Timeline of artificial intelligence
From Timelines
This is a timeline of artificial intelligence, which refers to the development and implementation of computer systems or machines that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Contents
Sample questions
The following are some interesting questions that can be answered by reading this timeline:
Big picture
Summary by year
| Time period | Development summary | More details |
|---|---|---|
| 1940s-1950s | Early work | This period sees the first explorations of AI, including the development of artificial neurons, learning rules for adjusting neuron connections, and the concept of connectionism.[1][2] Expert systems, which are a type of AI, are first introduced in the early 1950s. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon create the first artificial intelligence program. In 1956, the term "Artificial Intelligence" is first adopted.[1] Many consider John Von Neumann and Alan Turing to be the founding fathers of the technology behind AI. They pioneer the transition from 19th century decimal logic to binary logic in computer architecture. This transition leads to the development of modern computers and their ability to execute programs based on Boolean algebra. They also demonstrate that computers are universal machines capable of performing a wide range of tasks based on programming.[3] By the 1950s, a group of scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers already become familiar with the concept of artificial intelligence (AI).[4] |
| 1960s-1970s | Knowledge-based AI | During this time, AI researchers focus on developing rule-based systems that can reason and make decisions based on knowledge representations. Around this period, AI experiences significant growth.The availability and affordability of computers increase, allowing for more data storage and faster processing. Additionally, machine learning algorithms improve and people become more knowledgeable about which algorithm to use for specific problems. |
| 1974–1980 | AI winter | After criticism of the lack of progress in artificial intelligence (AI), government funding and interest in the field decrease during this period. Research efforts focuse on neural networks, but progress is limited, and functional programs can only handle simple problems. AI researchers have been overly optimistic in setting their goals and have made naive assumptions about the challenges they would face. When they failed to deliver promised results, funding was cut. [5][2] |
| 1980–1987 | A boom of AI | Following the period of AI winter, the field of artificial intelligence makes a comeback with the introduction of expert systems. These systems are designed to mimic the decision-making abilities of a human expert through programming. [1] AI is reignited by two sources: an expansion of the algorithmic toolkit, and a boost of funds. John Hopfield and David Rumelhart popularize “deep learning” techniques which allow computers to learn using experience.[4] Funding from the United States and Britain resume to compete with Japan's "fifth generation" computer project and its goal of becoming the global leader in computer technology.[5][2][6] |
| 1987–1993 | Second AI winter | Investors and governments stop funding AI research due to high costs and inefficient results, leading to another major AI winter. This coincides with the decline of early general-purpose computers and reduced government funding. Expert systems such as XCON are cost-effective but become too expensive to maintain compared to desktop computers. At the same time, DARPA concludes that AI would not be the next big thing and redirects funds to other projects. However, by the end of the 1980s, over half of the Fortune 500 companies were involved in either developing or maintaining expert systems.[1][5][2][6] |
| 1993–2011 | Emergence of intelligent agents | AI research shifts its focus to intelligent agents which are used for news retrieval, online shopping, and web browsing. Despite a lack of government funding and hype, AI thrives during the 1990s and 2000s, achieving many landmark goals. Neural networks become financially successful in the 1990s when used for optical character and speech pattern recognition.[2] Major advancements are made in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine learning, natural language understanding, vision, and other fields.[7] |
| 2011-onward | Massive data and new computing power. "Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence" | In 2011, IBM's Watson wins Jeopardy, showcasing its ability to understand natural language and solve complex questions quickly. The AI field experiences a new boom in the early 2010s due to the availability of massive amounts of data and the discovery of the high efficiency of computer graphics card processors in accelerating learning algorithms. These advancements enable significant progress at a lower financial cost.[1][3] |
Summary by country
Full timeline
| Year | Event type | Details | Country/location |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4th century B.C. | Greek philosopher Aristotle invents syllogistic logic, the first formal deductive reasoning system.[8] | ||
| 1 AC | Greek mathematician and engineer Hero of Alexandria creates automatons that operate with mechanical mechanisms powered by water and steam.[9] | ||
| 1206 | Ebru İz Bin Rezzaz Al Jezeri, who some consider a pioneer in cybernetic science, creates water-operated automatic controlled machines.[9] | ||
| 1308 | Catalan poet Ramon Llull publishes "Ars generalis ultima" (The Ultimate General Art). This work improves his method of using mechanical tools made of paper to generate new ideas by combining different concepts.[10] | ||
| 1623 | German professor Wilhelm Schickard invents a calculating machine capable of four operations.[11][9] | Germany | |
| 1642 | Blaise Pascal creates the first mechanical digital calculating machine.[8] | ||
| 1666 | German polymath Gottfried Leibniz releases his work Dissertatio de arte combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art). In this work, he follows Ramon Llull's idea of suggesting an alphabet of human thought and argues that all ideas are merely combinations of a small number of simple concepts.[10] | ||
| 1672 | Gottfried Leibniz in Paris develops a binary counting system that forms the abstract basis of modern computers.[12][9] | France | |
| 1703 | Gottfried Leibniz has a foresight of how binary arithmetic could be suitable for automatic calculation.[12] | ||
| 1726 | Jonathan Swift releases Gulliver's Travels, a book containing a portrayal of the Engine, a contraption situated on the island of Laputa that satirizes Llull's concepts. The Engine is described as "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations." According to the depiction, using this device, even an uneducated individual could produce books on various subjects, such as Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with minimal assistance from creativity or education, but with some physical effort and at a reasonable cost. [10] | ||
| 1763 | English statistician Thomas Bayes develops a framework for reasoning about the probability of events. The Bayesian inference would become a leading approach in machine learning.[10][13] | United Kingdom (Kingdom of Great Britain) | |
| 1801 | Joseph-Marie Jacquard invents the Jacquard loom, the first programmable machine, with instructions on punched cards.[8] | ||
| 1854 | Self-taught English mathematician, philosopher, and logician George Boole claims that logical reasoning can be systematically carried out, similar to solving a system of equations. He develops a binary algebra that represents some "laws of thought," which is published in his work titled The Laws of Thought (1854).[8] | ||
| 1863 | Samuel Butler suggests that Darwinian evolution also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity.[14] | ||
| 1879 | Gottlob Frege develops modern propositional logic in his work Begriffsschrift. This would be later later clarified and expanded by Russell,Tarski, Godel, Church and others.[8] | ||
| 1898 | Nikola Tesla showcases the world's first remote-controlled boat at an electrical exhibition in the newly built Madison Square Garden. Tesla referred to the vessel as having "a borrowed mind." [10] | ||
| 1910 | Principia Mathematica is published by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead. This book would have a significant impact on formal logic. Russell, along with Ludwig Wittgenstein and Rudolf Carnap, would pave the way for a logical analysis of knowledge in philosophy.[8] | ||
| 1912 | Torres y Quevedo constructs a chess machine called the "Ajedrecista" that utilizes electromagnets located beneath the board to play out the endgame scenario of a rook and king against a single king. This creation is believed to be the earliest example of a computer game. [8] | ||
| 1914 | Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, a Spanish engineer, presents a chess-playing device that can play endgames with just a king and rook against a king without any human involvement.[10] | ||
| 1921 | The term "robot" is first introduced by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word is derived from "robota," which means "work" in Czech. The play explores the idea of artificial workers who ultimately turn against their human creators.[10] | ||
| 1925 | U.S. electrical engineer Francis P. Houdina demonstrates a radio-controlled car called the "American Wonder" on the streets of New York City. The car is able to travel at speeds of up to 20 mph, and it could turn corners and stop on command. The car is also able to avoid obstacles, such as pedestrians and other cars. The demonstration generates a lot of interest in the concept of driverless cars. However, the technology is not yet advanced enough to make driverless cars practical, and the American Wonder would be never put into production.[10] | United States | |
| 1929 | The first robot ever built in Japan is designed by Makoto Nishimura and named Gakutensoku, which means "learning from the laws of nature." This robot has the ability to alter its facial expression and move its head and hands, which is accomplished through an air pressure mechanism. [10] | ||
| 1931 | Kurt Gödel introduces the theory of deficiency, which is called by his own name.[9] "In 1931, Goedel layed the foundations of Theoretical Computer Science and AI"[15] | ||
| 1936 | Konrad Zuse creates a computer with programmable capabilities called Z1, which has a memory capacity of 64K.[9] | ||
| 1936–1937 | Alan Turing proposes the universal Turing machine.[8] | ||
