
2016 (March)		Microsoft releases the Tay chatbot, but quickly takes it offline after it becomes Holocaust denying.
2016		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2016		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2016		Center for Human-Compatible Artificial Intelligence	United States
2016		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2016 (February 16)		Active Intelligence Pte Ltd	Singapore
2016 (September 28)		Partnership on AI (full name Partnership on Artificial Intelligence to Benefit People and Society) is established. It is a non-profit partnership of academic, civil society, industry, and media organizations creating solutions so that AI advances positive outcomes for people and society. Its founding members are Amazon, Facebook, Google, DeepMind, Microsoft, and IBM, with interim co-chairs Eric Horvitz of Microsoft Research and Mustafa Suleyman of DeepMind. Apple would join the consortium as a founding member in January 2017. By 2019, more than 100 partners from academia, civil society, industry, and nonprofits would be member organizations.
2016		"Swarm AI, a real-time online tool, predicts the winning horse of the Kentucky Derby"
2016		" McKinsey estimates that in 2016 Google and Baidu spent around $20 to $30 billion on funding their internal R&D and acquiring startups in the field."
2017		OpenAI Five	United States
2017		DeepMind releases AI Safety Gridworlds, which evaluate AI algorithms on nine safety features, such as whether the algorithm wants to turn off its own kill switch. DeepMind confirms that existing algorithms perform poorly, which is "unsurprising" because the algorithms "are not designed to solve these problems"; solving such problems might require "potentially building a new generation of algorithms with safety considerations at their core".
2017	Conference	The Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI isn held, focusing on discussing the potential risks and benefits associated with artificial intelligence (AI) and how to ensure the development of AI in a way that benefits humanity.
2017		The first AI for Good Global summit takes place.
2017	Organization	AI Now Institute is founded. It is an American research institute studying the social implications of artificial intelligence.	United States
2017		"The AI market (hardware and software) has reached $8 billion"
2017		"Physicists use AI to search data for evidence of previously undetected particles and other phenomena."
2017		"Google’s DeepMind AI teaches itself to walk."
2017		AI is included in the Chinese government report as a national strategy in China.
2018		"2018: AI debates space travel and makes a hairdressing appointment. These two examples demonstrate the capabilities of artificial intelligence: In June, ‘Project Debater’ from IBM debated complex topics with two master debaters — and performed remarkably well. A few weeks before, Google demonstrated at a conference how the AI program ‘Duplex’ phones a hairdresser and conversationally makes an appointment — without the lady on the other end of the line noticing that she is talking to a machine."
2018		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2018		European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems
2018 (April 26)		Innovation Center for Artificial Intelligence	Netherlands
2018		" In 2018, the size of China’s artificial intelligence market reached 33.9 billion RMB"	China
2018		"Astronomers use AI to spot 6,000 new craters on the moon’s surface."
2018		"Paul Rad, assistant director of the University of Texas-San Antonio Open Cloud Institute, and Nicole Beebe, director of the university’s Cyber Center for Security and Analytics, describe a new cloud-based learning platform for AI that teaches machines to learn like humans."
2018		"Google demonstrates its Duplex AI, a digital assistant that can make appointments via telephone calls with live humans. Duplex uses natural language understanding, deep learning and text-to-speech capabilities to understand conversational context and nuance in ways no other digital assistant has yet matched."
2018		AI ushers in the first year of commercial applications in China. There are more than 1,000 AI-related companies in the country by the time.	China
2018		The AI Now Report finds harmful inaccuracies in AI-driven technology, plus an alarming lack of accountability and, in some cases, systems built on racial discrimination or used for human rights violations.
2019		Center for Security and Emerging Technology	United States
2019		Google AI Centre in Ghana	Ghana
2019		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2019		AI Artathon	Saudi Arabia
2020		" Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."
2020 (June)		OpenAI reveals GPT-3, but releases it only to a small pool of users.

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See also

• Timeline of machine learning
• Timeline of AI safety
• Timeline of robotics