| 1943 | Warren McCulloch, a neurophysiologist at the University of Illinois, and Walter Pitts, a mathematician at the University of Chicago, release a significant publication regarding neural networks and automatons. They suggest that each neuron in the brain functions as a basic digital processor and that the entire brain is a type of computerized machine. This concept would have a significant impact on the field of artificial intelligence and would provide a theoretical foundation for the use of neural networks in modern technology.[1][16] | ||
| 1943 | Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener and Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics" in a paper. Wiener would publish a popular book by that name in 1948.[8] | ||
| 1943 | Emil Post demonstrates that production systems are a universal computational mechanism. His work on completeness, inconsistency, and proof theory is also significant. Chapter 2 of the book "Rule Based Expert Systems" discusses the applications of production systems in artificial intelligence.[8] | ||
| 1945 | George Polya publishes his best-selling book on thinking heuristically, How to Solve It. This book introduces the term 'heuristic' into modern thinking and would influence many AI scientists.[8] | ||
| 1945 | Vannevar Bush publishes As We May Think, a prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities.[8] | ||
| 1946 | The first computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), becomes operational. It is so large that it occupies an entire room and weights 30 tons.[9] | ||
| 1948 | Hungarian-American polymath John von Neumann introduces the idea of self-replicating program.[9] | United States | |
| 1949 | Edmund Berkeley writes a book titled "Giant Brains: Or Machines That Think", where he discusses the emergence of news about large machines with the ability to handle vast amounts of information at a great speed and with great skill. According to him, these machines are comparable to a brain made of wires and hardware instead of flesh and nerves. In his opinion, machines are capable of thinking because they are capable of performing logical operations, making conclusions, and decisions based on information.[10] | ||
| 1949 | Donald Hebb publishes a book called "Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory," which proposes a theory about learning based on the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time in neural networks. Hebb demonstrates an updating rule for modifying the connection strength between neurons, which would be later known as Hebbian learning.[10][1] | ||
| 1950 | In an article for Scientific American, Claude Shannon argues that only an artificial intelligence program could play computer chess at a high level. He points out that the number of possible moves in a chess game is so vast that it would be impossible for a human to consider all of them. An AI program, on the other hand, could use a search algorithm to explore all of the possible moves and select the best one. Shannon's article would become a landmark in the history of computer chess. It would help to lay the foundation for the development of the first chess-playing programs, which would be developed in the 1950s and 1960s. Today, AI programs are able to play chess at a level that is far superior to any human player.[10][8][17] | ||
| 1950 | Alan Turing publishes his article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", which introduces the concept of the Turing Test, also known as the imitation game. This game involves a human judge trying to distinguish between a human and a machine in a teletype conversation. Turing's article is the first to raise the question of whether a machine could exhibit intelligence.[3] | ||
| 1951 | Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmunds build SNARC (Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforcement Calculator), the first artificial neural network, using 3000 vacuum tubes to simulate a network of 40 neurons.[10] | ||
| 1951 | The first artificial intelligence programs for the Mark 1 device are written.[9] | ||
| 1952 | Arthur Samuel develops the first computer checkers-playing program and the first computer program to learn on its own.[10] | ||
| 1952 | Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley publish a paper in the journal Nature that describe a mathematical model of the electrical activity of neurons. The model, which would be later known as the Hodgkin-Huxley model, is a set of nonlinear differential equations that describe how the membrane potential of a neuron changes over time. The Hodgkin-Huxley model would become a major breakthrough in the field of neuroscience, and it would help to lay the foundation for our understanding of how neurons work. The model would be used to study a wide range of phenomena in neuroscience, including the generation of action potentials, the propagation of action potentials, and the integration of synaptic inputs. The Hodgkin-Huxley model is a simplified model of the neuron, but it is still a very powerful tool for understanding how neurons work.[2] | ||
| 1953 | Arthur Prior, a philosopher at the University of Canterbury, first introduces tense logic, which would be used by languages to express time-dependent data. Tense logic helps in locating statements in the flow of time.[16] | ||
| 1954 | The Georgetown-IBM experiment becomes the first demonstration of machine translation (MT). The experiment is conducted by a team of researchers from Georgetown University and IBM. They use a computer called the IBM 701 to translate 60 Russian sentences into English. The sentences are all related to organic chemistry, and the translation system was able to translate them with an accuracy of 85%. The Georgetown-IBM experiment becomes a major milestone in the history of MT. It shows that MT was a real possibility, and it paves the way for the development of more advanced MT systems.[6] | United States | |
| 1954 | Belmont Farley and Wesley Clark of MIT achieve a significant milestone by running the first artificial neural network. Although limited by computer memory to 128 neurons, they are able to train the network to recognize simple patterns. They also discover that damaging up to 10 percent of the neurons did not affect the network's performance, similar to the brain's ability to tolerate limited damage. The depicted neural network exemplifies the fundamental concepts of connectionism.[16] | ||
| 1955 | In August 31, 1955, a proposal titled 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence is submitted by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon. This proposal introduces the term "artificial intelligence." The workshop, held in July and August 1956, would be widely regarded as the official birth of the field of artificial intelligence.[10] | ||
| 1955 (December) | Herbert Simon and Allen Newell introduce the Logic Theorist, recognized as the first artificial intelligence program. This program achieves a remarkable feat by proving 38 out of the initial 52 theorems found in Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica. Additionally, it discovers new and more elegant proofs for some of these theorems.[10][1] | ||
| 1955–1956 | Allen Newell, J. Clifford Shaw, and Herbert Simon create the Logic Theorist, a groundbreaking program aimed at proving theorems from Principia Mathematica by Whitehead and Russell. The Logic Theorist, as it comes to be known, is capable of producing more elegant proofs than those found in the original books, marking a significant achievement in this field.[16] | ||
| 1956 | The inaugural "Artificial Intelligence" conference takes place at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The term "artificial intelligence" was previously coined in a proposal submitted by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon in August 1955, leading to the official birth of the field during the workshop held in July and August 1956. This summer conference, funded by the Rockefeller Institute, is considered the foundation of the discipline. Remarkably, it is a workshop rather than a conventional conference, with only six participants, including McCarthy and Minsky, who would remain consistently engaged in developing the field, primarily through formal logic.[18][10] [3][6][1] | United States | |
| 1956 | Newell and Simon develop the Logic Theorist program, an early AI system designed to discover proofs in propositional logic. This marks the inception of artificial intelligence as a field, with Logic Theorist being later often considered the first AI program. It is presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI) in the same year, a conference hosted by John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky, where the term "artificial intelligence" is first coined. The program aims to simulate human problem-solving skills and was funded by the RAND Corporation.[19][4][5][9] | ||
| 1957 | Frank Rosenblatt creates the Perceptron, one of the initial artificial neural networks that facilitates pattern recognition through a two-layer computer learning system. The New York Times describes the Perceptron as the early stages of an electronic computer that the Navy anticipates can eventually possess capabilities such as walking, talking, seeing, writing, self-replicating, and self-awareness. The New Yorker characterizes it as an extraordinary machine with the potential for what can be considered as thought processes.[10] | ||
| 1957 | Herbert Simon, an economist and sociologist, predicts that artificial intelligence would be able to defeat a human at chess within a decade. However, AI research would experience a setback and would go through a period of dormancy. Nevertheless, Simon's prediction ultimately would come true, but it would take 30 years for AI to accomplish this feat.[3] | ||
| 1957 | Herbert Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert Simon demonstrate the General Problem Solver (GPS). This program, developed over about a decade, is capable of solving a wide range of puzzles through a trial-and-error approach, showcasing significant problem-solving abilities.[16][8] | ||
| 1958 | American computer scientist John McCarthy develops the Lisp programming language. Lisp is a functional programming language that is well-suited for artificial intelligence applications. It is a recursive language, which means that it can be used to represent recursive data structures, such as lists. This makes it a powerful tool for representing the knowledge that is used in artificial intelligence applications. Lisp would be used in a wide variety of artificial intelligence applications, including natural language processing, machine learning, and robotics. It is still one of the most popular programming languages used in artificial intelligence research.[10][9] | ||
| 1958 | Herbert Gelernter's "geometry machine" becomes the first advanced AI program to prove geometric theorems, marking a significant milestone in artificial intelligence development.[20] | ||
| 1959 | Arthur Samuel coins the term "machine learning" while reporting his work on programming a computer to improve its checkers game-playing skills beyond the capabilities of its human programmer.[10] | ||
| 1959 | Oliver Selfridge publishes Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning, which describes a model in which computers can recognize patterns that has not been pre-specified. This work lays the foundation for pattern recognition and learning in AI.[10] | ||
| 1959 | John McCarthy publishes Programs with Common Sense, in which he introduces the concept of the "Advice Taker," a program designed for problem-solving and common-sense reasoning.[10] | ||
| 1959 | Samuel creates a checkers program. Later in the late 1950s, he would design a program that can learn how to play checkers.[19] | ||
| 1960 | American psychologist and computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider described the human-machine relationship in his work.[9] | United States | |
| 1961 | Unimate, the first industrial robot, starts working on an assembly line in a General Motors plant in New Jersey.[10][21] | United States | |
| 1961 | James Slagle in his PhD dissertation writes in Lisp the first symbolic integration program, SAINT, which solves calculus problems at the college freshman level.[8] | ||
| 1961 | American computer scientist James Robert Slagle develops SAINT (Symbolic Automatic INTegrator), a heuristic program designed to solve symbolic integration problems typically found in freshman calculus.[10] | United States | |
| 1963 | Reed C. Lawlor, a member of the California Bar, authors an article titled What Computers Can Do: Analysis and Prediction of Judicial Decisions. The article explores the potential of computers in analyzing and predicting judicial decisions.[3] | ||
| 1963 | "Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQ tests."[8] | ||
| 1963 | Ivan Sutherland's MIT dissertation on Sketchpad introduces the concept of interactive graphics into the field of computing.[8] | United States | |
| 1963 | "Edward A. Feigenbaum & Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought, the first collection of articles about artificial intelligence."[8] | ||
| 1964 | Daniel Bobrow completes his MIT PhD dissertation titled Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System and creates STUDENT, a computer program for natural language understanding.[10] | ||
| 1964 | Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Behaviour | United Kingdom | |
| 1964 | Danny Bobrow's MIT dissertation demonstrates that computers can understand natural language well enough to correctly solve algebra word problems.[8] | ||
| 1964 | Bert Raphael's MIT dissertation on the SIR program showcases the effectiveness of a logical knowledge representation for question-answering systems.[8] | ||
| 1965 | Herbert Simon predicts in The Shape of Automation for Men and Management that machines would be capable of doing any work a man can do within 20 years.[22] "Herbert Simon predicts that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do.""[10] | ||
| 1965 | American philosopher Hubert Dreyfus publishes Alchemy and AI, which argues that the mind is not like a computer and that there are limits beyond which artificial intelligence would not progress.[10] | United States | |
| 1965 | I.J. Good writes in "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" that the first ultraintelligent machine could potentially be humanity's last invention, as long as it remains compliant enough to guide us in controlling it.[10] | ||
| 1965 | Joseph Weizenbaum creates ELIZA, an interactive software that engages in conversations in English about various subjects. Weizenbaum's objective was to exhibit the superficial nature of communication between humans and machines. However, he would be taken aback by the number of individuals attributing human-like emotions to the computer program.[10] | ||
| 1965 | "Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl Djerassi start working on DENDRAL at Stanford University. The first expert system, it automated the decision-making process and problem-solving behavior of organic chemists, with the general aim of studying hypothesis formation and constructing models of empirical induction in science."[10] | ||
| 1965 | Expert system | MIT pioneers the development of expert systems with DENDRAL, a specialized artificial intelligence program focused on molecular chemistry.[3] | United States |
| 1965 | Literature | Hubert Dreyfus publishes Alchemy and AI. | |
| 1965 | J. Alan Robinson develops the Resolution Method, a mechanical proof procedure that enables programs to efficiently work with formal logic as a representation language.[8] | ||
| 1965 | Joseph Weizenbaum, a researcher at MIT, develops ELIZA, an interactive software that engages in conversations in the English language on various subjects. Initially, it is a well-liked application at AI centers on the ARPA-net. However, a modified version would be created to imitate the conversation style of a psychotherapist.[8] | ||
| 1966 | Shakey the robot is introduced as the first general-purpose mobile robot capable of reasoning about its own actions. An article in Life magazine in 1970 refers to Shakey as the "first electronic person," and Marvin Minsky predicts that within three to eight years, a machine with the general intelligence of an average human would be achieved.[10] | ||
| 1966 | Joseph Weizenbaum, a German-American computer scientist at MIT, creates the first chatbot named ELIZA. ELIZA uses scripts to simulate conversations with humans, including the role of a psychotherapist. This development highlights the early focus on algorithm development for mathematical problem-solving.[23][1] | ||
| 1966 | The ALPAC report, known for its skepticism about machine translation research and its call for increased focus on basic computational linguistics research, results in a significant reduction in U.S. government funding for this field. This report, along with the 1973 Lighthill report for the British government, contribute to the onset of the AI winter, a period marked by reduced funding and interest in artificial intelligence research.[6] | ||
| 1966 | Organization | Canadian engineer Charles Rosen founds the Artificial Intelligence Center.[24] | |
| 1966 | Ross Quillian in his PhD dissertation at Carnegie Institute of Technology demonstrates semantic networks[8], which are basically graphic depictions of knowledge composed of nodes and links that show hierarchical relationships between objects.[25] Semantic networks are an alternative to first-order logic as a form of knowledge representation.[26] | United States | |
| 1966 | "First Machine Intelligence workshop at Edinburgh - the first of an influential annual series organized by Donald Michie and others."[8] | ||
| 1966 | "Negative report on machine translation kills much work in Natural Language Processing (NLP) for many years."[8] | ||
| 1967 | "Dendral program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg, Bruce Buchanan, Georgia Sutherland at Stanford) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific reasoning."[8] | ||
| 1967 | "Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma (PDF file) program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics."[8] | ||
| 1967 | "Richard Greenblatt at MIT built a knowledge-based chess-playing program, MacHack, that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play."[8] | ||
| 1967 | "For example, the STUDENT program of Daniel Bobrow [1967] could solve high school algebra tasks expressed in natural language."[19] | ||
| 1968 | "The film 2001: Space Odyssey is released, featuring Hal, a sentient computer."[10] "In 1968 Stanley Kubrick directed the film "2001 Space Odyssey" where a computer - HAL 9000 (only one letter away from those of IBM) summarizes in itself the whole sum of ethical questions posed by AI: will it represent a high level of sophistication, a good for humanity or a danger? The impact of the film will naturally not be scientific but it will contribute to popularize the theme, just as the science fiction author Philip K. Dick, who will never cease to wonder if, one day, the machines will experience emotions."[3] | ||
| 1968 | American computer scientist Terry Winograd creates SHRDLU, an early computer program capable of understanding natural language.[10] | United States | |
| 1969 | "Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho describe backpropagation as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method. A learning algorithm for multi-layer artificial neural networks, it has contributed significantly to the success of deep learning in the 2000s and 2010s, once computing power has sufficiently advanced to accommodate the training of large networks."[10] | ||
| 1969 | "Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry, highlighting the limitations of simple neural networks. In an expanded edition published in 1988, they responded to claims that their 1969 conclusions significantly reduced funding for neural network research: “Our version is that progress had already come to a virtual halt because of the lack of adequate basic theories… by the mid-1960s there had been a great many experiments with perceptrons, but no one had been able to explain why they were able to recognize certain kinds of patterns and not others.”"[10] | ||
| 1969 | Conference | International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence "First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held in Washington, D.C."[8] | |
| 1969 | The SRI robot Shakey demonstrates the ability to combine locomotion, perception, and problem solving. This is a major breakthrough in the field of robotics, as it shows that it is possible to build a robot that can interact with its environment in a meaningful way. Shakey is equipped with a variety of sensors, including a television camera, a laser range finder, and a bump sensor. These sensors allow Shakey to see its surroundings, measure the distance to objects, and detect obstacles. Shakey is also equipped with a problem-solving system that allows it to plan its movements and solve simple problems. Shakey's success shows that it is possible to build a robot that can combine locomotion, perception, and problem solving. This is a major breakthrough in the field of robotics, as it paves the way for the development of more advanced mobile robots.[8] | United States | |
| 1969 | Roger Schank, a researcher at Stanford University, introduces the conceptual dependency model for natural language understanding. This model would be further developed for applications in story understanding by Robert Wilensky and Wendy Lehnert during their PhD dissertations at Yale University. Additionally, Janet Kolodner would expand its use in understanding memory.[8] | United States | |
| 1970 | Literature | Journal Artificial Intelligence is first published by Elsevier.[27] | Netherlands |
| 1970 | Waseda University in Japan creates the WABOT-1, the first anthropomorphic robot. This robot features limb control, a vision system, and a conversation system, marking a significant advancement in robotics.[10] | ||
| 1970 | Marvin Minsky expresses optimism to Life Magazine, suggesting that within three to eight years, a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being would be developed. However, despite the progress made in basic principles, there is still a considerable distance to cover before achieving goals like natural language processing, abstract thinking, and self-recognition in AI.[4] | ||
| 1970 | Uruguayan American Jaime Carbonell develops SCHOLAR, an interactive program for computer-aided instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge.[8] SCHOLAR is perhaps the first intelligent tutoring system.[28] | United States | |
| 1970 | Bill Woods describes Augmented Transition Networks (ATN) as a representation for natural language understanding.[8] The ATN is a formalism for writing parsing grammars that would be much used in artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.[29] | ||
| 1970 | Patrick Winston's PhD program called ARCH, which is conducted at MIT, focuses on teaching computers to learn concepts from examples in the context of children's building blocks.[8] | ||
| 1971 | "Terry Winograd's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU, with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English."[8] | ||
| 1972 | Expert system | "MYCIN, an early expert system for identifying bacteria causing severe infections and recommending antibiotics, is developed at Stanford University."[4] "Stanford University in 1972 with MYCIN (system specialized in the diagnosis of blood diseases and prescription drugs). "[3] "1972: AI enters the medical field. With ‘MYCIN’, artificial intelligence finds its way into medical practices: The expert system developed by Ted Shortliffe at Stanford University is used for the treatment of illnesses. Expert systems are computer programs that bundle the knowledge for a specialist field using formulas, rules, and a knowledge database. They are used for diagnosis and treatment support in medicine."[23] | |
| 1972 | The WABOT-1 becomes the first full-scale humanoid intelligent robot built in the world. It is developed by a team of researchers at Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, led by Ichiro Kato. The WABOT-1 is able to walk, talk, and interact with people in a limited way. A major breakthrough in the field of robotics it shows that it is possible to build a robot that could interact with humans in a meaningful way. The research that is done on the WABOT-1 would help to pave the way for the development of more advanced humanoid robots, such as the ASIMO robot developed by Honda.[1] | Japan | |
| 1972 | Lierature | Hubert Dreyfus publishes What Computers Can't Do.[30] | |
| 1972 | Alain Colmerauer develops Prolog, a programming language commonly used for artificial intelligence and symbolic reasoning.[8] | ||
| 1972 | "Work on MYCIN, an expert system for treating blood infections, began at Stanford University in 1972. MYCIN would attempt to diagnose patients based on reported symptoms and medical test results."[16] | ||
| 1973 | James Lighthill is commissioned by the head of the British Science Research Council, Brian Flowers, to evaluate requests for support in AI research. His report, "Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey," published in 1973, concludes that the discoveries made in the field of AI research had not lived up to the earlier promises of major impact. This pessimistic prognosis by Lighthill would result in reduced government funding for AI research, and his report would be commonly referred to as the "Lighthill report."[4][6] | ||
| 1973 | "The logic programming language PROLOG (Programmation en Logique) was conceived by Alain Colmerauer at the University of Aix-Marseille, France, where the language was first implemented in 1973. PROLOG was further developed by the logician Robert Kowalski, a member of the AI group at the University of Edinburgh. This language makes use of a powerful theorem-proving technique known as resolution, invented in 1963 at the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission’s Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois by the British logician Alan Robinson. PROLOG can determine whether or not a given statement follows logically from other given statements. For example, given the statements “All logicians are rational” and “Robinson is a logician,” a PROLOG program responds in the affirmative to the query “Robinson is rational?” PROLOG is widely used for AI work, especially in Europe and Japan."[16] | ||
| 1973 | "The onset of the AI winter could be traced to the government’s decision to pull back on AI research. The decisions were often attributed to a couple of infamous reports, specifically the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) report by U.S. Government in 1966, and the Lighthill report for the British government in 1973."[6] | ||
| 1973 | DARPA initiates the development of protocols known as TCP/IP.[9] | ||
| 1974 | Conference | European Conference on Artificial Intelligence[31] | |
| 1974 | "Ted Shortliffe's PhD dissertation on MYCIN (Stanford) demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for knowledge representation and inference in the domain of medical diagnosis and therapy. Sometimes called the first expert system."[8] | ||
| 1974 | "Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first planning programs, ABSTRIPS, and developed techniques of hierarchical planning."[8] | ||
| 1975 | "Marvin Minsky published his widely-read and influential article on Frames as a representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas and semantic links are brought together."[8] | ||
| 1975 | "The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry (some rules of mass spectrometry) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a refereed journal."[8] | ||
| 1976 | "Computer scientist Raj Reddy publishes “Speech Recognition by Machine: A Review” in the Proceedings of the IEEE, summarizing the early work on Natural Language Processing (NLP)."[10] | ||
| 1976 | "AI research languishes as processing power proves unable to keep up with the promising theoretical groundwork being laid by computer scientists. Roboticist Hans Moravec says computers are “still millions of times too weak to exhibit intelligence.”"[32] | ||
| 1976 | "Doug Lenat's AM program (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely-guided search for interesting conjectures)."[8] | ||
| 1976 | "Randall Davis demonstrated the power of meta-level reasoning in his PhD dissertation at Stanford."[8] | ||
| Mid1970s | "Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse and anaphoric references in NLP."[8] | ||
| Mid1970s | "Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg (Xerox PARC) developed the Smalltalk language, establishing the power of object-oriented programming and of icon-oriented interfaces."[8] | ||
| Mid1970s | British neuroscientist David Marr and his colleagues at MIT propose a theory of visual perception that includes the concept of the "primal sketch." The primal sketch is a low-level representation of the visual world that is based on the edges and textures of surfaces. It is the first step in Marr's theory of visual perception, which is a hierarchical model that describes how the brain processes visual information.[8] | ||
| 1977 | iLabs[33] | Italy | |
| 1978 | Expert system | "The XCON (eXpert CONfigurer) program, a rule-based expert system assisting in the ordering of DEC's VAX computers by automatically selecting the components based on the customer's requirements, is developed at Carnegie Mellon University."[10] | |
| 1978 | ". In 1978 Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold
for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."[6] || | ||
| 1978 | " Herbert Simon earned a Nobel Prize for his limited Rationality Theory, which is an important work on Artificial Intelligence."[9] | ||
| 1978 | "Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version Spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program."[8] | ||
| 1978 | "Herb Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of bounded rationality, one of the cornerstones of AI known as "satisficing""[8] | ||
| 1978 | "The MOLGEN program, written at Stanford by Mark Stefik and Peter Friedland, demonstrated that an object-oriented representation of knowledge can be used to plan gene-cloning experiments."[8] | ||
| 1979 | "The Stanford Cart successfully crosses a chair-filled room without human intervention in about five hours, becoming one of the earliest examples of an autonomous vehicle."[10] | ||
| 1979 | The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence is founded.[34] | United States | |
| 1979 | "Mycin program, initially written as Ted Shortliffe's Ph.D. dissertation at Stanford, was demonstrated to perform at the level of experts. Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells"."[8] | ||
| 1979 | "Jack Myers and Harry Pople at University of Pittsburgh developed INTERNIST, a knowledge-based medical diagnosis program based on Dr. Myers' clinical knowledge."[8] | ||
| 1979 | "Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming."[8] | ||
| 1979 | "Drew McDermott & Jon Doyle at MIT, and John McCarthy at Stanford begin publishing work on non-monotonic logics and formal aspects of truth maintenance."[8] | ||
| Late 1970s | "Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration."[8] | ||
| 1980 | "Computer scientist Edward Feigenbaum helps reignite AI research by leading the charge to develop “expert systems”—programs that learn by ask experts in a given field how to respond in certain situations. Once the system compiles expert responses for all known situations likely to occur in that field, the system can provide field-specific expert guidance to nonexperts."[32] | ||
| 1980 | Expert system | " After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert."[1] | |
| 1980 | "Wabot-2 is built at Waseda University in Japan, a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person, read a musical score and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ."[10] | ||
| 1980 | Expert system | "Digital Equipment Corporation began requiring their sales team use an Expert System named XCON when placing customer orders. DEC sold a broad range of computer components, but the sales force was not especially knowledgeable about what they were selling."[2] | |
| 1980 | "In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University."[1] | ||
| 1980 | "The year of AI. In 1980, AI research fired back up with an expansion of funds and algorithmic tools. With deep learning techniques, the computer learned with the user experience."[35] | ||
| 1980 | "Lee Erman, Rick Hayes-Roth, Victor Lesser and Raj Reddy published the first description of the blackboard model, as the framework for the HEARSAY-II speech understanding system."[8] | ||
| 1980 | "First National Conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held at Stanford."[8] | ||
| 1980 | " (The term strong AI was introduced for this category of research in 1980 by the philosopher John Searle of the University of California at Berkeley.) "[16] | ||
| 1981 | "In 1981 an expert system named SID (Synthesis of Integral Design) designed 93% of the VAX 9000 CPU logic gates. The SID system was existing out of 1,000 hand-written-rules. The final design of the CPU took 3 hours to calculate and outperformed in many ways the human experts. As an example, the SID produced a faster 64-bit adder than the manually designed one. Also the bug per gate rate, which where around 1 bug per 200 gates from human experts, was much lower at around 1 bug per 20,000 gates at the final result of the SID system."[36] | ||
| 1981 | "Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, a massively parallel architecture that brings new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines, Inc.)"[8] | ||
| 1981 | "he Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry budgets $850 million for the Fifth Generation Computer project. The project aimed to develop computers that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings"[10] | ||
| 1981 | "Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) commissioned a study of what the future would hold for computers, and three years later attempted to construct fifth generation computers – creating what project heads described as an ‘epochal’ leap in computer technology, in order to give Japan the technological lead for years to come. This new generation of machines would not be built on standard microprocessors, but multiprocessor machines specializing in logic programming. The bet was that these high-power logic machines would catalyze the world of information processing and realize artificial intelligence."[6] | Japan | |
| 1982 | European Association for Artificial Intelligence | ||
| 1983 | Organization | The Turing Institute is founded in Glasgow, Scotland as an Artificial Intelligence laboratory. The company would undertake basic and applied research, working directly with large companies across Europe, the United States, and Japan developing software as well as providing training, consultancy and information services.[37] From 1989 onwards, the company would face financial difficulties and would close in 1994.[38] | United Kingdom |
| 1983 | "John Laird & Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell, complete CMU dissertations on SOAR."[8] | ||
| 1983 | James Allen invents the later called Allen's interval algebra, the first widely used formalization of temporal events.[8][39][40] Alsocalled Allen's Interval Calculus, it is certainly the most well-known qualitative temporal calculus in artificial intelligence.[41] | ||
| 1984 | "Electric Dreams is released, a film about a love triangle between a man, a woman and a personal computer."[10] | ||
| 1984 | "At the annual meeting of AAAI, Roger Schank and Marvin Minsky warn of the coming “AI Winter,” predicting an immanent bursting of the AI bubble (which did happen three years later), similar to the reduction in AI investment and research funding in the mid-1970s."[10] | ||
| 1984 | The CYC project is initiated as a significant endeavor in symbolic AI. This project is launched under the sponsorship of the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation, a consortium consisting of computer, semiconductor, and electronics manufacturers.[16] | ||
| 1985 | Harold Cohen demonstrates the autonomous drawing program called Aaron at the AAAI National Conference. Aaron, which was developed over more than a decade, showcases significant advancements in autonomous drawing capabilities.[8] | ||
| 1986 | A team of researchers at the Bundeswehr University Munich, Germany, led by Ernst Dickmanns, builds the first driverless car, a Mercedes-Benz van equipped with cameras and sensors that allow it to navigate empty streets at speeds of up to 55 mph. The car is able to follow the road markings, avoid obstacles, and even change lanes. This is a major milestone in the development of self-driving cars, and it shows that it is possible to build a car that could drive itself safely on public roads. The research that is done on this car would help to pave the way for the development of the self-driving cars that we see today.[10] | ||
| 1986 | Literature | Hubert Dreyfus publishes Mind over Machine. | |
| 1986 | "In one famous connectionist experiment conducted at the University of California at San Diego (published in 1986), David Rumelhart and James McClelland trained a network of 920 artificial neurons, arranged in two layers of 460 neurons, to form the past tenses of English verbs. Root forms of verbs—such as come, look, and sleep—were presented to one layer of neurons, the input layer. A supervisory computer program observed the difference between the actual response at the layer of output neurons and the desired response—came, say—and then mechanically adjusted the connections throughout the network in accordance with the procedure described above to give the network a slight push in the direction of the correct response. About 400 different verbs were presented one by one to the network, and the connections were adjusted after each presentation. This whole procedure was repeated about 200 times using the same verbs, after which the network could correctly form the past tense of many unfamiliar verbs as well as of the original verbs."[16] | ||
| 1986 (October) | Organization | The Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics is founded in Bangalore as a laboratory of the Defence Research & Development Organization.[42] | India |
| 1986 (October) | "October 1986 David Rumelhart, Geoffrey Hinton, and Ronald Williams publish ”Learning representations by back-propagating errors,” in which they describe “a new learning procedure, back-propagation, for networks of neurone-like units.”"[10] | ||
| 1986 | "1986: ‘NETtalk’ speaks. The computer is given a voice for the first time. Terrence J. Sejnowski and Charles Rosenberg teach their ‘NETtalk’ program to speak by inputting sample sentences and phoneme chains. NETtalk is able to read words and pronounce them correctly, and can apply what it has learned to words it does not know. It is one of the early artificial neural networks — programs that are supplied with large datasets and are able to draw their own conclusions on this basis. Their structure and function are thereby similar to those of the human brain."[23] | ||
| 1986 | Conference | International Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization | |
| 1987 | "The video Knowledge Navigator, accompanying Apple CEO John Sculley’s keynote speech at Educom, envisions a future in which “knowledge applications would be accessed by smart agents working over networks connected to massive amounts of digitized information.”"[10] | ||
| 1987 | Literature | AI & Society | |
| 1987 | Literature | Applied Artificial Intelligence | |
| 1987 | Literature | International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence | |
| 1987 | "Marvin Minsky publishes The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents."[8] | ||
| 1988 | "Judea Pearl publishes Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems. His 2011 Turing Award citation reads: “Judea Pearl created the representational and computational foundation for the processing of information under uncertainty. He is credited with the invention of Bayesian networks, a mathematical formalism for defining complex probability models, as well as the principal algorithms used for inference in these models. This work not only revolutionized the field of artificial intelligence but also became an important tool for many other branches of engineering and the natural sciences.”"[10] | ||
| 1988 | Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence Research | Switzerland | |
| 1988 | "Rollo Carpenter develops the chat-bot Jabberwacky to "simulate natural human chat in an interesting, entertaining and humorous manner." It is an early attempt at creating artificial intelligence through human interaction."[10] | ||
| 1988 | "Members of the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center publish “A statistical approach to language translation,” heralding the shift from rule-based to probabilistic methods of machine translation, and reflecting a broader shift to “machine learning” based on statistical analysis of known examples, not comprehension and “understanding” of the task at hand (IBM’s project Candide, successfully translating between English and French, was based on 2.2 million pairs of sentences, mostly from the bilingual proceedings of the Canadian parliament)."[10] | ||
| 1988 | German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence | Germany | |
| 1989 | Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish an expanded edition of their 1969 book Perceptrons. In a prologue added to the 1988 edition, they point out that progress in the field of artificial intelligence has been slow due to researchers repeating past mistakes, often because they were unaware of the field's history.[10] | ||
| 1989 | Yann LeCun and a team of researchers at AT&T Bell Labs achieve success by applying a backpropagation algorithm to a multi-layer neural network. This network is used to recognize handwritten ZIP codes. Despite hardware limitations at the time, the training of the network takes approximately three days, marking a significant improvement compared to earlier efforts.[10] | United States | |
| 1989 | Literature | Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence | |
| 1989 (November 9) | Literature | The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics | |
| 1989 | "Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network), which grew into the system that drove a car coast-to-coast under computer control for all but about 50 of the 2850 miles."[8] | ||
| 1990 | "Rodney Brooks publishes “Elephants Don’t Play Chess,” proposing a new approach to AI—building intelligent systems, specifically robots, from the ground up and on the basis of ongoing physical interaction with the environment: “The world is its own best model… The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough.”"[10] | ||
| 1991 | European Neural Network Society[43][44] | ||
| 1991 | In 1991 the American philanthropist Hugh Loebner started the annual Loebner Prize competition, promising a $100,000 payout to the first computer to pass the Turing test and awarding $2,000 each year to the best effort. However, no AI program has come close to passing an undiluted Turing test.[16] | ||
| 1992 | Literature | International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools[45] | |
| 1992 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 1993 | Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research[47] | ||
| 1993 | "Vernor Vinge publishes “The Coming Technological Singularity,” in which he predicts that “within thirty years, we will have the technological means to create superhuman intelligence. Shortly after, the human era will be ended.”"[10] | ||
| 1994 | Conference | Artificial Evolution Conference[48] | France |
| 1995 | "Richard Wallace develops the chatbot A.L.I.C.E (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity), inspired by Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, but with the addition of natural language sample data collection on an unprecedented scale, enabled by the advent of the Web."[10] | ||
| 1995 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 1995 | "1995: AltaVista becomes the first search engine to use natural language processing."[20] | ||
| 1996 | "EQP theorem prover at Argonne National Labs proves the Robbins Conjecture in mathematics (October-November, 1996)."[8] | ||
| 1997 | "Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber propose Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a type of a recurrent neural network used today in handwriting recognition and speech recognition."[10] | ||
| 1997 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 1997 | ". In 1997, reigning world chess champion and grand master Gary Kasparov was defeated by IBM’s Deep Blue, a chess playing computer program. This highly publicized match was the first time a reigning world chess champion loss to a computer and served as a huge step towards an artificially intelligent decision making program."[4] "Deep Blue becomes the first computer chess-playing program to beat a reigning world chess champion."[10] | ||
| 1997 | " speech recognition software, developed by Dragon Systems, was implemented on Windows. This was another great step forward but in the direction of the spoken language interpretation endeavor."[4] | ||
| 1998 | Furby, the first domestic or pet robot, is created by Dave Hampton and Caleb Chung.[4] | ||
| 1998 | Literature | Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems[49] | |
| 1998 | "Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio and others publish papers on the application of neural networks to handwriting recognition and on optimizing backpropagation."[4] | ||
| 1998 | " And it was in 1998 that Amazon began using “collaborative filtering” enabling recommendations for millions of customers."[50] | ||
| 1998 | "1998 Tiger Electronics' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment."[14] | ||
| Late 1990s | "Late 1990s Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web."[14] | ||
| 1990s | "Demonstration of an Intelligent Room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab. Initiation of work on the Oxygen Architecture, which connects mobile and stationary computers in an adaptive network."[7] | ||
| 2000 | "MIT’s Cynthia Breazeal develops Kismet, a robot that could recognize and simulate emotions."[4] | ||
| 2000 | "Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in a restaurant setting."[4] | ||
| 2000 | Conference | Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence[51] | Mexico |
| 2000 | "Cynthia Breazeal at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable Machines, describing KISMET, a robot with a face that expresses emotions."[7] | ||
| 2001 | "A.I. Artificial Intelligence is released, a Steven Spielberg film about David, a childlike android uniquely programmed with the ability to love."[4] | ||
| 2001 | Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute[52] | United States | |
| 2002 | "Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner."[1] | ||
| 2002 | Conference | RuleML Symposium[53] | |
| 2003 | "In 2003, Geoffrey Hinton (University of Toronto), Yoshua Bengio (University of Montreal) and Yann LeCun (University of New York) decided to start a research program to bring neural networks up to date. Experiments conducted simultaneously at Microsoft, Google and IBM with the help of the Toronto laboratory in Hinton showed that this type of learning succeeded in halving the error rates for speech recognition. Similar results were achieved by Hinton's image recognition team."[3] | ||
| 2003 | MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory[54] | United States | |
| 2004 | "The first DARPA Grand Challenge, a prize competition for autonomous vehicles, is held in the Mojave Desert. None of the autonomous vehicles finished the 150-mile route."[4] | ||
| 2004 | Conference | International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics[55] | Italy |
| 2006 | "Oren Etzioni, Michele Banko, and Michael Cafarella coin the term “machine reading,” defining it as an inherently unsupervised “autonomous understanding of text.”"[4] | ||
| 2006 | "Geoffrey Hinton publishes “Learning Multiple Layers of Representation,” summarizing the ideas that have led to “multilayer neural networks that contain top-down connections and training them to generate sensory data rather than to classify it,” i.e., the new approaches to deep learning."[4] | ||
| 2006 | "Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI."[1] | ||
| 2006 | The first AI doctor-conducted unassisted robotic surgery is on a 34-year-old male to correct heart arrythmia. The results are rated as better than an above-average human surgeon. The machine has a database of 10,000 similar operations, and so, in the words of its designers, is "more than qualified to operate on any patient".[56][57] | ||
| 2006 | Conference | AI@50[58] | |
| 2007 | Fei Fei Li and her team at Princeton University initiate the creation of ImageNet, a substantial database of annotated images intended to support research in visual object recognition software.[4] | United States | |
| 2008 | Eliezer Yudkowsky calls for the creation of “friendly AI” to mitigate existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence. Yudkowsky explains: "The AI does not hate you, nor does it love you, but you are made out of atoms which it can use for something else."[59] | United States | |
| 2008 | Conference | Conference on Artificial General Intelligence[60] | |
| 2009 | "Rajat Raina, Anand Madhavan and Andrew Ng publish “Large-scale Deep Unsupervised Learning using Graphics Processors,” arguing that “modern graphics processors far surpass the computational capabilities of multicore CPUs, and have the potential to revolutionize the applicability of deep unsupervised learning methods.”"[4] | ||
| 2009 | "Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test."[4] | ||
| 2009 | "Computer scientists at the Intelligent Information Laboratory at Northwestern University develop Stats Monkey, a program that writes sport news stories without human intervention."[4] | ||
| 2010 | "Launch of the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVCR), an annual AI object recognition competition."[4] | ||
| 2010 | DeepMind[61] | ||
| 2011 | "A convolutional neural network wins the German Traffic Sign Recognition competition with 99.46% accuracy (vs. humans at 99.22%)."[4] | ||
| 2011 | "And in 2011, the computer giant's question-answering system Watson won the quiz show "Jeopardy!" by beating reigning champions Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings."[5] | ||
| 2011 | "This year, the talking computer "chatbot" Eugene Goostman captured headlines for tricking judges into thinking he was real skin-and-blood human during a Turing test,"[5] | ||
| 2011 | "Watson, a natural language question answering computer, competes on Jeopardy! and defeats two former champions."[4] | ||
| 2011 | "Researchers at the IDSIA in Switzerland report a 0.27% error rate in handwriting recognition using convolutional neural networks, a significant improvement over the 0.35%-0.40% error rate in previous years."[4] | ||
| 2011 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2011 | "2011: AI enters everyday life. Technology leaps in the hardware and software fields pave the way for artificial intelligence to enter everyday life. Powerful processors and graphics cards in computers, smartphones, and tablets give regular consumers access to AI programs. Digital assistants in particular enjoy great popularity: Apple’s ‘Siri’ comes to the market in 2011, Microsoft introduces the ‘Cortana’ software in 2014, and Amazon presents Amazon Echo with the voice service ‘Alexa’ in 2015."[23] | ||
| 2012 | "June 2012 Jeff Dean and Andrew Ng report on an experiment in which they showed a very large neural network 10 million unlabeled images randomly taken from YouTube videos, and “to our amusement, one of our artificial neurons learned to respond strongly to pictures of... cats.”"[4] | ||
| 2012 (July 13) | Literature | The Machine Question: Critical Perspectives on AI, Robots, and Ethics | |
| 2012 | "October 2012 A convolutional neural network designed by researchers at the University of Toronto achieve an error rate of only 16% in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a significant improvement over the 25% error rate achieved by the best entry the year before."[10] | ||
| 2012 | The secutiry market is flooded by computer vision start-ups.[62] | ||
| 2013 | "Boston Dynamics unveils Atlas , an advanced humanoid robot designed for various search-and-rescue tasks."[32][63] | ||
| 2013 | ". Automated Insights published 300 million pieces of content in 2013"[50] | ||
| 2014 (January) | "The 3-years-old DeepMind being acquired by Google in Jan. 2014;"[64] | ||
| 2014 | "Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test."[4] | ||
| 2014 | Allen Institute for AI[65][66] | United States | |
| 2014 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2014 | "Microsoft introduces the ‘Cortana’ software"[23] | ||
| 2014 | Future of Life Institute[67] | United States | |
| 2014 | Squirrel AI[68][69] | China | |
| 2014 | Kiev Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence[70] | Ukraine | |
| 2014 | "Ian Goodfellow comes up with Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN)."[71] | ||
| 2014 | "When programmatic ad buying was popularized in 2014, it introduced us to artificial intelligence-based ad buying, effectively removing the broken, laborious manual tasks of researching target markets, budgets, insertion orders, and layers of additional analytics tracking – not to mention high prices."[50] | ||
| 2015 | "Amazon introduces service ‘Alexa’ in 2015."[23] | ||
| 2015 (march) | The algorithm for diffusion that would later serve as the foundation for text-to-image tools is initially introduced by researchers from Stanford and Berkeley. | ||
| 2015 | The Chinese Congress on Artificial Intelligence 2015 takes place in Beijing, giving the direction of AI-related industries in China.[62] | China | |
| 2015 | Open Letter on Artificial Intelligence[72] | ||
| 2015 (September 22) | The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World | ||
| 2015 | Google launches RankBrain, an advanced artificial intelligence algorithm. RankBrain would revolutionize search query interpretation by effectively understanding the user's search intent, resulting in more relevant search results.[50] | ||
| 2016 | "March 2016 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo defeats Go champion Lee Sedol."[4] | ||
| 2016 (March) | Microsoft releases the Tay chatbot, but quickly takes it offline after it becomes Holocaust denying. | ||
| 2016 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2016 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2016 | Center for Human-Compatible Artificial Intelligence[73] | United States | |
| 2016 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2016 (February 16) | Active Intelligence Pte Ltd[74] | Singapore | |
| 2016 (September 28) | Partnership on AI (full name Partnership on Artificial Intelligence to Benefit People and Society) is established. It is a non-profit partnership of academic, civil society, industry, and media organizations creating solutions so that AI advances positive outcomes for people and society.[75][76] Its founding members are Amazon, Facebook, Google, DeepMind, Microsoft, and IBM, with interim co-chairs Eric Horvitz of Microsoft Research and Mustafa Suleyman of DeepMind.[77][78] Apple would join the consortium as a founding member in January 2017.[79] By 2019, more than 100 partners from academia, civil society, industry, and nonprofits would be member organizations.[80] | ||
| 2016 | "Swarm AI, a real-time online tool, predicts the winning horse of the Kentucky Derby"[32] | ||
| 2016 | " McKinsey estimates that in 2016 Google and Baidu spent around $20 to $30 billion on funding their internal R&D and acquiring startups in the field."[81] | ||
| 2017 | OpenAI Five[82] | United States | |
| 2017 | DeepMind releases AI Safety Gridworlds, which evaluate AI algorithms on nine safety features, such as whether the algorithm wants to turn off its own kill switch. DeepMind confirms that existing algorithms perform poorly, which is "unsurprising" because the algorithms "are not designed to solve these problems"; solving such problems might require "potentially building a new generation of algorithms with safety considerations at their core".[83][84][85] | ||
| 2017 | Conference | The Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI isn held, focusing on discussing the potential risks and benefits associated with artificial intelligence (AI) and how to ensure the development of AI in a way that benefits humanity.[86] | |
| 2017 | The first AI for Good Global summit takes place.[87] | ||
| 2017 | Organization | AI Now Institute is founded. It is an American research institute studying the social implications of artificial intelligence.[88] | United States |
| 2017 | The AI market, including both hardware and software, reaches a total value of $8 billion.[36] | ||
| 2017 | "Physicists use AI to search data for evidence of previously undetected particles and other phenomena."[32] | ||
| 2017 | "Google’s DeepMind AI teaches itself to walk."[32] | ||
| 2017 | AI is included in the Chinese government report as a national strategy in China.[62] | ||
| 2018 | "2018: AI debates space travel and makes a hairdressing appointment. These two examples demonstrate the capabilities of artificial intelligence: In June, ‘Project Debater’ from IBM debated complex topics with two master debaters — and performed remarkably well. A few weeks before, Google demonstrated at a conference how the AI program ‘Duplex’ phones a hairdresser and conversationally makes an appointment — without the lady on the other end of the line noticing that she is talking to a machine."[23] | ||
| 2018 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2018 | European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems[89] | ||
| 2018 (April 26) | Innovation Center for Artificial Intelligence[90][91] | Netherlands | |
| 2018 | The artificial intelligence market in China amounts to 33.9 billion RMB.[62] | China | |
| 2018 | "Astronomers use AI to spot 6,000 new craters on the moon’s surface."[32][92] | ||
| 2018 | "Paul Rad, assistant director of the University of Texas-San Antonio Open Cloud Institute, and Nicole Beebe, director of the university’s Cyber Center for Security and Analytics, describe a new cloud-based learning platform for AI that teaches machines to learn like humans."[32][93] | ||
| 2018 | Google showcases Duplex AI, a digital assistant capable of making appointments via telephone calls with live humans. Duplex utilizes natural language understanding, deep learning, and text-to-speech technologies to grasp conversational context and nuances, achieving a level of sophistication unmatched by other digital assistants.[32] | ||
| 2018 | AI ushers in the first year of commercial applications in China. There are more than 1,000 AI-related companies in the country by the time.[62] | China | |
| 2018 | The AI Now Report finds harmful inaccuracies in AI-driven technology, plus an alarming lack of accountability and, in some cases, systems built on racial discrimination or used for human rights violations.[94] | ||
| 2019 | Center for Security and Emerging Technology[95][96] | United States | |
| 2019 | Google AI Centre in Ghana[97][98] | Ghana | |
| 2019 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2019 | AI Artathon[99][100] | Saudi Arabia | |
| 2020 | " Machines have bested us in backgammon (1992), checkers (1995), chess (1997), the quiz show Jeopardy! (2011), facial recognition (2014), deciphering captcha codes (2014), transcribing a telephone call (2016), lipreading (2016), interpreting cancer scans (2018), the multiplayer game Dota 2 (2019), and all fifty-seven Atari 2600 games (2020)."[46] | ||
| 2020 (June) | OpenAI reveals GPT-3, but releases it only to a small pool of users. |
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References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 "History of Artificial Intelligence". javatpoint.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 "A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". dataversity.net. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedcoe.intf - ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 "The History of Artificial Intelligence". harvard.edu. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 "A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". livescience.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 "The History of Artificial Intelligence" (PDF). washington.edu. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "Tema 1 Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". ocw.uc3m.es. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.35 8.36 8.37 8.38 8.39 8.40 8.41 8.42 8.43 8.44 8.45 8.46 8.47 8.48 8.49 8.50 8.51 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.55 8.56 8.57 8.58 8.59 8.60 8.61 "A Brief History of AI". aitopics.org. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 Mijwil, Maad M. "History of Artificial Intelligence". Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27 10.28 10.29 10.30 10.31 10.32 10.33 10.34 10.35 10.36 10.37 10.38 10.39 10.40 10.41 10.42 10.43 10.44 10.45 10.46 10.47 10.48 10.49 10.50 10.51 10.52 10.53 10.54 10.55 10.56 "A Very Short History Of Artificial Intelligence (AI)". forbes.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ Mehta, Dhaval; Ranadive, Dr Amol (31 January 2021). What Gamers Want: A Framework to Predict Gaming Habits. OrangeBooks Publication.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Bloch, Laurent. "Informatics in the light of some Leibniz's works" (PDF). laurentbloch.net. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
- ↑ Kumar, Ajitesh (17 September 2021). "12 Bayesian Machine Learning Applications Examples". Data Analytics. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "The History Of Artificial Intelligence". sutori.com. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ↑ "Artificial Intelligence". people.idsia.ch. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 "Artificial intelligence". britannica.com. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ "A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE". atariarchives.org. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ "History of Artificial Intelligence". researchgate.net. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 "1.2 A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". artint.info. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 "A SHORT HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: MAKING MYTHOLOGY A REALITY". omnius.com. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ↑ Engineers: From the Great Pyramids to the Pioneers of Space Travel. Penguin. 16 April 2012. ISBN 978-1-4654-0682-8.
- ↑ "7 phases of the history of Artificial intelligence". historyextra.com. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 "The history of artificial intelligence". bosch.com. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ "AIC Timeline". ai.sri.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Semantic Network - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
- ↑ "Notes on Semantic Nets and Frames" (PDF). eecs.qmul.ac.uk. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
- ↑ "Artificial Intelligence Journal Division of IJCAI". ijcai.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ Harris, Randy Allen (31 December 2004). Voice Interaction Design: Crafting the New Conversational Speech Systems. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-047480-9.
- ↑ Shapiro, Stuart C. (1 January 1982). "Generalized augmented transition network grammars for generation from semantic networks". Computational Linguistics. 8 (1): 12–25. ISSN 0891-2017. doi:10.5555/972923.972925.
- ↑ Dreyfus, Hubert L. (30 October 1992). "What Computers Still Can't Do: A Critique of Artificial Reason". mitpress.mit.edu. MIT Press. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
- ↑ "ECAI 2010". iospress.nl. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32.7 32.8 "The History of Artificial Intelligence". futureoftech.org. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "ILabs". semanticscholar.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI)". www.omicsonline.org. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
- ↑ "History of Artificial Intelligence – AI of the past, present and the future!". data-flair.training. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 "A Short History of Artificial Intelligence". dev.to. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ Lamb, John (August 1985). Making Friends with Intelligence. The New Scientist. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
- ↑ "Column 468: The Turing Institute". UK Parliament. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
- ↑ Aydin, Berkay; Angryk, Rafal A. (15 October 2018). Spatiotemporal Frequent Pattern Mining from Evolving Region Trajectories. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-99873-2.
- ↑ Liang-Jie, Zhang; Yishuang, Ning (19 October 2018). Innovative Solutions and Applications of Web Services Technology. IGI Global. ISBN 978-1-5225-7269-5.
- ↑ "Qualitative Spatio-Temporal Reasoning with RCC-8 and Allen's Interval Calculus: Computational Complexity" (PDF). gki.informatik.uni-freiburg.de. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
- ↑ "Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR)". epicos.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ Taylor, J.G. The Promise of Neural Networks.
- ↑ Artificial Neural Networks and Machine Learning – ICANN 2017: 26th International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks, Alghero, Italy, September 11-14, 2017, Proceedings, Part 1 (Alessandra Lintas, Stefano Rovetta, Paul F.M.J. Verschure, Alessandro E.P. Villa ed.).
- ↑ "International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools". letpub.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ 46.00 46.01 46.02 46.03 46.04 46.05 46.06 46.07 46.08 46.09 46.10 Leigh, Andrew (9 November 2021). What's the Worst That Could Happen?: Existential Risk and Extreme Politics. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-36661-8.
- ↑ "Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research". jair.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Artificial Evolution 2019 (EA-2019)". iscpif.fr. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems". springer.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 "A brief history of artificial intelligence in advertising". econsultancy.com. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ↑ "MICAI 2000: Advances in Artificial Intelligence". springer.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute". morebooks.de. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ Bikakis, Antonis; Fodor, Paul; Roman, Dumitru. Rules on the Web: From Theory to Applications: 8th International Symposium, RuleML 2014, Co-located with the 21st European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, ECAI 2014, Prague, Czech Republic, August 18-20, 2014, Proceedings.
- ↑ "Mission & History". csail.mit.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE METHODS FOR BIOINFORMATICS AND BIOSTATISTICS". person.dibris.unige.it. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Autonomous Robotic Surgeon performs surgery on first live human". Engadget. 19 May 2006.
- ↑ "Robot surgeon carries out 9-hour operation by itself". Phys.Org.
- ↑ "Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference". dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ Eliezer Yudkowsky (2008) in Artificial Intelligence as a Positive and Negative Factor in Global Risk
- ↑ "Artificial General Intelligence 2008". iospress.nl. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Expanding our knowledge, finding new answers". deepmind.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 "The history of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in China". daxueconsulting.com. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ "Atlas". bostondynamics.com. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". kdnuggets.com. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "Allen Institute for AI". glassdoor.com.ar. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Allen Institute for AI (AI2)". linkedin.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Future of Life Institute". linkedin.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Adaptive Learning Startup Squirrel AI Raises CN¥1B". medium.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Squirrel AI Learning". crunchbase.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Kiev Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence". semanticscholar.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "History of Artificial Intelligence". qbi.uq.edu.au. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "Elon Musk, Stephen Hawking warn of artificial intelligence dangers". mashable.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "UC Berkeley launches Center for Human-Compatible Artificial Intelligence". news.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE PTE. LTD.". sgpbusiness.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Exploring The Partnership on AI". medium.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "About". Partnership on AI. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ↑ "About". Partnership on AI. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ↑ "'Partnership on AI' formed by Google, Facebook, Amazon, IBM and Microsoft". the Guardian. 28 September 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ↑ "Partnership on AI Update". Partnership on AI. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ↑ "New Partners To Bolster Perspective For Responsible AI". Partnership on AI. 24 September 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ↑ "A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence". business2community.com. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ↑ "OpenAI Five". openai.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "DeepMind Has Simple Tests That Might Prevent Elon Musk's AI Apocalypse". Bloomberg.com. 11 December 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ↑ "Alphabet's DeepMind Is Using Games to Discover If Artificial Intelligence Can Break Free and Kill Us All". Fortune. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ↑ "Specifying AI safety problems in simple environments | DeepMind". DeepMind. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ↑ "Video: Superintelligence Panel at Beneficial AI 2017 (FLI)". medium.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "AI for Good Global Summit 2017". ITU. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ↑ "NYU Law and NYU's AI Now Institute analyze the ways emerging technology imposes upon civil liberties". law.nyu.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "European Laboratory for Learning and Intelligent Systems (ELLIS) launched with Informatics researchers on board". ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "Innovation Center for Artificial Intelligence officially launched". uva.nl. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Ahold Delhaize Helps Launch AI Innovation Center". consumergoods.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "New technique uses AI to locate and count craters on the moon". phys.org. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "UTSA researchers want to teach computers to learn like humans". utsa.edu. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
- ↑ "Rise of the Machines: The History of Artificial Intelligence". looklisten.com. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
- ↑ "Center for Security and Emerging Technology". cset.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Center for Security and Emerging Technology". linkedin.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Google takes on 'Africa's challenges' with first AI centre in Ghana". thestar.com.my. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "How Google is driving artificial intelligence for Africa by Africans". techpoint.africa. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "About the Global AI Summit". theglobalaisummit.com. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Riyadh to host AI art competition". arabnews.jp. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
